Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

New high‑pressure experiments show that the chemical recipe of Earth's deep mantle has barely budged since our planet formed 4.5 billion years ago. 



The finding, drawn from crushed rock samples held at pressures rivaling those 1,800 miles down, reshapes ideas about how oxygen and metals move through our planet’s interior.



The research centers on bridgmanite, the most common mineral on Earth yet one that never reaches the surface. 



After being squeezed until it glowed at 4,000 °F, the mineral kept almost the same ratio of ferric iron to total iron that scientists infer for early Earth, hinting at an enduring redox balance.



Lead author <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Fei-Wang-91" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fei Wang</a>, <a href="https://www.bgi.uni-bayreuth.de/?&amp;lng=en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bavarian Research Institute</a> of Experimental Geochemistry &amp; Geophysics, and colleagues combined the lab data with thermodynamic models to track iron chemistry through the lower mantle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-earth-s-mantle-matters">Why Earth's mantle matters</h2>



Geologists care about the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08701-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lower mantle</a> because it locks in the planet’s earliest history and influences how volcanoes feed the surface. 



If its chemistry drifts over time, gases like carbon dioxide and water entering the atmosphere would shift too, altering climate and habitability.



Early models suggested that violent mixing during a global magma ocean phase might have reset the interior’s redox state. 



Yet samples of ancient <a href="https://conf.goldschmidt.info/goldschmidt/2021/meetingapp.cgi" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diamonds</a> indicate the volatile mix inside Earth has matched today’s values since at least 2.7 billion years ago. Those diamonds act as time capsules, trapping mantle gases long before complex life emerged.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bridgmanite-under-crushing-pressure">Bridgmanite under crushing pressure</h2>



In the new study, the team packed powdered silicates with tiny metal sensors, then drove them to 730,000 pounds per square inch inside a multi‑anvil press. 



Temperature was held near 2,300 K so the crystals mirrored lower‑mantle conditions.



Despite equilibrium with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/iron-was-lifes-first-essential-metal-and-shaped-early-evolution/">metallic iron</a>, bridgmanite still carried roughly 17 percent of its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/geologists-found-the-worlds-largest-iron-ore-deposit/">iron</a> in the oxidized state, a figure almost identical across pressures from 400 to 1,000 miles depth. 



Similar laser‑heated diamond‑anvil experiments last year reached the same conclusion, showing ferric‑iron ratios unchanged by pressure across the mid‑mantle.



The key variable turned out to be temperature: hotter crystals shed ferric iron, while cooler ones gain it. 



That trend explains why Earth's current lower mantle may sit near the threshold where metallic iron precipitates, matching seismic hints of scattered iron blobs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-mantle-in-the-early-days">Earth's mantle in the early days</h2>



Thermodynamic modeling stitched the lab data into a planet‑wide picture, simulating how the Fe³⁺/ΣFe ratio evolved as the magma ocean cooled. 



The results imply that only 0.2 weight percent of metallic iron separated into the core while the rest of the solid mantle held steady.



Such a small escape fits with earlier calculations showing that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-largest-iron-ore-deposits-reveal-a-1-3-billion-year-old-secret/">iron</a> droplets wet grain boundaries and percolate downward quickly at near‑solidus temperatures. 



Once the mantle fully crystallized, further oxidation stalled because the dominant substitution of Fe³⁺ and Al³⁺ in bridgmanite is remarkably pressure‑insensitive.



This built‑in stability means later plate recycling and plume activity simply stir existing chemistry rather than overhaul it. 



As a result, the upper mantle’s oxygen level rose to present values through slow mixing instead of fresh inputs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stability-over-time">Stability over time</h2>



Observations outside the lab echo the model. Seismic <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2022JB025689" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> find that the bulk sound speed of the mid‑mantle matches compositions with constant iron valence, leaving little room for dramatic chemical layering.



“These processes played a major role in the Earth being surrounded by an oxygen‑rich atmosphere,” said <a href="https://www.profilfelder.uni-bayreuth.de/en/advanced-fields/4_High_pressure-and-high--temperature-research/contributors/mccammon_catherine/index.php" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Catherine McCammon</a> of the University of Bayreuth. 



Volatile ratios in volcanic gases also line up with Archean samples, reinforcing the idea of a long‑lived interior equilibrium. 



Diamond data add another hint: helium, neon, and argon proportions trapped in 2.7‑billion‑year‑old stones mirror those in modern basalts. 



“This was a surprising result. It means the volatile‑rich environment we see around us today is not a recent development,” noted <a href="https://crpg.univ-lorraine.fr/membres/michael-broadley/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Michael Broadley</a> of University of Lorraine.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plate-tectonics-and-life-on-earth">Plate tectonics and life on Earth</h2>



A chemically constant interior simplifies models of atmospheric evolution because surface reservoirs can be traced back to a fixed deep source. 



It also suggests that catastrophic oxidation events were not required to set the stage for photosynthesis.



For plate tectonics, a stable redox budget means that slabs sinking today enter roughly the same environment as their ancient counterparts. 



That constancy helps seismologists interpret <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fresh-lava-from-deep-earth-mantle-pulses-burst-onto-land-where-new-ocean-is-forming/">deep‑Earth</a> images without invoking hidden chemical layers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-mantle-still-holds-mysteries">Earth's mantle still holds mysteries</h2>



Researchers now want to know whether small pockets of iron‑rich melt lurk near the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ringwoodite-mineral-confirms-vast-ocean-exists-400-miles-under-earths-crust/">core‑mantle boundary</a> and how they affect heat flow. 



Upcoming experiments that combine synchrotron X‑rays with electrical measurements aim to pin down the conductivity of iron‑bearing bridgmanite at even higher temperatures.



Another open issue is how water cycles through Earth's deep mantle without altering its oxidation state, a puzzle that links deep‑Earth chemistry to ocean volumes over geologic time. 



Answers will refine our picture of a planet that, deep inside, appears to have kept the same recipe since birth.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-025-01725-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Geoscience</a>.



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Earth's mantle chemistry has remained stable for billions of years, according to scientists

New high‑pressure experiments show that the chemical recipe of Earth's...

Virginia faces a stubborn enemy: the spotted lanternfly (SLF). These invasive insects damage trees, crops, and gardens by feeding on plant sap and leaving behind sticky honeydew. A research team led by Assistant Professor Scotty Yang at Virginia Tech has discovered an unexpected helper in the battle against this pest: ants.



Yang and his team found that ants, drawn to honeydew, can carry traces of lanternfly DNA in their bodies. By analyzing the ants, scientists can now detect whether the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fish-swim-in-schools-by-stacking-like-ladder-rungs/">pest</a> has reached an area, even without spotting the insect directly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ants-collect-lanternfly-dna">Ants collect lanternfly DNA</h2>



The research is based on environmental DNA, or eDNA. This approach collects genetic material that organisms leave behind in their surroundings. 



Spotted lanternflies leave DNA in their sugary waste, which ants readily consume. Scientists then apply a lab technique called polymerase chain reaction, or PCR, to identify SLF DNA inside the ants.



“Ants are nature’s sugar seekers,” Yang said. “If there’s even a tiny drop of honeydew left behind by a spotted lanternfly, ants are likely to find it.”



Yang’s team named the method “antDNA.” Even a single meal of honeydew lets <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/swarm-intelligence-ants-can-anticipate-obstacles-and-plan-ahead/">ants</a> retain the lanternfly's DNA for up to five days. Because ants roam widely, this method can detect SLF activity from as far as 100 meters from the infestation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-field-tests-across-virginia">Field tests across Virginia</h2>



Researchers tested the method at three Virginia sites: Salem, Lynchburg Site 1, and Lynchburg Site 2. These locations represented low, medium, and high lanternfly densities. 



At each site, they placed honey-baited lure stations along transects, attracting ants with cotton balls soaked in honey.



The Salem site showed a 46.7 percent positive rate for SLF DNA. Lynchburg Site 1 and Site 2 showed 62.1 percent and 62.5 percent, respectively. Most stations attracted ants within 30 minutes, proving the method’s ease of use.



The study also tested ants from nine species. SLF DNA was found even in ants that had not directly fed on honeydew, likely due to food sharing within <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/selfish-dna-in-a-few-ants-can-change-the-behavior-of-the-entire-colony/">colonies</a>. This behavior, known as trophallaxis, helps spread the DNA signal among nestmates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ants-outperform-other-lanternfly-detectors">Ants outperform other lanternfly detectors</h2>



The antDNA technique works across landscapes and does not depend on the pest being visible. Unlike other methods, it does not require water, filtration, or special storage. Ants can be preserved in ethanol without refrigeration, reducing the burden on field teams.



Ants are present in nearly every habitat, from forests to cities. The collection setup is simple and inexpensive. The ants’ ability to hold liquid in their crop allows the DNA to stay detectable longer than in typical surface samples. 



The study confirmed that DNA from honeydew lasts longer than DNA from insect tissue, making honeydew a more stable source.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-early-detection">Importance of early detection</h2>



Spotted lanternflies harm many plants, including grapevines, hardwoods, and hops. As they feed, they weaken plants and coat them in honeydew. This sticky substance promotes sooty mold, which further harms plant health. 



Early detection is critical because removing the pest becomes harder once it spreads. Current surveillance efforts rely on human sightings of the insect or its egg masses. These sightings often occur only when the population has already grown. 



The ant surveillance method allows early detection of lanternfly species even in low-density zones and inaccessible areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scaling-up-and-looking-forward">Scaling up and looking forward</h2>



Yang and his team are now working on a portable test kit for use in the field. This will allow real-time molecular testing without needing a full lab. Faster results mean quicker action against the pest.



“One of the biggest advantages of using ants is that they live almost everywhere, such as forests, farms, cities - you name it,” Yang said. “Their constant search for food makes them ideal frontline samplers for spotted lanternfly DNA.”



This approach offers a new way to watch for invasive species like lanternflies using ants, without depending on visual surveys. It opens up possibilities for surveillance that is fast, flexible, and low-cost.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ants-may-detect-other-pests-like-lanternflies">Ants may detect other pests like lanternflies</h2>



The method could be expanded to track other pests. Many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-many-ants-live-on-earth-at-any-point-in-time-total-number-is-astounding/">insects</a> excrete honeydew, and ants can pick up their DNA too. This opens the door for broader pest detection strategies using the same principle.



Ants, in their natural role as sugar hunters, may become an essential part of protecting crops, forests, and native ecosystems. With antDNA, researchers are tapping into nature’s own behaviors to find smarter ways of monitoring invasive threats.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://scijournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ps.8814" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NeoBiota</a>.



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How ants could help stop the tree-killing lanternfly

Virginia faces a stubborn enemy: the spotted lanternfly (SLF). These...

In the wild, social lives shape survival. For female chimpanzees, bonds with others aren't just emotional glue. They are critical for keeping babies alive. 



A new study of wild eastern chimpanzees in Gombe National Park finds that social integration predicts whether a newborn survives, even when no close kin is around.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chimpanzees-with-strong-social-bonds">Chimpanzees with strong social bonds</h2>



Female <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/laughter-lifts-bonobo-moods-offering-clues-to-human-emotion/">chimps</a> are often the ones who leave their birth group. That means most do not live near their mothers or sisters. Still, those who manage to build friendships with other females raise more babies to weaning age.



“In species where females live in groups with their sisters and mothers, it’s less surprising that female sociality is beneficial,” said <a href="https://scholars.duke.edu/person/joseph.feldblum" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Joseph Feldblum</a>, lead author and research professor at Duke. 



“But female chimps don’t usually have that. They are also less gregarious than males, so the fact that forming strong social connections still matters is striking.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-babies-of-social-chimpanzees">Babies of social chimpanzees </h2>



The team analyzed 37 years of detailed records from 37 mothers and 110 offspring. Using a composite sociality index (CSI), they tracked how much time females spent associating or grooming others before giving birth.



Their best model showed that higher CSI scores, especially with other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baby-talk-may-explain-what-sets-humans-apart-from-apes/">females</a>, greatly increased infant survival to age one and even to age five. The effect held even after excluding mothers who died shortly after giving birth.



A female with a CSI score twice the average had a 95 percent chance of her baby surviving the first year. For those below average, this dropped to 75 percent. 



Among females without any close kin, the trend was stronger. A single unit rise in sociality increased survival odds by over 17 times.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kinship-and-male-alliances">Kinship and male alliances </h2>



The researchers ran extra tests to see if the benefit was just from living with relatives. It was not. They also checked if relationships with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-rumbles-to-rituals-scientists-map-the-cultures-of-the-animal-kingdom/">males</a> helped. That also came up short.



“That tells us it’s not just about being born into a supportive family,” said Feldblum. “These are primarily social relationships with non kin.”



Even when female kin were present, they had no direct effect on offspring survival. Instead, they raised the chance that a mother had strong friendships. But it was those friendships, not the family ties, that made the difference.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-ties-remain-stable-over-time">Social ties remain stable over time</h2>



The benefits of bonding were not a one time fluke. Females who were social before birth stayed social after birth too. Their social worlds remained steady. 



“Our results don’t prove causation, but they point to the value of being surrounded by others who support you, or at least tolerate you,” said Feldblum.



This was not the case for bonds with males. Social connections between male and female chimpanzees were less stable and showed no link to baby survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-bonds-and-chimpanzee-babies">Social bonds and chimpanzee babies </h2>



How do these friendships help? The exact mechanism remains uncertain. Social bonds might protect chimpanzee mothers from aggression. They could mean better access to food. Friendships might even prevent infanticide.



Earlier studies in this same group of chimps estimated that infanticide by other females may cause 3.5 percent to 19 percent of deaths in the first year. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-curiosity-starts-young-and-helps-us-survive/">Social</a> mothers may face less of that risk.



More research is needed, but one thing is clear. Socially connected females stay in better shape, which could boost prenatal health. Unlike rank or dominance, which did not correlate with survival during this study window, sociality kept its value.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-chimps-mirror-humans">Social chimps mirror humans</h2>



Though females often move away from family, they form lasting ties with unrelated females. The Gombe chimps mirror women in human patrilocal societies, who build networks after moving for marriage.



“We humans are remarkably collaborative and cooperative. We cooperate at scales that are pretty much unique in the animal kingdom,” said Feldblum. 



“Human females who don’t have access to kin, for example because they moved to a new city or village, are still able to form strong bonds that can benefit them.”



This study adds to the growing body of evidence that friendship matters. In baboons, dolphins, and horses, social bonds also improve reproductive success. In chimps too, strong bonds give babies a better chance at life.



Studying these dynamics in our closest relatives helps us understand our own nature. Like chimps, human survival does not just depend on strength or status. It depends on others. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2589004225011241" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iScience</a>.



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Babies of social chimpanzee mothers are more likely to survive

In the wild, social lives shape survival. For female chimpanzees,...

Before you make a decision, your brain is already busy. It starts pulling in evidence, thinking through options, and slowly leaning toward a choice - all without you even realizing it.



Take a simple situation: two drivers in rush hour traffic. They both see the same congested road. One hits the gas to merge. The other taps the brakes and waits. 



Same scene, different reaction. Why? That’s a question that scientists have been trying to answer for years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decision-making-in-the-brain">Decision-making in the brain</h2>



Researchers from <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/">Princeton University</a>, working with teams from Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Stanford University, and Boston University, may be closer to cracking the code. 



The study was focused on how individual brain cells - each with its own quirks - somehow work together to land on a decision. In particular, the team investigated the dorsal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-distinct-maps-discovered-in-the-brain/">premotor cortex</a> - a part of the brain that helps turn decisions into actions. 



When we choose to reach, move, or act, the dorsal premotor cortex is in play. But it’s not as simple as one neuron equals one thought. The activity here is all over the map.



The researchers trained <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-structure-of-rhesus-macaques-is-shaped-by-social-interactions/">rhesus macaques</a> to look at a checkered screen and figure out whether red or green was more dominant. Sometimes the answer was obvious, while other times it was tough to call.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signals-from-individual-neurons">Signals from individual neurons </h2>



While the monkeys made their choices, the scientists recorded signals from individual neurons. 



The researchers found that even during the same trial, the neurons didn’t behave in sync. The monkeys showed a wide range of responses, something scientists call “heterogeneity.”



Dr. Tatiana Engel, an associate professor at the Princeton Neuroscience Institute, is the senior author of the study.



“The widespread assumption is that this heterogeneity reflects the complex dynamics involved in cognition,” said Dr. Engel. "But surprisingly, we found that this apparent complexity arises from a very different neural coding principle.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neurons-work-together-for-a-decision">Neurons work together for a decision </h2>



The team developed a new type of computational model to help explain this complexity. It revealed that a neuron's behavior is shaped by two key factors. 



The first is tuning - when a neuron responds and what kind of decision it reacts to. The second is neural dynamics - how the brain’s internal state influences that activity as it unfolds over time.



Imagine a rolling landscape. In this model, valleys represent stable decisions. As <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-complete-map-of-every-neuron-in-the-brain-revealed/">neurons</a> activate, their patterns move like a ball rolling down a hill. 



On steeper slopes (easier choices), the ball moves quickly toward a clear answer. On flatter ground (harder decisions), the ball wobbles more, making mistakes more likely.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-coordinated-journey-in-the-brain">A coordinated journey in the brain</h2>



When the team compared this model to real brain data, it held up. The tuning stayed the same no matter how easy or hard the task was, but the shape of the mental terrain shifted. 



That shift helped explain why neurons that look random on the surface are actually following the same deeper logic.



“Think of it like a group of skiers descending a mountain,” explained Dr. Engel. “Each prefers a slightly different path, but all are shaped by the same slope beneath them."



"Similarly, each neuron has its own preference and activity, but the group of cells collectively in the premotor cortex takes a coordinated journey and gradually settles into a stable state that represents the decision.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-matters-beyond-the-lab">Why this matters beyond the lab</h2>



The study helps decode how the brain works when we’re weighing choices, especially the tricky ones. That kind of insight is crucial - not just for understanding everyday decision-making, but for understanding mental health disorders.



In conditions like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/schizophrenia-linked-to-irregular-fatty-metabolism-in-the-brain/">schizophrenia</a> or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/high-fructose-intake-may-contribute-to-bipolar-disorder-and-aggression/">bipolar disorder</a>, decision-making can be disrupted. Knowing how neurons usually coordinate could help pinpoint what’s going wrong. It also opens the door to designing more targeted therapies that focus on decision-related brain activity.



The team isn’t done yet. Their next step is to dig deeper into the roles of different types of neurons and how their connections shape this internal landscape.



“Every decision is unique,” said Dr. Engel. “But by digging down to the level of single trials and single neurons, we can start to make sense of it.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09199-1">Nature</a>.



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How your brain makes a decision before you know it

Before you make a decision, your brain is already busy....

Gorillas, often thought of as ground dwellers, spend much more time in the trees than previously assumed. This finding from the Max Planck Institute challenges long-standing ideas about the anatomy and evolution of gorillas.



Western and Bwindi mountain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gorillas-are-digging-for-a-surprising-food-in-the-jungle-soil/">gorillas</a>, studied across Gabon and Uganda, were observed over many years. Even the largest males, weighing up to 170 kg, showed substantial tree use. 



Adult females in Loango spent 34% of their time in trees, while Bwindi females clocked 21%. That is a huge jump from the 7% figure for Virunga gorillas.



Study lead author Dr. Martha M. Robbins is a zoologist in the Department of Primate Behavior and Evolution at the <a href="https://www.eva.mpg.de/index/">Max Planck Institute</a> for Evolutionary Anthropology.



“Adult females spent 20% to 30% of their time in the trees, while silverbacks spent 18% to 20% of their time being arboreal, which is much more than 2 to 7% found previously in the Virunga mountain gorillas,” said Dr. Robbins.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-gorillas-different-tree-habits">Different gorillas, different tree habits</h2>



The Virunga population shaped our early understanding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-gorillas-get-sick-from-being-too-social/">gorilla</a> habits. These highland gorillas live in fruit-scarce zones and rarely climb. But the new study included data from five groups in Bwindi and one in Loango, totaling nearly 5,200 observation days.



The findings are clear: tree use varies widely between populations. Even juveniles and subadults in Bwindi and Loango spent 32% to 43% of their time in trees - double the rate seen in Virunga’s younger gorillas.



The researchers also found that body size plays a role but does not prevent tree climbing. 



“This demonstrates that the large body size of gorillas is not necessarily a limiting factor to tree climbing and that gorillas can be just as arboreal as some chimpanzee populations,” said co-author Rhianna Drummond-Clarke.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climbing-is-not-just-about-fruit">Climbing is not just about fruit</h2>



The researchers expected fruit to be the main driver behind climbing. While gorillas did climb more while eating fruit, the full story is more complex. In Loango, adult females were more arboreal when eating leaves than fruit. In Bwindi, the reverse was true.



Even silverbacks, the heaviest individuals, climbed trees to eat fruit. At Bwindi, silverbacks were arboreal 82% of the time they ate fruit. But fruit formed just 14% of their diet, meaning most of their tree time involved eating leaves.



At Loango, gorillas often ate fallen fruit from the ground. This shows fruit-eating can be a terrestrial act too. Meanwhile, western gorillas also ate lots of tree leaves, about 30% of their diet, driving folivorous tree use, similar to some monkeys.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feeding-is-the-main-reason-to-climb">Feeding is the main reason to climb</h2>



What were the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/male-infertility-humans-linked-same-genes-gorilla-small-penises/">gorillas</a> doing in trees? Mostly feeding. Adult female gorillas were far more likely to climb while feeding than when resting or traveling.



Even when eating nonfruit, Loango females climbed more than Bwindi ones. This likely reflects differences in diet and foraging strategy. The energy payoff from fruit seems to outweigh the climbing cost, especially for massive silverbacks.



Also, Loango females were heavier climbers than their Bwindi peers when not eating fruit. This surprising reversal shows that even leaf-seeking gorillas may spend considerable time off the ground.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-ape-evolution">What this means for ape evolution</h2>



These results have big implications. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-endangered-primate-species-identified-in-new-report/">Gorillas</a> have long been labeled as terrestrial because of their bulk and plant-heavy diets. But that view no longer holds. The study shows gorilla arboreality spans all life stages, from infants to adults.



That shift affects how we interpret the fossil record. Gorilla-like bones have been taken to suggest ground-based life. But frequent tree climbing changes the picture. 



“We demonstrate that large body size and a largely folivorous diet in apes are also consistent with frequent arboreality,” noted the study authors.



Studies of limb proportions and bone strength now suggest a range, from more tree-based western gorillas to more ground-based Virunga ones. 



This means our models of ancient human relatives may need adjustment. Gorilla-like features may not imply they lived solely on the ground.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gorillas-are-tree-climbers-not-just-walkers">Gorillas are tree climbers, not just walkers</h2>



Gorillas are not just forest-floor giants. They climb often and for various reasons. From feeding on leaves to exploring the canopy, these behaviors offer key insights into how apes, including humans, evolved.



Future research may look into how such large animals navigate trees. They might distribute their weight across branches or use special movement strategies, similar to orangutans or chimpanzees. 



This research opens new doors in our understanding of ape mobility and evolutionary history.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00590-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Gorillas spend much more time in trees than we previously thought

Gorillas, often thought of as ground dwellers, spend much more...

In the 1920s, the yellow-spored mold Aspergillus flavus gained infamy after members of Howard Carter’s team died not long after opening Tutankhamun’s tomb.



Decades later, a similar fate befell scientists who entered the crypt of Poland’s King Casimir IV. Within weeks, 10 of the 12 researchers succumbed to respiratory illness, and investigators traced the deadly outbreak to dormant A. flavus spores. 



Long dismissed as a toxic mold, Aspergillus flavus has revealed a new role: producing compounds that match some of the most trusted cancer therapies for acute myeloid leukemia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-aspergillus-flavus-the-basics">Understanding Aspergillus flavus - the basics</h2>



This fungus is commonly found in soil, decaying vegetation, and grains. It thrives in warm, humid environments, which makes it a persistent problem in agricultural settings - especially in crops like corn, peanuts, and tree nuts. 



What makes it particularly concerning is its ability to produce aflatoxins, which are highly toxic and carcinogenic compounds. 



Aflatoxin contamination in food can pose serious health risks to both humans and livestock, prompting strict regulations and regular testing in the food industry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mold-s-molecular-treasure-map">Mold’s molecular treasure map</h2>



The breakthrough came from Sherry Gao’s laboratory at the <a href="https://www.upenn.edu/">University of Pennsylvania</a>, where researchers hunt for drugs hidden in microbial genomes.



The team focused on ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptides, or RiPPs - small, ring-shaped molecules known for complex bioactivity. Scientists have cataloged thousands of RiPPs in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-think-they-found-two-key-bacteria-that-cause-multiple-sclerosis/">bacteria</a>, but they've found only a handful in fungi.



“Purifying these chemicals is difficult,” explained lead author Qiuyue Nie, a postdoctoral fellow at the University of Pennsylvania. Moreover, scientists can easily overlook the genes that direct their synthesis.



Using a two-pronged strategy, the team first compared the chemical fingerprints of a dozen Aspergillus strains, then zeroed in on gene clusters likely to encode RiPP machinery. 



Turning those genes off caused the mysterious chemical peaks to vanish. This confirmed the researchers had found an active RiPP factory inside the tomb-dwelling mold.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-tomb-mold-to-cancer-medicine">From tomb mold to cancer medicine</h2>



Isolation and structural analysis revealed four previously unknown molecules sporting an intricate lattice of interlocking rings. The scientists named them asperigimycins in honor of their fungal source.



Two of the four showed notable activity against leukemia cells straight out of the flask, but a chemical tweak proved transformative.



By adding a fatty tail identical to one found in royal jelly - the nutrient-rich substance that turns ordinary bee larvae into queens - the team produced a lipid-capped asperigimycin. It matched cytarabine and daunorubicin, drugs that have anchored leukemia care since the 1970s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-drug-gets-inside">How the drug gets inside </h2>



Why did that extra lipid unleash such power? Gao’s group deployed a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crispr-gene-editing-gets-a-revolutionary-upgrade-with-new-tool/">CRISPR</a>-based screen, knocking out genes in leukemia cells and tracking changes in drug uptake. 



One transporter, SLC46A3, emerged as essential. It normally shuttles nutrients out of lysosomes, the cell’s recycling compartments. The researchers learned that the fatty tag let the mold-derived asperigimycins hitch a ride through this portal.



“This gene acts like a gateway,” Nie said. “Knowing that lipids can affect how this gene transports chemicals into cells gives us another tool for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oral-peptides-pave-the-way-for-new-drug-development/">drug development</a>.” 



The insight may rescue other cyclic peptides that falter in trials because they cannot cross cellular barriers efficiently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disarming-cancer-s-dividing-machinery"><a></a>Disarming cancer’s dividing machinery</h2>



Microscopy and biochemical assays showed that the modified asperigimycins halt tumor growth by sabotaging microtubules, the protein scaffolds that haul chromosomes apart during mitosis.



Intriguingly, the mold-derived molecules left breast, liver, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honeybees-can-sniff-out-lung-cancer/">lung cancer</a> lines largely untouched, as well as an array of bacteria and yeast. 



That selectivity hints at fewer side effects for patients, a perennial challenge for chemotherapy agents that indiscriminately target all fast-dividing cells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-mold-modern-answers">Ancient mold, modern answers</h2>



For decades, scientists debated how fungi construct RiPPs, often mistaking them for non-ribosomal peptides. The current study resolves that puzzle by linking chemical signatures to the responsible genes.



“The synthesis of these compounds is complicated, but that’s also what gives them this remarkable bioactivity," said Nie.



Comparative genomic scans have already flagged similar RiPP gene clusters in dozens of other molds, suggesting a trove of undiscovered molecules with antibiotic, antiviral, or immunomodulatory potential. According to Nie, this is an unexplored region with tremendous potential.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-tomb-to-trial">From tomb to trial</h2>



The next step is to test asperigimycins in mice to gauge toxicity, dosage, and efficacy in living organisms. Success there could pave the way for human clinical trials. Gao, reflecting on the journey from tomb lore to lab bench, recalls one guiding principle.



“Fungi gave us penicillin. These results show that many more medicines derived from natural products remain to be found,” Gao said.



Nature’s pantry still holds untold remedies waiting to be unlocked. With each advance in genomic mining and synthetic tailoring, the line between microbial menace and medical marvel grows ever thinner.



It’s a testament to evolution’s vast chemical imagination - and to scientists bold enough to mine mold and other microbes for the next life-saving drug.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41589-025-01946-9">Nature Chemical Biology</a>.



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Toxic mold found in ancient tombs has been engineered into a promising cancer drug

In the 1920s, the yellow-spored mold Aspergillus flavus gained infamy...

When you look at a forest, the variety of trees you see above ground is only part of the story. Beneath the soil, vast networks of fungi influence which trees thrive, which coexist, and how forests respond to the challenges of climate and geography.



A new study led by researchers from <a href="https://www.purdue.edu/">Purdue University</a> and <a href="https://english.pku.edu.cn/">Peking University</a> has revealed how these underground fungal allies shape tree diversity across the globe. Their influence varies depending on latitude, moisture, and environmental stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungi-hidden-beneath-forests">Fungi hidden beneath forests</h2>



Jingjing Liang, an associate professor of quantitative forest ecology at Purdue, co-led the study with Zhiheng Wang from Peking University.



“What we can see above ground is governed to a large extent by what is happening belowground,” said Liang.



The experts analyzed data from over 442,000 forest plots worldwide and focused on two main groups of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-distribute-enormous-amounts-of-co2-to-mycorrhizal-fungi/">mycorrhizal fungi</a>: ectomycorrhizal and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. 



Both form partnerships with tree roots, trading nutrients for carbohydrates, but they do so in different ways that profoundly influence <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-rich-tree-diversity-adapt-better-changing-climate/">forest diversity</a>.



“The loss in tree species diversity may damage the ecosystem services provided by forests," Wang said. "Understanding the mechanisms driving the maintenance of tree species forest diversity is fundamental for the conservation of tree species diversity.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solving-a-forest-diversity-puzzle">Solving a forest diversity puzzle</h2>



For years, scientists have debated how fungal partnerships impact tree species diversity, proposing three competing hypotheses. This comprehensive global study found that all three are valid, depending on environmental context.



“Our findings reconcile inconsistencies regarding how mycorrhizal symbiosis influences tree species diversity,” Wang said.



Using precise forest inventory data collected worldwide, the team applied advanced statistical methods to filter noise from complex ecological data, revealing hidden patterns.



“With this data, we were able to very accurately capture this relationship between different types of mycorrhizal fungi and forest tree species diversity,” Liang explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungal-effects-shift-with-climate">Fungal effects shift with climate</h2>



<a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a> ecologist Peter Reich, a senior co-author, highlighted the value of the study’s comprehensive approach. 



“This insight would have been impossible to detect without the comprehensiveness of this dataset, which allows us to test across large gradients of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-altering-the-temperature-in-66-of-tropical-forests/">temperature</a>, moisture, and latitude,” he said.



Reich explained that ectomycorrhizal fungi often dominate in cold, nutrient-poor regions that naturally have fewer tree species. Without a broad dataset, this dominance could obscure the fungi’s more nuanced effects.



“But by being able to tease apart temperature and moisture, we can see that when conditions are generally good," he said. "The more abundant the ectomycorrhizal are, the more they do to reduce tree richness.”



The process is complex. While dominant tree species naturally suppress less competitive species, root <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-pandemic-looms-as-pathogens-move-from-wild-plants-to-crops/">pathogens</a> usually check the dominance, allowing diversity. 



Ectomycorrhizal fungi suppress these pathogens, enabling dominant trees to thrive unchecked, which can reduce species diversity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-harder-climates-stronger-alliances">Harder climates, stronger alliances</h2>



The study also found that under stressful conditions - such as low moisture or cold climates - the combination of both fungal types fosters greater diversity.



In these environments, resource-sharing partnerships help more tree species survive, while pathogen suppression plays a smaller role.



“Both ways of influencing tree diversity are real, but their relative balance and magnitude of impacts vary with environmental context,” Reich said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-healing-forests-from-below">Healing forests from below</h2>



Liang emphasized that understanding the hidden fungal networks in forests is akin to treating a patient holistically. 



“We should not just look at the surface symptoms. We should look deep down, literally to the roots of the problems, and that is belowground mutualism,” he said.



This work, supported by the <a href="https://www.gfbinitiative.org/">Global Forest Biodiversity Initiative</a> and its Science-i platform, demonstrates how global collaborations can untangle complex ecological questions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forest-conservation-and-fungal-networks">Forest conservation and fungal networks</h2>



The findings open pathways for further research: How do these underground alliances affect <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-forests-with-many-tree-species-are-more-effective-at-carbon-storage/">carbon storage</a> in forests? Can fostering specific fungal partnerships enhance forest resilience in a changing climate?



&nbsp;“And what can we do to enhance the health of our forest ecosystem by not just seeing what is on the surface, but what is belowground?” Liang asked.



By revealing the profound influence of underground fungal networks on forest diversity, this research underscores that the key to healthier forests - and perhaps a healthier planet - may lie hidden beneath our feet.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt5743">Science Advances</a>.



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How an invisible fungal alliance helps forests thrive

When you look at a forest, the variety of trees...

When humans burst into laughter together, moods lift almost automatically. New research shows that a similar boost happens in our closest cousins.



An international team led by <a href="https://bloomington.iu.edu/">Indiana University</a> scientists has discovered that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-group-cohesion-common-enemy-effect-do-not-kill-inside-their-species/">bonobos</a> become more upbeat after hearing the giggles of their companions. This finding pushes the evolutionary history of positive emotions back millions of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-laughter-changed-ape-choices">Laughter changed ape choices</h2>



To explore laughter’s influence, the researchers designed a cognitive-bias test often used in animal psychology to gauge optimism or pessimism.



First, they trained bonobos at the <a href="https://www.apeinitiative.org/">Ape Initiative</a> in Des Moines, Iowa, to recognize two kinds of boxes: black ones that always contained a delicious snack and white ones that were always empty.



Once the apes consistently chose black and ignored white, the experimenters introduced a third, ambiguous gray box. They then played one of two sounds: recorded bonobo laughter or a neutral control noise.



“We know that other apes, like chimpanzees, have contagious laughter during play," said lead author Sasha Winkler, a primatologist at <a href="https://duke.edu/">Duke University</a>. "We were wondering if that behavior could be explained by positive emotions produced from the sound itself.” 



If the bonobos felt a surge of good feeling after hearing laughter, the team expected them to treat the uncertain gray box as if it were the rewarding black one.



That is exactly what happened. “Think of it like the rose-colored glasses effect,” Winkler said. “The bonobos were much more likely to approach the gray boxes after hearing laughter, treating them like the rewarded boxes, and indicating a more optimistic expectation of finding a treat.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracing-optimism-to-our-ancestors">Tracing optimism to our ancestors</h2>



This study is the first experimental proof that great-ape laughter can shift mood and cognition the way human laughter does.



“The tendency to behave more optimistically after hearing laughter suggests that the sound alone induced a positive emotional state in bonobos,” said senior author Erica Cartmill, the director of Indiana University’s Cognitive Science Program.



“This is the first study of which we're aware to measure a positive affect shift in nonhuman primates from a brief experimental intervention.”



Great apes -&nbsp; bonobos, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-wild-chimpanzees-can-teach-us-about-parenting/">chimpanzees</a>, gorillas, orangutans - all emit play calls that acoustically resemble human chuckles. Earlier work tied those sounds to a common evolutionary origin. The new findings add a cognitive twist.



“Our results suggest that laughter in other apes shares not only phylogenetic and behavioral similarities with human laughter but also perhaps some of the same cognitive-emotional underpinnings,” Winkler noted.



“This emotional contagion appears to have been present in the primate lineage long before the evolution of language.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-laughter-empathy-and-apes">Laughter, empathy, and apes</h2>



Emotional contagion is often described as a foundational element of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/little-benjamina-the-oldest-evidence-of-social-empathy-in-humans/">empathy</a> - the capacity to share another’s feelings. As Winkler put it, “studies like ours can help to untangle the evolutionary building blocks of empathy, communication, and cooperation in humans.”



By revealing that a simple vocal cue can brighten outlooks in bonobos, the research suggests that the mechanisms linking social sound to positive mood were already in place in a common ancestor millions of years ago.



Cartmill added that the work answers a long-standing bias in emotion research. “Our emotions influence many aspects of cognition, including memory, attention, and decision-making, but research has historically focused on negative emotions with clear behavioral correlates, like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-pathway-discovered-that-suppresses-fear/">fear</a> and aggression.”



“We wanted to better understand the relationship between positive affect and cognition in our closest living relatives.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kanzi-and-the-future-of-empathy">Kanzi and the future of empathy</h2>



The experiments involved four bonobos, including the celebrated language-using ape Kanzi, who recently passed away.



“I feel incredibly grateful to have had the opportunity to work with Kanzi while he was still alive,” Winkler said. 



“We hope this brings greater public awareness of the remarkable similarities between us and bonobos, who are an endangered species. We have so much to learn from these incredible animals.”



Future studies will test whether laughter exerts similar cognitive effects in chimpanzees and other primates. They will also explore how social context - for example, hearing laughs from friends versus strangers - modulates optimism.



For now, the discovery that bonobo giggles brighten expectations highlights a shared emotional heritage and hints that a simple laugh has been boosting group spirits since long before humans walked the Earth.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-02594-8">Nature Scientific Reports</a>.



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Laughter lifts bonobo moods, offering clues to human emotion

When humans burst into laughter together, moods lift almost automatically....

The Microbiota Vault Initiative is growing fast. Announced on World Microbiome Day, it aims to protect microbial diversity before it disappears. This nonprofit project, inspired by the Svalbard Seed Vault, wants to preserve crucial microbes from people, animals and the environment.



"The Microbiota Vault Initiative represents a proactive effort to protect and preserve the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-think-they-found-two-key-bacteria-that-cause-multiple-sclerosis/">microbial</a> life that is essential for the health of our planet and its inhabitants," noted Maria Gloria Dominguez-Bello, who leads the initiative.



With guidance from 25 scientists across different continents, the Vault is shaping global policy on microbial conservation. By archiving healthy microbes, the Vault could help future generations prevent health crises and ecological collapse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-microbes-are-disappearing">Why microbes are disappearing</h2>



Microbial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-microbiome-trillions-of-bacteria-unique-like-fingerprints/">communities</a> keep our systems running. In humans, they help digest food, shape immunity and reduce disease risk. In soil, they recycle nutrients and maintain plant growth. In permafrost, they trap carbon and control methane emissions.



But modern lifestyles are chipping away at these microbial partners. Dominguez-Bello’s research shows that cesarean births, antibiotics, and formula feeding disrupt gut microbes. Industrial diets also harm beneficial species.



"The microbiome is under big threat, a threat that is in many ways analogous to climate change," warned Martin Blaser, the Henry Rutgers Chair of the Human Microbiome at Rutgers University.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-microbiota-vault-is-different">Why Microbiota Vault is different</h2>



Unlike seed banks that back up crop genetics, this vault goes further. It stores unique microbes that might never be collected again. Samples come from human stool, fermented foods and, soon, vulnerable environments. 



Already, over 1,200 human samples and 190 food samples have been cryopreserved at minus 80 degrees Celsius (minus 112 degrees Fahrenheit) in Zurich.



The initiative stores backup copies at the depositor’s request. All rights remain with local collectors. They can ask for DNA sequencing under open-access terms. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/little-known-nutrient-can-boost-your-brain-and-fight-cancer/">vault</a> itself does not patent or commercialize anything.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-this-effort-ethical">What makes this effort ethical</h2>



From the start, ethics and fairness have guided every decision. Depositors retain full control. Communities that supply samples get proper recognition and share in any future benefits.



"We are absolutely committed to developing the Microbiota Vault in a way that maximizes equity around the world.," stated Dominguez-Bello.



Workshops help researchers adopt standard protocols. The Global Microbiome Network symposia (<a href="https://www.microbiotavault.org/event/glomine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GloMiNe</a>), held annually, bring together scientists, ethicists, and policymakers. Locations so far include Peru, Africa, Asia and Chile.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbiota-vault-helps-the-climate">Microbiota Vault helps the climate</h2>



Losses in microbial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-find-link-between-obesity-anxiety-and-gut-microbiome-changes/">biodiversity</a> threaten both human and planetary health. For instance, Bifidobacterium infantis, once common in infant guts, is declining in industrial societies. This loss links to higher allergy and diabetes risks.



Other examples are equally worrying. The bacterium Helicobacter pylori, though known for causing ulcers, once helped regulate immune responses. Its decline may contribute to the incidence of asthma and metabolic issues. 



In nature, Methanoflorens stordalenmirensis, which is found in Arctic permafrost, helps control methane storage. Losing it could worsen climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-for-the-future">Building for the future</h2>



The current Microbiota Vault development phase, called “Growth Phase 1,” will run to 2029. Scientists aim to collect 10,000 samples and build a permanent vault in a cold region like Switzerland or Canada. Future steps include adding samples from threatened environments and improving global capacity.



Though techniques for restoring microbes remain uncertain, storing them now may support future therapies and climate recovery. Reintroducing extinct microbes may not be possible, but preserving them offers a vital safety net.



"If it is too late, and key members of the microbiome are gone, like the dodo bird, we can't restore them, unless we have them safely stored away" remarked Blaser.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbiota-vault-joins-global-efforts">Microbiota Vault joins global efforts</h2>



This is not just a scientific project. It is a worldwide call to recognize microbial diversity as essential heritage. The Vault works with Indigenous communities, emphasizes depositor sovereignty, and engages with global biodiversity policies, including the Nagoya Protocol.



The initiative also partners with other efforts like the Global Microbiome Conservancy and the U.K. Crop Microbiome Cryobank, building a united front to conserve life’s smallest allies.



The Microbiota Vault is not a backup plan, it is a lifeline. In the face of ecological and health threats, it offers a rare chance to act before more vital microbes are lost.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-61008-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Microbial vault: The race to save Earth's disappearing microbes

The Microbiota Vault Initiative is growing fast. Announced on World...

The world’s appetite for avocados rests almost entirely on a single variety: the creamy Hass. That genetic sameness has streamlined production into a multibillion-dollar industry. 



But it also invites disaster, as uniform orchards can collapse quickly when faced with a new pest, pathogen, or heat wave.



To find a different path, experts from <a href="https://www.tamu.edu/">Texas A&amp;M University</a> have traveled far back in time - 11,000 years - to a Honduran rockshelter whose charred ancient avocado pits chronicle the birth of the crop and offer clues to a more resilient future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-avocado-fossils-in-a-cave">Avocado fossils in a cave</h2>



El Gigante, perched high in the western Honduran highlands, is a natural vault. Its dry interior has preserved plant remains that would normally rot in the humid tropics.



“It’s a truly incredible preservation of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-reveals-how-plants-use-winged-seeds-to-expand-their-habitats/">plant fossils</a> and an abundance of avocado remains in a tropical region where plants generally do not preserve well,” said co-author Heather B. Thakar, an assistant professor in the Department of Anthropology at Texas A&amp;M.



Layer upon layer of seeds, rinds, and other botanical scraps lie undisturbed, creating a sequential record of human meals - and human influence on local plants - stretching back to the end of the last ice age.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-avocados-outlived-their-giants">Avocados outlived their giants</h2>



According to the scientists, avocados first evolved to entice gigantic browsers such as gomphotheres and mammoths.



“Avocados are an amazing food source for humans, rich in healthy fats and nutrients that are essential to us,” Thakar said.



“But they originally evolved as a food source for ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tracing-the-disappearance-of-north-americas-megafauna/">megafauna</a> like giant sloths (gomphotheres) and mammoths that lived in the Americas during the last ice age.”



When those animals disappeared, humans stepped in to fill the ecological vacancy. Evidence at El Gigante shows early foragers selectively tending wild trees, nurturing seedlings with bigger seeds and fleshier fruit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farming-over-thousands-of-years">Farming over thousands of years</h2>



The team radiocarbon-dated hundreds of pits and rinds to build an exceptionally fine-grained timeline. Measurements revealed a steady upsizing: seeds grew larger and rinds thicker as the centuries passed.



“Through traditional forest management practices, people were selecting bigger and thicker-skinned avocados,” Thakar noted.



By 7,500 years ago, fruit size and durability hint that growers could harvest and transport avocados across larger distances. Full domestication appears roughly 2,000 years ago. 



That makes avocado cultivation in Honduras older than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/maize-plant-genetics-shape-root-health-and-growth/">maize</a>, beans, or squash - crops that would later dominate Mesoamerican farming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-past-lessons-for-future-crops">Past lessons for future crops</h2>



“Our work with El Gigante's avocado remains offers valuable information about resilience and adaptation in the face of climate change,” Thakar said.



Unlike modern orchardists who propagate identical Hass cuttings through grafting, ancient farmers planted seeds, preserving genetic variety.



“Much of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-trees-protect-their-genetic-diversity-for-millions-of-years/">genetic diversity</a> of ancient avocados still exists in wild populations in Mexico and Central America,” Thakar added.



“By developing new avocado varieties through seed selection from both modern domesticated plants and wild populations, we may have a better chance of adapting to these changing conditions than relying on cloning alone.”



Broadening commercial stock with traits such as drought tolerance or disease resistance could buffer future harvests against environmental shocks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-avocado-cave-earns-global-notice">Ancient avocado cave earns global notice</h2>



Scientists and local communities alike recognize El Gigante not just for its cultural importance, but for its scientific value as well. 



Honduras has proposed the shelter for <a href="https://www.wmf.org/videos/content-world-monuments-fund-and-unesco-world-heritage-sites?gad_source=1&amp;gad_campaignid=22461168217&amp;gbraid=0AAAAAD4zJBFj8U_yyOJyxKFquaCnnbg_W&amp;gclid=Cj0KCQjw64jDBhDXARIsABkk8J4mTznkcgn5ncX37Yk-yEugipmynhK175QfaNBsiUamSXP-bxWKUXQaAi-cEALw_wcB">UNESCO World Heritage</a> status, and Thakar’s team supplies documentation to bolster the case.



“All of the research that we have undertaken is used in support of El Gigante's recent nomination as a UNESCO World Heritage site,” she said.



Although the site’s awkward three-meter climb has deterred looters, occasional campers and hunters do stray inside - making formal protection urgent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-cave-full-of-agriculture">A cave full of agriculture</h2>



El Gigante also stores early evidence for squash and maize domestication. Thakar is actively working on a publication that details the arrival of maize and the 4,500 years of diversification and improvement of this globally important crop.



Thakar's methods - radiocarbon dating, stable-isotope chemistry, and 3-D morphometrics - merge hard science with cultural anthropology. 



She applies this toolkit across Mexico, Belize, and Nicaragua to map humanity’s long partnership with plants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-farming-modern-lessons">Ancient farming, modern lessons</h2>



“The vast majority of food consumed today is a product of domestication,” Thakar said.



Understanding that protracted process can guide modern breeders. Ancient cultivators operated without greenhouses or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gene-modification-can-create-better-tomatoes-eggplants-but-should-we-do-it/">genetic engineering</a>, yet they produced crops - like avocadoes - exquisitely tuned to local soils and climates.



Unearthing those forgotten lineages may reveal alleles lost in today’s streamlined varieties. 



“By studying domestication, we can recover ancient varieties and cultural knowledge that has helped humans become the incredibly successful species that we are," said Thakar.



"It's information that can be used to improve our crops today and ensure our continued survival into the future."



From a Honduran cliffside to global orchards, the avocado’s story shows that agricultural resilience springs from diversity - and that sometimes the best way forward is to look back.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2417072122">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Cave discovery of ancient avocados could rescue a global crop

The world’s appetite for avocados rests almost entirely on a...

Climate change did not start in the modern era. Africa’s ancient past reveals societies already grappling with climate instability, using various coping strategies to adapt. 



During the Holocene Epoch, which began around 11,000 years ago, ecosystems transformed drastically. 



A wet phase known as the African Humid Period brought widespread rains for millennia. It was followed by increasing aridity, shrinking lakes, and expanding deserts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-climate-strategies-were-flexible">Ancient climate strategies were flexible </h2>



Faced with these upheavals, ancient African societies responded not with uniformity but flexibility. 



The communities crafted livelihoods that mixed herding, cultivation, fishing, and foraging. These combinations helped them survive long-term environmental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-environment-day-2025-plastic-pollution-is-choking-our-planet/">change</a>.



"What we see is not a linear story of progress but a complex mosaic of strategies that helped people stay resilient. That has real lessons for food systems today," said Leanne N. Phelps, the study’s lead author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bones-show-climate-driven-changes">Bones show climate-driven changes</h2>



The research team analyzed isotopes from human and animal remains across Africa. These isotopes carry the chemical signature of consumed foods. For instance, C3 plants like wheat grow in cooler, wetter areas. C4 plants such as millet and sorghum thrive in hot, dry regions.



By grouping individuals with similar isotope profiles, the team identified isotopic niches. These niches matched unique livelihood strategies. Then, researchers linked these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-our-power-our-planet/">strategies</a> with archaeological and ecological data.



One key finding: pastoral-based diets had the widest range of carbon values. That suggests livestock-based lifestyles adapted to diverse conditions. C3 crop-based strategies, on the other hand, were more limited in range and geography.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-pastoralism">The role of pastoralism</h2>



Pastoralism was the most common livelihood in the archaeological record, appearing at 61% of studied sites. 



Pastoral systems showed high variation in diet and environmental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-what-were-really-fighting-for/">setting</a>, from dry savannas to elevated plateaus. Some involved cattle or camel specialization. Others blended livestock with foraged or aquatic foods.



By contrast, ancient cultivation based on C3 plants like wheat and barley appeared in fewer locations and narrower climate zones. 



These farming systems depended more on stable water sources, such as those in the Nile Valley or Ethiopian highlands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fishing-foraging-and-blended-strategies">Fishing, foraging, and blended strategies</h2>



Aquatic-based diets showed strong enrichment in nitrogen isotopes, indicating heavy fish consumption. These strategies were especially common near coastal zones or large lakes, including in South Africa and around Lake Chad.



Some communities combined foraging and farming or practiced mixed herding-hunting-fishing strategies. 



In the Zambezi Basin, such blending appeared around 2,000 years ago. It may reflect social contact between Bantu-speaking farmers moving south and San hunter-gatherers moving north.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distinct-climate-strategies-across-regions">Distinct climate strategies across regions</h2>



Different regions across the African continent developed distinct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wealthy-elite-responsible-for-majority-of-global-climate-warming/">strategies</a> in response to their unique environmental conditions. 



In East Africa, the presence of elevated terrain combined with highly seasonal rainfall created favorable conditions for the development of specialized pastoral systems. 



These highland areas offered varied microclimates that could support livestock grazing even during challenging periods, allowing herding communities to flourish.



On the other hand, West Africa experienced a slower progression toward intensive food production. This delay may have been influenced by several factors. 



One key challenge was the prevalence of livestock diseases, particularly trypanosomiasis, which is spread by tsetse flies and affects cattle health. 



Additionally, the region's flatter landscapes and relatively uniform ecological zones may have limited the range of adaptable subsistence strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dietary-patterns-and-climate-adaptation">Dietary patterns and climate adaptation </h2>



Isotopic evidence from human and animal remains reveals how dietary patterns shifted over time. In the northern parts of Africa, declining rainfall led to increased reliance on C3 plants, which grow better in cooler, wetter environments. 



Meanwhile, in southern regions, rising rainfall levels were associated with greater consumption of C4 plants and expanded use of livestock, signaling a growing emphasis on pastoralism. 



These dietary shifts reflect broader trends in ecological adaptation and livelihood restructuring across millennia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-learning-from-ancient-climate-strategies">Learning from ancient climate strategies </h2>



Ancient Africa's response to climate instability shows that survival came from adaptability. The research concludes that no single solution worked across the continent. Instead, resilience emerged from flexible strategies that reflected local conditions.



"If we want climate solutions and global environmental change solutions to work, they need to be rooted in an understanding of the way that people have been using available resources throughout time," said Phelps.



This deep-time perspective reveals a crucial insight: durable strategies come from local knowledge, ecological awareness, and diversified livelihoods. Past success stories may yet help shape tomorrow’s responses to a changing climate.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/one-earth/fulltext/S2590-3322(25)00130-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">One Earth</a>.



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Ancient societies used mixed strategies to survive climate change

Climate change did not start in the modern era. Africa’s...

After nearly two decades in orbit, NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) is trying something new. 



Engineers have taught the spacecraft how to roll - hard. This isn't just a simple tilt. These are full-body rolls, sometimes nearly upside down.



The purpose is to see deeper beneath the surface of Mars and hunt for signs of water and ice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teaching-mars-orbiter-to-roll">Teaching Mars Orbiter to roll </h2>



The new technique comes from scientists at the <a href="https://www.psi.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Planetary Science Institute</a> and NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory. 



Between 2023 and 2024, MRO performed three massive rotations - what the team calls "very large rolls" - to boost the performance of one of its key instruments.



“Not only can you teach an old spacecraft new tricks, you can open up entirely new regions of the subsurface to explore by doing so,” said Gareth Morgan of the Planetary Science Institute in Tucson, Arizona.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-advanced-planning-and-careful-balance">Advanced planning and careful balance </h2>



Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter was originally built to roll up to 30 degrees to aim its cameras and sensors at specific features on the Martian surface. 



It's a flexible platform, designed to twist and turn in space so scientists can target impact craters, landing zones, and more.



“We’re unique in that the entire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/farewell-to-gaia-the-spacecraft-that-mapped-the-milky-way/">spacecraft</a> and its software are designed to let us roll all the time,” said Reid Thomas, MRO’s project manager at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California.



But the bigger rolls - 120 degrees or more - are something else entirely. These require advanced planning and careful balance. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mars-orbiter-why-every-roll-counts">Mars Orbiter: Why every roll counts</h2>



MRO's five main science instruments all have different needs. When one is pointed at Mars, others might lose their ideal view.



That means every maneuver is scheduled weeks in advance. Teams negotiate which instruments will be active and when. 



An algorithm takes over from there, guiding the orbiter to roll and aim while keeping its solar panels locked on the Sun and its antenna aimed at Earth. For very large rolls, even those systems go dark temporarily.



“The very large rolls require a special analysis to make sure we’ll have enough power in our batteries to safely do the roll,” Thomas said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flipping-for-stronger-radar-returns">Flipping for stronger radar returns</h2>



The massive rolls are especially helpful for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shallow-ice-discovered-on-mars-could-help-future-human-missions/">SHARAD</a>, the Shallow Radar instrument on board. It is designed to see about half a mile to 1.2 miles (0.8 - 1.9 kilometers) below the Martian surface. 



SHARAD can also differentiate between ice, rock, and sand - a crucial capability for identifying water that future astronauts might one day use.



“The SHARAD instrument was designed for the near-subsurface, and there are select regions of Mars that are just out of reach for us,” said Morgan. “There is a lot to be gained by taking a closer look at those regions.”



Normally, SHARAD's signals bounce off parts of the orbiter before hitting Mars, which muddies the data. But by flipping the spacecraft 120 degrees, SHARAD gets a clean line of sight. That single move boosts signal strength tenfold or more.



This improvement is big, but it comes with tradeoffs. During the maneuver, MRO can't communicate with Earth or recharge its batteries. That limits the team to one or two very large rolls each year - for now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-old-instruments-with-new-tricks">Old instruments with new tricks </h2>



SHARAD isn’t the only instrument adjusting to new routines. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dust-storms-can-engulf-the-entire-planet-of-mars-but-how/">Mars Climate Sounder</a>, a radiometer built at JPL, is also leaning into MRO’s roll capability. It tracks temperatures and atmospheric changes on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-is-mars-red-scientists-think-they-figured-out-billion-year-old-mystery/">Mars</a>, revealing patterns in dust storms and cloud formations.



Originally, this instrument used a gimbal to adjust its view. But the gimbal started to fail in 2024. Now, the Climate Sounder depends on the orbiter's roll maneuvering instead.



“Rolling used to restrict our science, but we’ve incorporated it into our routine planning, both for surface views and calibration," said Mars Climate Sounder’s interim principal investigator, Armin Kleinboehl of JPL.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mars-orbiter-still-delivers-after-18-years">Mars Orbiter still delivers after 18 years</h2>



NASA's Mars Reconnaissance <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/curiosity-rover-captured-driving-for-the-first-time/">Orbiter</a> has been circling the Red Planet since 2006. It's an aging but incredibly capable machine. 



These new rolling maneuvers show that even after 18 years in space, it's still finding new ways to contribute.



By shifting its body in bold new directions, MRO is helping us see what lies beneath the Martian dust - and just maybe, where water waits to be found.



Image Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech



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Mars Orbiter taught to 'roll over' for a view beneath the surface

After nearly two decades in orbit, NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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