Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Climate, geology, and biology together gave rise to one of Earth’s most dramatic turning points: the Cambrian explosion. About 530 million years ago, most of the basic body plans of organisms that have survived until now emerged.



Yet a new study argues that key elements of this revolutionary event actually took shape earlier - perhaps ten-plus million years before the formal start of the Cambrian Period.



The research relies not on bones or shells, but on trace fossils - the tracks, burrows, and other imprints left by organisms as they crawled through ancient sediments.



Co-authors Olmo Miguez Salas of the <a href="https://web.ub.edu/web/ub/">University of Barcelona</a> and Zekun Wang of London’s <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/">Natural History Museum</a> analyzed these subtle signatures. 



The goal was to reconstruct early animal anatomy and behavior during the Ediacaran-Cambrian transition, roughly 545 million years ago.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-traces-reveal-ancient-life">Fossil traces reveal ancient life</h2>



Traditional fossil studies skew toward creatures with hard parts, because bones and shells preserve most readily in rock. Trace fossils capture a different story: the activities of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-first-animals-were-very-picky-about-where-they-lived/">soft-bodied animals</a> that rarely leave skeletal remains.



“The trace fossil record provides valuable information about evolutionary periods when soft-bodied fauna were dominant,” Miguez Salas said.



“Fossil traces reflect the behavior of the organism that generates them, which is determined by habitat and responses to environmental stimuli. Therefore, they are an indicator of the palaeoecological conditions in which the organisms that generated them lived.”



That focus is especially useful for the Ediacaran-Cambrian boundary, a time when soft-bodied organisms still outnumbered shelly ones and ecological dynamics were in rapid flux.



Early burrowers and crawlers disturbed microbial mats on the seafloor. This paved the way for new feeding strategies, novel body plans, and ultimately the hard-part explosion more familiar to paleontologists.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-show-how-life-moved">Fossils show how life moved</h2>



By quantifying the widths, lengths, and winding patterns of fossil trackways such as Archaeonassa, Gordia, Helminthopsis, and Parapsammichnites, the team derived scaling laws that link track size to the animals’ own proportions. 



The results show that organisms with streamlined, elongated profiles were already active 545 million years ago.



“These organisms probably possessed coelomic hydrostatic bodies, with an anteroposterior axis, muscles, and possibly segmentation,” Miguez Salas said.



“Furthermore, these organisms could move in a specific direction (directional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/not-all-kangaroo-ancestors-hopped-as-a-means-of-locomotion/">locomotion</a>) and probably possessed sensory capabilities to move and feed on heterogeneous substrates in a habitat dominated by microbial mats.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-traits-predate-cambrian-explosion">Traits predate Cambrian explosion</h2>



Such abilities - directional crawling, muscular movement, possible segmentation - echo the hallmarks of bilaterian animals that dominate the modern biosphere. 



If those traits existed well before 530 million years ago, then the lineage-splitting events that scientists historically assign to the Cambrian must have roots in the late <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/591-million-years-ago-complex-life-emerged-on-earth-magnetic-field-ediacaran-period/">Ediacaran</a>.



“Therefore, the so-called Cambrian explosion and its evolutionary implications may have occurred much earlier than estimated,” Miguez Salas added.



Instead of a sudden burst, the data point toward a protracted interval of experimentation. Ecological engineering by active burrowers created niches that later organisms exploited.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-math-reveals-ancient-mobility">Math reveals ancient mobility</h2>



Until now, suggestions of pre-Cambrian complexity leaned heavily on qualitative observations - isolated sites showing possible bilateral tracks or ambiguous body impressions. What sets the new paper apart is its mathematical approach.



The authors modeled modern track size to body length, then applied that scaling framework to ancient trace fossils. The outcome is a statistically grounded estimate of early animal width, length, and locomotion speed.



“This new discovery opens the door to quantitatively study future Ediacara trace fossils and to corroborate that the explosion did not happen in the Cambrian, but many millions of years earlier,” Miguez Salas said.



The same scaling rules could probe other critical transitions, such as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-worms-sparked-explosive-evolutionary-period-of-life-on-earth/">Great Ordovician Biodiversification Event</a>, offering a consistent yardstick for comparing evolutionary shifts across geologic time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-shift-life-s-timeline">Fossils shift life’s timeline</h2>



If complex bilaterians were shaping seafloor habitats 545 million years ago, paleontologists must rethink long-held assumptions. Environmental and genetic triggers like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rewrite-the-textbooks-life-on-earth-did-not-arise-due-to-increased-oxygen-levels/">oxygen</a> rise, ocean shifts, or gene changes may need rethinking for the Cambrian proper. 



Those factors may have been in motion earlier, with the visible “explosion” marking only the point when hard parts made diversity easier to preserve.



The study also underscores how behaviors - burrowing, mat-grazing, sediment mixing - can serve as evolutionary catalysts. Mobile animals turning over sediment could have unleashed nutrients, altered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-laid-the-foundation-for-early-life-on-earth/">microbial communities</a>, and spurred arms races that drove further innovation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-fossils-may-still-reveal">What fossils may still reveal</h2>



Future expeditions into late Ediacaran strata may uncover additional trace fossil assemblages to test the new timeline. 



High-resolution 3D scans, geochemical proxies, and refined radiometric dating can link track-making horizons to precise ages and environmental conditions.



Meanwhile, the mathematical framework introduced by Miguez Salas and Wang equips researchers worldwide to translate faint surface scribbles into vivid portraits of Earth’s earliest movers and shakers.



In shifting the Cambrian explosion’s fuse back several million years, the fossil record reminds us that life’s history often blurs textbook boundaries. Evolution, like geology itself, tends to roll out gradually - until we gather the evidence to see its subtler steps.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article/doi/10.1130/G53332.1/655874/Quantitative-decoding-of-Ediacaran-locomotory">Geology</a>.



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Cambrian explosion: Fossils push back the rise of complex life

Climate, geology, and biology together gave rise to one of...

We used to think leopard seals had broad diets, but new research suggests that many individuals are picky eaters - with big consequences.



While the species as a whole eats many prey types, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/harbor-seals-rely-on-visual-cues-to-navigate-cloudy-waters/">individual</a> seals often specialize. This pattern has ecosystem-wide effects, especially in the predator-rich waters off Cape Shirreff.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-leopard-seals-prefer-specific-diets">Leopard seals prefer specific diets</h2>



The research team analyzed stable isotope values (δ15N and δ13C) from 46 whiskers of 34 seals. This long-term data covered a decade. 



The results showed that 59% of the seals were dietary specialists, 28% were intermediates, and only 13% were true generalists.



Specialists fall into two categories. High trophic level specialists likely hunt fur <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seal-pregnancies-reveal-clues-for-treating-birth-complications/">seal</a> pups and large fish. Medium to low trophic level specialists target krill, penguins, and cephalopods. 



The research suggests that individual differences in diet shape local food webs more than previously assumed.



“Even though leopard seals as a species eat a wide variety of prey, most individuals actually focus on just a few types of food,” said study co-author Dr. Emily Sperou from <a href="https://www.baylor.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Baylor University</a>. 



“This means that a few highly specialized seals can have a much bigger effect on certain prey populations than we previously thought.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-seal-diets-don-t-change">Some seal diets don’t change</h2>



The study revealed two long-term foraging styles. Some individuals, like seal 397, maintained high trophic level specialization for up to ten years. 



Others, like seal 12, changed diets significantly across five years, from specialist to generalist.



This variability suggests behavioral flexibility. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephant-seals-provide-a-window-into-the-oceans-twilight-zone/">Seals</a> might shift strategies depending on prey availability or competition. Such changes could buffer the species against ecosystem shifts.



“A few specialists can help shape entire ecosystems,” said study co-author Dr. Patrick Charapata. 



“Understanding these patterns in leopard seals and other top predators can help us better predict and manage changes to prey populations and the greater ecosystem these species live in.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-leopard-seal-diets-and-prey-populations">Leopard seal diets and prey populations </h2>



Larger female leopard seals were found to consistently feed at higher trophic levels compared to males. This means they targeted prey that are themselves predators or occupy higher positions in the food web. 



Interestingly, all the individuals identified as high-level dietary specialists in the study were female. Their greater body size likely plays a key role in this pattern. 



Bigger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/weddell-seals-have-a-surprising-survival-strategy/">seals</a> are physically capable of capturing and consuming larger, more energy-dense prey, such as Antarctic fur seal pups. This access to richer food sources gives them an energetic advantage and increases their impact on prey populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-individuals-with-a-large-impact">Individuals with a large impact</h2>



The data also showed that females had broader isotopic ranges in their whisker samples. This suggests they influence a wider range of the ecosystem through their feeding habits. They do not just eat more; they affect more parts of the food web.



A few large females were found to be responsible for most of the observed predation on fur seal pups. One individual, identified as seal 397, stood out in particular. She had the highest number of recorded pup captures in the study. 



Her method involved ambush style attacks, showing strategic hunting behavior that likely made her even more effective. This highlights how a small number of powerful individuals can have an outsized effect on an ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-diets-change-with-prey-numbers">Diets change with prey numbers</h2>



The data revealed a sharp drop in δ15N values between 2015 and 2017. This trend aligns with a known decline in Antarctic fur seals and some penguin species. Researchers believe the drop reflects a reduction in nitrogen-rich prey.



From 2017 to 2023, the number of leopard seals at Cape Shirreff fell by 76 percent. The few that remained, like seal 397, regained access to higher trophic prey. As competition dropped, δ15N values began rising again.



The study reshapes how we think about predator roles. Individual specialization can reshape ecosystems. Just a few high-impact predators may shift prey dynamics dramatically.



For instance, a pod of five orcas once consumed 8,500 sea otters annually. Leopard seals may be exerting similar pressure on fur seal colonies.



Current conservation strategies often assume that all individuals in a species behave alike. But this study warns against such assumptions. Ignoring individual-level behavior might cause poor management decisions, especially under climate stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-leopard-seals-and-prey-dynamics">Leopard seals and prey dynamics</h2>



The study relied on stable isotope data but did not include direct prey identification. Future research could pair isotopic signatures with tracking and observational data.



While this study was focused on Cape Shirreff, genetic data indicate that these findings may apply to leopard seals across the Southern Ocean.



The research shows how a few individual predators can shape the fates of entire species. Leopard seals remind us that even in the coldest oceans, personal dietary choices matter.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ece3.71593" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology and Evolution</a>.



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Leopard seal diets are reshaping Antarctic ecosystems

We used to think leopard seals had broad diets, but...

Diseño sin título - 1

Our minds feel very private and unique to each of us, yet many researchers suspect our consciousness might plug into something far bigger. A controversial new framework says a quantum entanglement trick could happen inside microtubules, the tiny protein tubes that scaffold every neuron in your head.



<a href="https://www.wellesley.edu/people/michael-wiest" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mike Wiest</a>, a neuroscientist at <a href="https://www.wellesley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wellesley College</a>, thinks those tubes may carry quantum information that never stays put.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-quantum-entanglement">Understanding quantum entanglement</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-entanglement-a-simple-way-to-grasp-this-impossible-concept-carl-kocher/">Quantum entanglement</a> is a phenomenon in quantum physics where two or more particles become so deeply linked that the state of one instantaneously influences the state of the other, no matter how far apart they are. 



When particles are entangled, their properties - such as spin, polarization, or momentum - are correlated in such a way that measuring one particle's state <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-entanglement-speed-is-measured-first-time-too-fast-for-humans-minds/">automatically determines</a> the other's. 



This strange connection defies classical logic and puzzled Einstein, who famously dismissed it as “spooky action at a distance.”



Despite its counterintuitive nature, scientists have experimentally confirmed entanglement countless times, and it now plays a crucial role in technologies like quantum computing and quantum cryptography. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantum-events-and-consciousness">Quantum events and consciousness</h2>



The notion traces back to Nobel‑winning mathematician <a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/2020/penrose/facts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Roger Penrose</a> and anesthesiologist <a href="https://hameroff.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stuart Hameroff</a>, who argued that quantum events inside microtubules create conscious moments faster than neurons can fire. 



Their “<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1571064513001188" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orchestrated objective reduction</a>” model claims that each wave‑function collapse sparks awareness, and those collapses might entangle with particles anywhere in space.



Wiest’s group recently tested one prediction in <a href="https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Rattus_norvegicus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rattus norvegicus</a>. 



Rats given a microtubule‑stabilizing drug stayed awake 69 seconds longer under isoflurane than untreated littermates, suggesting the gas pulls the plug by scrambling quantum signals in the tubes.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quantum-calculations-inside-warm-brains">Quantum calculations inside warm brains</h2>



Critics argue that warm, wet tissue kills quantum fragility. A 2022 magnetic‑resonance <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9336587/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> of 40 healthy volunteers found deep brain regions buzzing with activity at temperatures above 104 °F (40 °C) in the afternoon, yet cognition carried on.&nbsp;



Physics is catching up. A 2024 <a href="https://journals.aps.org/pre/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevE.110.024402" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physical Review E paper</a> shows that the fatty myelin coating of axons can act like a cylindrical cavity, spitting out entangled photon pairs at body temperature.&nbsp;



Lab evidence for long‑lived quantum states inside microtubules keeps stacking. 



In Alberta, <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acscentsci.2c01114" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Jack Tuszynski</a> and his team blasted tubulin with ultraviolet photons and watched coherence last five nanoseconds, thousands of times longer than textbook estimates.



Colleagues at the <a href="https://www.ucf.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Central Florida</a> hit microtubules with visible light and detected re‑emission for up to a second, plenty of time for a neuron to talk to its neighbors.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consciousness-and-quantum-entanglement">Consciousness and quantum entanglement</h2>



If the idea sounds eerie, remember photosynthesis. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature05678" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Quantum coherence</a> helps pigments in bacteria explore every path from a leaf’s surface to its reaction center at once, boosting efficiency above 95 percent.



Conscious brains need speed too. Billions of spikes firing every second must sync without overheating, so borrowing the same superposition trick inside microtubules could make sense.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/schrodingers-cat-put-into-silicon-chip-may-be-holy-grail-for-error-proof-quantum-computing/">Quantum</a> effects usually demand refrigerators at near -460 °F (-273°C), yet nature keeps finding loopholes. 



The myelin biphoton study shows entanglement survives at 98 °F (36.7°C), while plant complexes stay coherent at room temperature.



Together these results erode the biggest objection to a quantum mind.



“The mind, as a quantum phenomenon, would shape the way we think about a wide variety of related questions, such as whether coma patients or nonhuman animals are conscious. We will have entered a new era in our understanding of who we are,” commented Wiest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-quantum-entanglement">Cosmic quantum entanglement</h2>



Because quantum entanglement links objects instantly, regardless of distance, every collapse in your cortex might already be braided with particles beyond Earth. 



Penrose’s equations even allow those linkages to stretch across the cosmos, hinting that subjective experience could share the same physical substrate as spacetime itself.



Skeptics point out that correlation is not causation; anesthetics also modulate <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK526124/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GABA receptors</a>. Yet the rat data show that tweaking microtubules alone meaningfully delays loss of righting reflex, so the tubes can’t be mere bystanders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-critics-still-want-clearer-answers">Critics still want clearer answers</h2>



Not all researchers are convinced that microtubules are doing anything more than keeping neurons structurally intact. 



The idea that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-form-of-quantum-entanglement-discovered-will-transform-next-gen-technology/">quantum</a> events in the brain drive consciousness still lacks direct confirmation in humans, and many neuroscientists argue that existing brain imaging already maps consciousness without needing quantum physics.



Some physicists also remain skeptical because the predicted effects are subtle, hard to isolate, and often overlap with classical explanations. 



They point out that without a repeatable, testable prediction that is unique to quantum consciousness, one that can’t be explained by ordinary biology, the theory risks sounding more philosophical than scientific.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-for-quantum-consciousness-theory">Next steps for quantum consciousness theory</h2>



Engineers are developing noninvasive terahertz scanners that lock onto microtubule resonances through the skull, hoping to watch consciousness flicker on and off during sleep and surgery. 



Early <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/1099-4300/27/3/243">prototypes</a> detect subtle electromagnetic signatures that vanish when animals go under anaesthetic and rebound on waking.



If future trials map those signatures to perception, therapies might follow. Stabilizing microtubules could ease anesthesia in chemotherapy patients or counteract disorders of awareness. 



Reversible entanglement clues might even inspire brain‑wide <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/radical-theory-unites-gravity-spacetime-and-the-quantum-realm/">quantum</a> networks that are faster than today’s silicon.



For now, the universe‑wide consciousness model remains a daring explanation rather than proven fact. Still, each year brings fresh data that chip away at the classical firewall between mind and matter, and the conversation is shifting from “if” to “how.”



The studies were published in <a href="https://www.eneuro.org/content/11/8/ENEURO.0291-24.2024" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eNeuro</a> and <a href="https://journals.aps.org/pre/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevE.110.024402" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physical Review E</a>.



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Theory suggests that consciousness is a quantum process, connecting us all to the entire universe

Our minds feel very private and unique to each of...

In cities and countryside alike, bees, hoverflies, and other pollinators face a common problem - dwindling food supplies. As meadows vanish and flower diversity shrinks, pollinators struggle to find the nectar and pollen they need to survive. 



Concerned citizens have begun planting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-flowers-grow-perfectly-despite-chaotic-gene-activity/">wildflowers</a> in gardens and parks to help, but there’s one lingering question: which flower mixes actually work best?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-identifying-the-best-flower-mixes">Identifying the best flower mixes</h2>



For years, suggestions came from well-meaning enthusiasts, local guides, or plant sellers. But until recently, there wasn’t enough science to back up these recommendations. 



That’s where a collaborative study led by botanists from the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/">University of Copenhagen</a> and the National Botanic Garden of Wales stepped in. They created, tested, and compared flower seed mixes using both field trials and systematic data reviews.



The goal was to identify flower mixes that truly support bees, hoverflies, and solitary bees - and look good doing it.



“Much of our knowledge in this area is anecdotal. So, there was a need for a scientific approach, where we systematically test different flowers to be sure how we can best help pollinators, which are extremely important to our ecosystems,” said Professor Natasha de Vere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-flower-mixes-in-real-gardens">Testing flower mixes in real gardens</h2>



The researchers reviewed 447 studies and tested flower mixes in real garden plots. They compared four commercial seed mixes and two experimental blends. Some contained only native plants, while others combined native and non-native species.



“We can see that seed mixtures containing both non-native and native flowering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flowering-plants-appeared-two-million-years-earlier-than-we-thought/">plants</a> establish themselves better in the soil, bloom for longer, and have more visits from pollinators. And they are also most attractive to the human eye,” said Professor de Vere.



Public preference also aligned with the data. In a survey at the National Botanic Garden of Wales, visitors overwhelmingly chose the non-native mixes as their favorites.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-which-flowers-work-best">Which flowers work best?</h2>



Based on the combined studies and field tests, these flowers emerged as top choices for pollinator-friendly seed mixes:



<ul class="wp-block-list">
<li>Achillea millefolium (Yarrow)</li>



<li>Anthemis arvensis (Corn chamomile)</li>



<li>Centaurea cyanus (Cornflower)</li>



<li>Echium plantagineum (Purple viper’s bugloss)</li>



<li>Glebionis segetum (Corn marigold)</li>



<li>Papaver rhoeas (Common poppy)</li>



<li>Sinapis arvensis (Field mustard)</li>



<li>Tripleurospermum inodorum (Scentless chamomile)</li>



<li>Cosmos bipinnatus (Garden cosmos)</li>



<li>Linaria maroccana (Moroccan toadflax)</li>



<li>Phacelia tanacetifolia (Common phacelia)</li>
</ul>



Many of these species showed consistent flowering from July through October. Some, like G. segetum, attracted over 50% of hoverfly visits. 



Bumblebees preferred cosmos and cornflower. Solitary bees favored scentless chamomile and corn chamomile.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mixing-native-and-non-native-flowers">Mixing native and non-native flowers</h2>



Non-native plants in mixes extended the flowering season and increased diversity. This combination also improved visual impact and public engagement. Visitors responded positively to mixes with bright colors and layered blooming patterns.



Some mixes were tailored specifically to bumblebees or hoverflies. These attracted their target pollinators but also benefited others. For example, the bumblebee-specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-ai-cant-truly-understand-a-flower/">mix</a> also drew honeybees in high numbers.



However, solitary bees were harder to attract. They may need nesting resources nearby, such as bare soil or cavity spaces. Their low numbers in the trials suggest they need more than just flowers to thrive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-even-small-spaces-can-be-supportive">Even small spaces can be supportive</h2>



Professor de Vere emphasized that everyone can contribute. You don’t need a large garden. A few square meters of the right plants and flower mixes can provide critical food sources.



"It has become quite popular to plant strips of flowers in urban areas and in gardens where there may have been only grass lawns before. This is because flowers are good for bees, but also for our mental health," noted Professor de Vere.



“It is important that everyone does something to help - and even small changes can really make a difference. I myself only have a small backyard, which I have filled with the best plants for pollinators, and it is now full of bees and hoverflies.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-designing-the-perfect-pollinator-mix">Designing the perfect pollinator mix</h2>



The researchers followed a clear decision process to select plants. First, they eliminated invasive or banned species. 



Next, the team considered pollinator interaction records, horticultural value, cost, and flower traits. Plants were kept if they had over 10 verified pollinator interactions and were easy to grow from seed.



The researchers emphasized the need for both floral and nesting resources. For hoverflies, aquatic features or decaying wood may be key. Bees benefit from undisturbed soil and safe, pesticide-free environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-flower-mixes-that-work">The flower mixes that work</h2>



Mixes with both native and non-native species work best. They provide long-lasting blooms, visual appeal, and food for many types of pollinators. If you're planning your garden or advising a community project, focus on these top performers.



The best results came from blends that included G. segetum, C. bipinnatus, T. inodorum, and A. arvensis. These flowers dominated in both aesthetic surveys and insect visitation counts.



To help pollinators, plant smart. Choose flowers backed by science. And remember, even one flower bed can make a difference.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ppp3.70041" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plants People Planet</a>.



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Both bees and humans like these flower mixes the best

In cities and countryside alike, bees, hoverflies, and other pollinators...

Once thought unique to humans, grief may exist in other species too. New research from Osaka University shows that Japanese macaques react to dying and dead group members with surprising emotion.



Published in the journal Primates, the study reveals responses beyond mothers mourning infants. It focuses instead on how macaques behave around dying or deceased adult <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/assamese-macaques-show-how-aging-affects-our-social-networks/">companions</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-macaques-stay-near-dying-friends-nbsp">Macaques stay near dying friends&nbsp;</h2>



Japanese macaques live in complex societies and form long-term grooming partnerships. Researchers tracked grooming and proximity over several years to explore whether social <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-tolerance-helps-monkeys-pass-along-new-skills/">closeness</a> influenced their behavior during death-related events.



“It’s incredibly rare to document these kinds of behaviors in wild animals,” said lead author Masayuki Nakamichi from <a href="https://www.osaka-u.ac.jp/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Osaka University</a>. 



Macaques with strong grooming histories often stayed close to the deceased. Others kept their distance, especially when they had no prior bond.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-visible-decay-alters-behavior">Visible decay alters behavior</h2>



Maggots played a central role in group reactions. In three of the four documented deaths, the bodies showed infestation. This strongly affected how others responded.



Monkeys typically avoided touching or approaching maggot-covered individuals. Some jumped away after sniffing the wound. Others looked and then left quickly.



Yet in one exceptional case, the group’s alpha female, Pet, groomed a dying male named Rikinio even as flies swarmed around him. She picked maggots from his back and ate them.



“The fact that some individuals remained near deceased <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sulawesi-macaques-face-unknown-threats-from-plastic-waste/">companions</a> they had close relationships with suggests that these macaques have emotional capacities that resemble human compassion,” said study co-author Kazunori Yamada.



This behavior suggests macaques can form deep attachments and remain emotionally affected by death.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-macaques-react-to-different-deaths">Macaques react to different deaths</h2>



Case 1 featured Rikinio, a high-ranking male wounded by a rival. Most macaques avoided him once his wound became infested. Pet alone groomed him and consumed maggots during the process.



Case 2 followed another male, K75, who declined from old age. Though his body showed no visible wounds, flies and rain had changed his appearance. Familiar group members hesitated to come near, possibly recalling his earlier condition.



Case 3 involved Pet79, a female from the dominant kin group. After returning from a long absence, she was groomed by her daughters. A month later, with maggots visible in her wounds, even close family avoided her.



Case 4 described Pet87, who died in winter. His body had no maggots. Group members remained close. A juvenile female groomed his corpse. Her mother had groomed Pet87 regularly when he was alive.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disease-avoidance-may-play-a-role">Disease avoidance may play a role</h2>



Macaques appear to avoid corpses showing signs of infestation. This may be a survival behavior. Avoiding flies and maggots likely reduces the risk of disease.



Many reacted by sniffing their fingers after contact or rubbing them on the ground. These actions suggest discomfort triggered by smell or touch.



When the corpse showed no damage or signs of infestation, macaques behaved calmly and remained nearby. This pattern supports the idea that visible decay, more than death itself, shapes avoidance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-death-awareness-in-macaques">Death awareness in macaques</h2>



Some behaviors hint at cognitive recognition of death. One low-ranking male, who avoided a higher-ranking male while alive, stayed near his corpse. Possibly, he understood the male no longer posed a threat.



Other group members hesitated to enter areas where a corpse lay still. This unusual caution may reflect recognition that something was not normal.



These findings suggest that macaques feel <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hurricane-on-monkey-island-made-macaques-more-socially-tolerant/">emotions</a> like grief and compassion, at least in simple forms. The depth of their understanding remains unclear, but their actions show social bonds do not always end with death.



“More observations of death-related events in more species will be needed to fully understand the emotional responses of non-human primates to the dead,” said Nakamichi.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-path-forward-in-primate-thanatology">Path forward in primate thanatology</h2>



To learn more, the researchers want to combine behavioral studies with physiological data. Measuring hormone levels, tracking stress responses, and observing reactions to smell may offer deeper insights.



Chimpanzees, for example, show aversion to the scent of putrescine, a chemical linked to decay. Similar tests in macaques may reveal if scent triggers their aversion or if vision plays a bigger role.



This study challenges long-held beliefs about grief. Japanese macaques show emotion toward the dying and dead, guided by bonds and sensory cues.



They remind us that even in the forest, empathy may bloom. Loss does not go unnoticed.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10329-025-01196-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Primates</a>.



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Japanese macaques have social bonds that persist beyond death

Once thought unique to humans, grief may exist in other...

Squid are famous for flashing from glass-clear to kaleidoscopic in the blink of an eye, but biologists have long puzzled over the physical trick behind the act.



A research team led by the <a href="https://www.uci.edu/">University of California, Irvine</a>, joined by cephalopod experts at the <a href="https://www.mbl.edu/">Marine Biological Laboratory</a> in Woods Hole, took that mystery head-on.



By peering into squid skin in three dimensions, they uncovered a hidden forest of nano-columns built from an uncommon protein called reflectin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-squid-skin-bends-light">How squid skin bends light</h2>



These columns act much like tiny mirrors, bouncing or passing light depending on how close together they sit.



Alon Gorodetsky, an expert in chemical and biomolecular engineering at UC Irvine, is the senior author of the research.



“In nature, many animals use Bragg reflectors [which selectively transmit and reflect light at specific wavelengths] for structural coloration,” he said. “A squid’s ability to rapidly and reversibly transition from transparent to colored is remarkable."



"We found that cells containing specialized subcellular columnar structures with sinusoidal refractive index distributions enable the squid to achieve such feats.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-the-master-shapeshifter">Studying the master shapeshifter</h2>



The animals under study were longfin inshore squid, Doryteuthis pealeii. “These are longfin inshore squids – Doryteuthis pealeii – that are native to the Atlantic Ocean,” Gorodetsky said.



“Marine Biological Laboratory has been famous for studying this squid and other cephalopods for more than a century. We were fortunate to be able to leverage their world-class expertise with properly collecting, handling, and studying these biological specimens.”



Inside the squid mantle, shimmering cells known as iridophores - or iridocytes - hold the secret. 



To visualize them without disturbing their delicate innards, the team used holotomography, a form of quantitative phase microscopy that maps how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/physicists-succeed-in-converting-light-into-a-supersolid-that-flows-like-a-liquid/">light</a> bends through a sample.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/squid-skin_color-change_montage_credit-UCIrvine_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/squid-skin_color-change_montage_credit-UCIrvine_1s.webp" alt="Digital camera images of the entire body (top left) and dorsal mantle (top right) of a squid show the splotches' blue, green, yellow, orange and red iridescent (angle-dependent) colors. An individual splotch (bottom, from left) transitions from transparent to red to orange to green at 0, 60, 90 and 120 seconds, respectively, when subjected to chemical and neurophysiological stimuli. Credit: Alon Gorodetsky Lab, UC Irvine" class="wp-image-1975656"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Digital camera images of the entire body (top left) and dorsal mantle (top right) of a squid show the splotches' blue, green, yellow, orange and red iridescent (angle-dependent) colors. An individual splotch (bottom, from left) transitions from transparent to red to orange to green at 0, 60, 90 and 120 seconds, respectively, when subjected to chemical and neurophysiological stimuli. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Alon Gorodetsky Lab, UC Irvine</figcaption></figure>



Georgii Bogdanov, a postdoctoral researcher in chemical and biomolecular engineering at UC Irvine, is another lead author of the study.



“Holotomography used the high refractive index of reflectin proteins to reveal the presence of sinusoidal refractive index distributions within squid iridophore cells,” he said.



Reflectin platelets form spiral columns inside iridophores, enabling cephalopods to control how their skin transmits and reflects light.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-borrowing-nature-s-blueprint"><a></a>Borrowing nature’s blueprint</h2>



Once the researchers understood the architecture - the stacked, spiraling Bragg reflectors - they wondered whether they could engineer something similar.



Studying squid color change inspired flexible materials that shift appearance using tiny, wavy Bragg reflector columns. They added nanostructured metal films, enabling the materials to also shift appearance in the infrared spectrum.



Using a mixture of polymer chemistry, nanofabrication, and metal coatings, the group built thin films that shift color when stretched, pressed, or heated. 



They went a step further by tailoring the same films to tune their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquitoes-use-thermal-infrared-vision-to-track-and-bite-humans/">infrared</a> emission. This allows the material to hide or reveal heat signatures as well as visible hues.



“These bioinspired materials go beyond simple static color control, as they can dynamically adjust both their appearances in the visible and infrared wavelengths in response to stimuli,” said co-author Aleksandra Strzelecka, a PhD student at UC Irvine.



“Part of what makes this technology truly exciting is its inherent scalability," she said. "We have demonstrated large-area and arrayed composites that mimic and even go beyond the squid’s natural optical capabilities."



This opens the door to many applications ranging from adaptive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-squid-power-their-amazing-camouflage-abilities/">camouflage</a> to responsive fabrics to multispectral displays to advanced sensors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-optics-from-squid-skin">Future optics from squid skin</h2>



The implications stretch far beyond a novelty coating. The same Bragg-style stacks could sharpen laser output, filter signals in fiber-optic lines, and boost solar-cell efficiency. They could also enable real-time structural health monitoring in bridges and aircraft.



“This study is an exciting demonstration of the power of coupling basic and applied research,” Gorodetsky said. “We have likely just started to scratch the surface of what is possible for cephalopod-inspired tunable optical materials in our laboratory.”



Every advance stemmed from squid skin cells with tiny winding columns just hundreds of nanometers wide. Despite their size, these structures could orchestrate a light show visible from meters away.



The team’s work shows how decoding those natural nanostructures can lead to devices that humans manufacture by the meter rather than by the molecule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-squid-inspired-tech-evolves">Squid-inspired tech evolves</h2>



Researchers aim to speed up film response and develop biodegradable versions for sensors and medical patches.



Meanwhile, the discovery reaffirms why <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopus-and-squid-senses-linked-to-human-brain-evolution/">cephalopods</a> remain a favorite subject for materials scientists: they are masters of manipulating light without a single pigment or battery.



In the lab, that mastery is starting to take shape as fabrics that cool soldiers in the desert by day, buildings that shimmer to reduce air-conditioning loads, and flexible screens that display both artwork and thermal data.



The next chapter, as Gorodetsky’s group sees it, will be written where biology and engineering merge. 



The squid’s split-second shape-shifting trick has journeyed from the Atlantic deep to a microscope slide and into a polymer film. 



Soon, it may appear on your jacket sleeve or smartphone case, blending vivid color with invisible infrared control just like in cephalopods.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adn1570" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Scientists unlock the light-bending secrets of squid skin

Squid are famous for flashing from glass-clear to kaleidoscopic in...

Every day, we make choices. Some are big, some small. We weigh options, imagine outcomes, and decide what feels right. But what happens when we’re under pressure? When our minds are clouded with stress, our usual decision-making process shifts. 



We may take chances we would normally avoid. Scientists have long studied the brain’s reaction to stress. Now, a new study from the <a href="https://www.uark.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arkansas</a> offers deeper insight.



The research explains how stress alters our natural instinct to avoid loss. The key concept here is “loss aversion,” a deeply rooted human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-hijacks-the-brain-disrupting-sleep-and-memory/">bias</a> that makes us fear losing more than we value gaining. When stress enters the picture, this aversion fades.



People begin making riskier choices, especially with money. Understanding why this happens can help us make better decisions, even when life gets tough.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stress-dulls-fear-of-loss">Stress dulls fear of loss</h2>



Imagine finding a hundred-dollar bill on the street. You’d feel lucky. Now imagine losing that same amount. For most people, the emotional pain of losing feels much stronger than the happiness of gaining. That’s loss aversion.



Loss aversion is a natural mental shortcut. It helps us avoid danger and preserve what we already have. However, the University of Arkansas study reveals that stress changes how this bias works. 



When people are stressed, they no longer fear loss as much. This reduced sensitivity can push them to make bolder financial decisions they might later regret.



Lead author Grant Shields explained the personal side of this idea: “In my own life, if I’m stressed, I’ll wait to make a decision that could have potential loss implications.” 



His comment reflects a natural hesitation most of us feel. But the study shows that not everyone reacts this way under stress - especially when gender comes into play.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gender-shapes-stress-response">Gender shapes stress response</h2>



One of the most interesting findings from the study is that stress does not affect everyone in the same way. Specifically, different genders show distinct patterns in how they respond to high-pressure situations. 



The researchers observed that men tend to change their decision-making strategies more dramatically when stressed. Women, on the other hand, maintain better prediction skills under pressure.



That means, women can often estimate what might happen more accurately, even when their stress levels rise. Men may not predict as well, but they tend to grasp the implications of a decision’s outcome more clearly. 



These subtle differences add <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-eats-away-our-brains-cognitive-defenses/">complexity</a> to our understanding of human behavior and suggest that our biological makeup might shape how we manage risk when things get intense.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simulating-financial-pressure">Simulating financial pressure</h2>



To dig into these behaviors, researchers created an experiment involving 147 participants. They placed each person in a stressful situation, then asked them to make a series of financial decisions. 



The scenarios were hypothetical but realistic. The goal was to mimic the kind of stress people feel in real life and measure how it influences decision-making.



Zach Gray, a psychology doctoral student, and Trey Malone, a former University of Arkansas agricultural economist now at <a href="https://www.purdue.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Purdue University</a>, joined Shields in leading the research. 



“Financial risk is easy to assess, because people have a pretty good idea about what they would do with their own money,” Shields explained.



That made it easier to isolate what changed under stress. It wasn’t about learning a new skill or solving a complex puzzle. It was about seeing how people shift their priorities when their minds are under pressure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-brain-calculates-risk">How the brain calculates risk</h2>



To interpret their findings, the researchers used a model called cumulative prospect theory. 



This framework breaks down decision-making into four parts: loss aversion, risk aversion, randomness in choices, and probability distortion. It helps explain why people behave in unpredictable ways when facing uncertainty.



Probability distortion is especially revealing. It shows why people buy lottery tickets. They focus on the tiny chance of winning rather than the overwhelming likelihood of losing. Under stress, this distortion can become stronger. 



People start believing unlikely outcomes are more possible than they truly are. That can lead to poor financial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amazon-trees-glow-more-under-stress-but-photosynthesize-less/">decisions</a>, from risky investments to unnecessary spending.



“My research was aimed at understanding these component processes that go into that calculus,” Shields said. 



By focusing on each part of the decision-making model, the team could see which changes mattered most. It turns out that loss aversion, usually a strong guide, weakens the most under stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-risky-roots-of-stress">Risky roots of stress</h2>



In today’s world, risky choices often carry serious consequences. Yet stress seems to push us toward those very choices. From <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-avatars-are-making-people-take-more-risks/">gambling</a> to impulsive spending, the effects are easy to spot. But why would evolution shape us this way?



“If you’re an organism that’s being hunted or chased by another, then it makes sense to do stuff that you wouldn’t otherwise. Perhaps making a risky decision is better than staying put,” said Shields. 



This survival logic may still live inside us, even if our threats are now bills, deadlines, or social pressure instead of predators.



Understanding the roots of risky behavior helps us manage it better. Stress might once have helped us survive. Today, it might lead us into trouble. Knowing how our minds change under pressure is the first step toward making wiser decisions, even when we feel overwhelmed.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0306453024003044?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Psychoneuroendocrinology</a>.



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Why stress makes us take more risks in financial decisions

Every day, we make choices. Some are big, some small....

Climate usually conjures images of vast regions and decades-long change, but it also shifts over a few miles in a single afternoon.



A team of researchers led by <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Pennsylvania State University</a> has shown that these microclimates can nudge bees toward particular patches of a field and, in doing so, make or break yields of wild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-why-blueberries-are-blue/">blueberries</a>.



The project unfolded on a 170-acre commercial blueberry operation in coastal Maine, where researchers divided the rolling terrain into 120 one-square-meter plots and then carpeted it with sensors.



Every ten minutes during blossom season, those sensors logged temperature and humidity, while students noted how many blossoms opened, which bees showed up, and how much fruit ultimately ripened on 100 plots.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microclimates-shift-bee-patterns">Microclimates shift bee patterns</h2>



Across that single field, conditions proved anything but uniform. Temperature varied by as much as 20 degrees Fahrenheit, and relative humidity differed by nearly 30 percent. The warmest ground also tended to bear more flowers, and bees noticed.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-honey-bee-day-protecting-our-vital-pollinators/">Honey bee</a> foragers trucked in by the grower and wild native bees alike located the most densely blooming areas of the fields and focused their foraging in these areas. 



Wild bees, in particular, were warmer-than-average chasers, arriving earlier in the day and flying under a wider range of conditions than their managed counterparts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-targeting-bees-with-climate-data">Targeting bees with climate data</h2>



Those results matter, said lead author Heather Grab, an assistant professor of plant science at Penn State.



“Remote sensing techniques could measure flower density patterns across the field and identify low blooming regions, which may be a promising method for selecting candidate areas to convert to conservation habitats,” she explained.



In other words, growers might pinpoint unproductive corners and swap them out for wildflower strips or nesting sites that bolster pollinators and the crop alike.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cracking-bee-yield-mysteries">Cracking bee yield mysteries</h2>



The bee and microclimate study reflects a three-way partnership among <a href="https://pollinators.psu.edu/">Penn State’s Center for Pollinator Research</a>, the <a href="https://www.pitt.edu/">University of Pittsburgh</a>, and <a href="https://www.wymans.com/">Wyman’s</a>, one of the nation’s largest wild blueberry companies.



“Our collaborators at Wyman’s noted that some parts of their fields consistently produced fewer berries, but there was no obvious reason,” recalled Christina Grozinger, director of the <a href="https://www.huck.psu.edu/">Huck Institutes of the Life Sciences</a> at Penn State.



“We decided to tackle this mystery by developing new strategies for monitoring and modeling crop yield, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollinators-are-disappearing-and-its-bad-news-for-plants/">pollinator</a> activity, and environmental variation, in collaboration with Vikas Khanna’s group at the University of Pittsburgh.”



“Tackling these issues demands interdisciplinary strategies that integrate knowledge from diverse fields, as demonstrated by this research team," added Khanna, a professor of civil and environmental engineering in Pittsburgh.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-bees-and-blossoms">Mapping bees and blossoms</h2>



To capture the field’s hidden patterns, Pittsburgh students fanned out with stacks of battery-powered dataloggers. 



Over weeks, they verified that warmer niches, often on gentle south-facing slopes, held thicker carpets of blossoms.



They also mapped fifteen honey bee hives and tracked where their tenants flew. The data confirmed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/organic-farms-and-meadows-can-help-save-wild-bees/">wild bee</a> numbers did not dip near hive clusters, easing fears that managed pollinators squeeze out native ones.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-climates-big-effects">Tiny climates, big effects</h2>



The team found that much of the variation could be traced to subtle shifts in temperature and humidity across time and space - changes that played out over the course of a day and among different microclimates within the same field.



Because warmer areas of the field also had more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flowers-hear-bee-sounds-and-make-sweeter-nectar-in-response/">flowers</a> and higher yields, changes to the climate that increase microclimate variability may contribute to increased yield variability within fields.



Globally, bee declines have been tied to sweeping forces such as habitat loss and hotter summers. 



Yet this study shows that decisions made at the scale of dozens of meters&nbsp;- where to mow, where to plant shelterbelts, where to turn off irrigation - might tip the balance for both bees and berries.



It also underlines that managed honey bees do not automatically undermine wild pollinators; the two guilds can divide labor across a mosaic of microclimates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-farms-and-pollinator-gains">Future farms and pollinator gains</h2>



Future work will test whether similar trends unfold on other blueberry farms and in other crops, and whether year-to-year swings in weather shift the sweet spots. 



For now, the Maine experiment suggests that seeing a farm through a microclimate lens could help growers optimize production while carving out refuge for native insects.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/remote-sensing-can-help-prevent-plastic-from-reaching-the-ocean/">Remote sensing</a>, smart sensors, and precision agriculture can let farmers manage flowers as well as fruit, which is good news for bees, and ultimately good news for the people who depend on them.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S016788092500266X?via%3Dihub">Agriculture, Ecosystems &amp; Environment</a>.



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Hidden microclimates attract bees and boost farm yields

Climate usually conjures images of vast regions and decades-long change,...

Move over, Shapley Superstructure; there's a new champion in town. Astronomers have identified a cosmic filament of matter so vast that it stretches about 1.3 billion light-years - approximately 7.6 sextillion miles - from end to end. 



They call it Quipu, and its sheer scale forces a rethink of how cosmic geography shapes everything from galaxy motions to the afterglow of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/if-the-big-bang-theory-is-correct-what-exactly-happened/">Big Bang</a>.



Quipu isn’t just long, it’s very, very hefty. Weighing in at around 200 quadrillion times the mass of the Sun, this structure corrals galaxies, hot gas, and dark matter into one elongated zone. 



Such bulk, concentrated in one place, can tilt measurements of cosmic expansion and subtly tweak the cosmic microwave background (<a href="https://www.cfa.harvard.edu/research/topic/cosmic-microwave-background" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CMB</a>).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quipu-and-the-cosmic-web">Quipu and the cosmic web</h2>



Cosmologists describe large-scale space as a web, with galaxies residing where filaments intersect. Quipu is a prime strand in that network. 



It lies about 400 million to 800 million light-years from Earth - close enough to exert measurable tugs on its surroundings. 



Simulations based on the popular <a href="https://lambda.gsfc.nasa.gov/education/graphic_history/univ_evol.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ΛCDM model</a> have long predicted titanic filaments, and Quipu validates those forecasts by matching their size and mass.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Quipo-superstructure_map_2MASS-density-gradient_Bohringer_MPE_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Quipo-superstructure_map_2MASS-density-gradient_Bohringer_MPE_1s.webp" alt="Distribution of galaxies (color coding) and galaxy clusters (black dots) in a spherical shell with a distance of 416 to 826 million light years surrounding us. The five superstructures are marked: 1 Quipu, 2 Shapley, 3 Serpens-Corona Borealis and Hercules (overlapping in the sky), 4 Sculptor-Pegasus. The area enclosed by white lines is shadowed by the disk of the Milky Way. Credit: MPE" class="wp-image-1975647"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Distribution of galaxies (color coding) and galaxy clusters (black dots) in a spherical shell with a distance of 416 to 826 million light years surrounding us. The five superstructures are marked: 1 Quipu, 2 Shapley, 3 Serpens-Corona Borealis and Hercules (overlapping in the sky), 4 Sculptor-Pegasus. The area enclosed by white lines is shadowed by the disk of the Milky Way. Click image to enlarge. Credit: MPE </figcaption></figure>



Only after the discovery team had mapped its outline did they realize how dominant such giants are. 



The five biggest superstructures - Quipu plus <a href="https://www.esa.int/ESA_Multimedia/Images/2013/10/Shapley_Supercluster" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Shapley</a>, Serpens-Corona Borealis, Hercules, and Sculptor–Pegasus - host nearly half the nearby galaxy clusters, a third of all galaxies, and an eighth of the cosmic volume. Far from being oddities, they anchor the visible sky.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-following-the-x-ray-signposts">Following the x-ray signposts</h2>



Finding Quipu required a clever shortcut. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thousands-of-galaxies-revealed-in-a-single-webb-image/">Galaxy clusters</a> glow in X-rays when gas inside them reaches tens of millions of degrees. 



By plotting 68 x-ray-bright clusters in one swath of the heavens, researchers saw them line up like beads on a cosmic cord. 



The clusters mark the densest knots of matter; trace those knots, and the filament’s spine emerges.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Quipo_largest-universe-structure_4-other-superstructures_map_Bohringer_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Quipo_largest-universe-structure_4-other-superstructures_map_Bohringer_1s.webp" alt="Distribution of the five superstructures on the sky in galactic coordinates, with the same colors and symbols. In addition, the grey, open circle shows the location of the Vela supercluster in the ZoA. Two grey, filled circles (overlapping in the figure) mark the two X-ray luminous clusters identified in the ROSAT All-Sky Survey at the edge of this supercluster. Credit: Bohringer et al. 2025" class="wp-image-1975643"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Distribution of the five superstructures on the sky in galactic coordinates, with the same colors and symbols. In addition, the grey, open circle shows the location of the Vela supercluster in the ZoA. Two grey, filled circles (overlapping in the figure) mark the two X-ray luminous clusters identified in the ROSAT All-Sky Survey at the edge of this supercluster. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Bohringer et al. 2025</figcaption></figure>



The effort relied on the <a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2021/07/aa40864-21/aa40864-21.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CLASSIX survey</a>, which stitches together data from satellite observatories to reveal the hottest, most massive clusters. 



Once the spine was mapped, gravitational models filled in the unseen dark matter that threads between the bright signposts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quipu-has-a-massive-footprint">Quipu has a massive footprint</h2>



Quipu’s ridiculous size of 200 quadrillion solar masses means it contains roughly one-quarter of all matter in its neighborhood. 



That heft produces gentle streaming motions in neighboring galaxies, nudging them off the simple Hubble flow that astronomers use to gauge <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cosmic-order-or-chaos-universe-expansion-may-follow-a-hidden-pattern/">cosmic expansion</a>. 



Ignore the effect, and the celebrated Hubble constant - already contentious - can slide a few percent in either direction.



Quipu also leaves fingerprints on the CMB through the <a href="https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2016/10/aa25831-15/aa25831-15.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Integrated Sachs–Wolfe effect</a>. As CMB photons cross the filament’s growing gravitational well, they pick up a minuscule energy boost. 



<a href="https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Operations/Planck" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Planck satellite</a> captured a faint temperature bump matching predictions, hinting that future, sharper-eyed missions could nail down the signal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxies-inside-quipu">Galaxies inside Quipu</h2>



Life inside a superstructure is crowded. Denser gas, hotter surroundings, and stronger gravitational tides mean galaxies burn through fuel differently than their isolated cousins. 



Surveys show that clusters embedded in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-high-def-image-of-the-cosmic-web-filaments-shows-hidden-universal-highways/">mammoth filaments</a> often tip the scales at higher masses and boast richer mixes of galaxy types. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Quipo-superstructure_3d-representation_graphic_credit-MPE_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Quipo-superstructure_3d-representation_graphic_credit-MPE_1s.webp" alt="Three-dimensional representation of the Quipu superstructure. Credit: MPE" class="wp-image-1975645"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Three-dimensional representation of the Quipu superstructure. Click image to enlarge. Credit: MPE</figcaption></figure>



Over time, mergers within the filament can jolt gas, spark fresh waves of star formation, or, conversely, quench it by stripping fuel away.



Simulations suggest that these environmental pressures speed up galactic aging. 



By comparing field galaxies with those parked along Quipu’s spine, astronomers hope to tease out exactly how crowd dynamics steer stellar birth and death.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-a-cosmic-monster">Mapping a cosmic monster</h2>



Quipu’s elongated profile even complicates <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dragon-arc-webb-telescope-captures-the-most-distant-stars-ever-seen/">gravitational lensing</a>. Its mass bends background light and can seed subtle distortions into sky maps. 



Surveys designed to chart <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-dark-energy-changing-the-mystery-of-cosmic-expansion-deepens/">dark energy</a> must correct for such lensing artifacts to avoid mistaking them for genuine features. 



A single misread lens could skew catalogs of distant supernovae or galaxies used to track cosmic acceleration.



The structure might also bridge the <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2412.02752" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zone of Avoidance</a> - a dust-filled slice of the Milky Way that hides much of the universe behind it - to the partly hidden Vela supercluster. 



Upcoming radio and X-ray projects aim to peer through that dust and test whether the two colossal regions connect, potentially revealing an even larger network.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-does-quipu-go-from-here">Where does Quipu go from here?</h2>



After carefully assembling the evidence, <a href="https://www.mpe.mpg.de/~hxb/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hans Böhringer</a> of the Max-Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics (<a href="https://www.mpe.mpg.de/main" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MPE</a>) and colleagues concluded that Quipu is unlikely to remain one piece forever. 



Simulations hint that its segments will drift apart over billions of years, each becoming a self-contained arena of galaxies and dark matter. For now, though, it offers a living laboratory for studying how gravity knits the cosmos.



“They are thus transient configurations. They are special physical entities with characteristic properties and special cosmic environments deserving special attention,” wrote Böhringer.



That attention is coming. New sky surveys - both ground-based and orbital - plan to chart filaments with finer detail, fold their influence into precision measurements of the CMB, and track how galaxies age inside these grand structures. 



Quipu may be the latest trophy of large-scale astronomy, but more surprises surely lurk in the corridors it illuminates. Stay tuned.



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Featured image: Boasting more than 8000 galaxies and with a total mass more than ten million billion times the mass of the Sun, the Shapley Superstructure is now the second most massive structure discovered in the known Universe. Credit: <a href="https://www.esa.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2501.19236" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astronomy and Astrophysics</a>.



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Stretching across 7.6 sextillion miles of space, astronomers crown it the new 'largest structure in the universe'

Move over, Shapley Superstructure; there's a new champion in town....

After a long day or an intense workout, few things are more inviting than the warmth of a hot tub or the dry embrace of a sauna. But beyond relaxation, which heat therapy actually benefits your body the most?



According to a new study from the University of Oregon’s <a href="https://bssc.uoregon.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bowerman Sports Science Center</a>, hot tubs may do more than just soothe sore muscles - they might deliver the most powerful boost to your overall health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hot-tubs-vs-saunas">Hot tubs vs. saunas</h2>



The study explored the physiological effects of three common types of passive heating: hot tubs, traditional dry saunas, and modern far-infrared saunas. 



Researchers set out to see how these different approaches affect core body temperature, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-worsens-cardiovascular-health-risks/">cardiovascular health</a>, and immune responses.



Jessica Atencio is a lead author of the study and a doctoral student in the Department of Human Physiology at the University of Oregon.



“We compared the most commonly utilized modalities of passive heating as they’re used in everyday life and studied in scientific research,” she said. “No studies have compared the acute responses between the three.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-body-reacts">How the body reacts</h2>



To get answers, Atencio and her team recruited ten men and ten women between the ages of 20 and 28. All participants were regular exercisers and generally healthy. 



This narrow focus allowed the researchers to isolate how young, active bodies respond to each type of heat exposure.



Over the course of the study, the team monitored a range of physiological indicators. These included heart rate, blood pressure, cardiac output (how much blood the heart pumps per minute), and levels of inflammatory biomarkers. Blood samples were taken before, during, and after each session to track changes.



What they found was striking: hot-water immersion raised core body temperature more significantly than either sauna type. With that rise came a host of benefits.



“We saw that hot water immersion was the most impactful in increasing core body temperature, which is the main stimulus for these subsequent responses,” Atencio said.



“Increasing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/koalas-can-predict-hot-days-and-adjust-their-body-temperature/">body temperature</a> causes an increase in blood flow, and just the force of blood moving across your vessels is beneficial for your vascular health.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-you-can-t-sweat-away"><a></a>Heat you can’t sweat away</h2>



Part of what makes hot water so effective is that it limits the body’s ability to cool itself down. In a sauna, for example, you sweat and that sweat evaporates, carrying heat away from your body.



But in a hot tub, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/energy-can-be-generated-from-sweaty-fingertips/">sweat</a> doesn’t evaporate - it just mixes with the surrounding water. This inefficiency in heat loss means your body stays hotter longer, triggering more physiological change.



“Hot water immersion gives you the most robust changes in core temperature because you can’t effectively dissipate heat as you can if you have contact with the air and you’re sweating to cool the body,” Atencio said. “When you’re submerged in water, the sweat mechanisms aren’t efficient.”



Only hot water immersion led to measurable changes in immune function. These included spikes in inflammatory cytokines - small proteins that play a key role in cell signaling. They also triggered boosts in immune cell activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hot-tubs-benefit-health">Hot tubs benefit health</h2>



For study lead author Professor Christopher Minson, who has studied heat therapy for over twenty years, the implications are both exciting and practical.



“There's no doubt that if people are willing to do some heat therapy, it’s going to align with improved health, as long as it’s done in moderation,” he said.



“If you repeat these stresses over time, our lab and many others have shown that they are consistent with improved health.”



While he emphasizes that regular exercise still offers broader health benefits, he also sees heat therapy as a useful alternative. This is especially true for people who can’t, or won’t, commit to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-significantly-lowers-heart-disease-risk-by-reducing-stress/">exercise</a>.



“It can be a very peaceful, sometimes religious, sometimes cultural and sometimes social experience,” Minson added. “And I think those aspects contribute to the health benefits and are critically important.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-know-your-limits-and-options">Know your limits - and options</h2>



That said, both Minson and Atencio stress the importance of safety. “We want people to be smart and safe about it,” Minson said.



“We need to make sure that they are cleared by their physicians for heat therapy or for exercise, whether it’s mild to moderate walking or jogging or strength training. Then they’ll be fine to do heat therapy.”



Atencio, a runner herself, knows people who combine workouts with post-exercise heat therapy. But even if you’re not training for a marathon, she sees value in incorporating passive heating into your wellness routine.



“We always say that exercise is the primary nonpharmacological treatment that people should be doing to promote health, but some people can’t or just won’t exercise,” she said. “Heat therapy is good supplementation.”



So the next time you’re choosing between a soak or a sit in dry heat, science suggests the hot tub may give you more than relaxation - it might offer a better shot at long-term health.



The study is published in the <a href="https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/ajpregu.00012.2025">American Journal of Physiology</a>.



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Soaking in hot water has many surprising and long-lasting health benefits

After a long day or an intense workout, few things...

When a team of astronomers working with the pan-European Low Frequency Array (LOFAR) telescope sat down to inspect new data, they expected to see the usual point-like radio beacons of distant quasars and star-forming galaxy clusters.



Instead, they stumbled upon something altogether rarer: a sprawling, ghostly glow surrounding the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/titanic-galaxy-cluster-collision-defies-all-current-understanding-of-the-universe/">galaxy cluster</a> SpARCS1049. 



Because the cluster lies so far away, the light reaching Earth today was emitted 10 billion years ago - when the universe was about 3.8 billion years old. Since then, fully two-thirds of cosmic history has passed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distant-cluster-s-radio-halo">Distant cluster’s radio halo</h2>



<a href="https://www.astron.nl/telescopes/lofar/">LOFAR</a> excels at detecting long-wavelength radio waves, the hallmark of clouds of ultra-relativistic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shape-of-electrons-revealed-first-time-through-big-advance-in-quantum-physics/">electrons</a> spiraling around magnetic-field lines throughout the universe.



In nearby clusters, astronomers occasionally see small, roundish patches of such emission called mini-halos. These hover around the brightest central galaxy and reveal that the otherwise invisible space between galaxies teems with fast particles. 



Spotting an analog at twice the previous record distance, however, came as a shock.



“It’s as if we’ve discovered a vast cosmic ocean, where entire galaxy clusters are constantly immersed in high-energy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-category-of-particles-discovered-in-the-subatomic-realm-paraparticles/">particles</a>,” said co-lead author Julie Hlavacek-Larrondo, an astrophysicist at the <a href="https://www.umontreal.ca/">University of Montreal</a>.



Her collaborator, Roland Timmerman from <a href="https://www.durham.ac.uk/">Durham University</a> shared the excitement. “It’s astonishing to find such a strong radio signal at this distance."



"It means these energetic particles and the processes creating them have been shaping galaxy clusters for nearly the entire history of the universe," said Timmerman.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-million-light-year-fog"><a></a>A million-light-year fog</h2>



Follow-up analysis showed that the diffuse emission spans more than a million light-years - roughly ten Milky Ways laid end to end. 



That size rules out any explanation based on individual galaxies. Instead, the radiation must arise in the thin, hot plasma that pervades the whole cluster.



Astronomers call such features mini-halos because they are smaller cousins of giant radio halos seen in some of the universe’s more turbulent clusters closer to Earth. But even “mini” is relative: compared with any single galaxy, the newfound halo is huge.



The signal is so faint that astronomers hadn’t detected one this far away until now. Engineers spread LOFAR’s 100,000 simple antennae across eight European countries and linked them using high-speed optical fibers. Together, they form one of the most sensitive low-frequency observatories ever built.



Only with such a powerful array could scientists tease the subtle glow out of a background filled with brighter, compact sources.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-black-holes-as-power-sources">Black holes as power sources</h2>



What pumps so much energy into the cluster’s intergalactic medium? Two main ideas dominate the discussion.



First, the central galaxies of most clusters host <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supermassive-black-holes-are-much-more-common-in-the-universe-than-believed/">supermassive black holes</a> that intermittently swallow gas and spew out jets of plasma traveling at near-light speeds. Over millions of years, these outflows can inject an enormous amount of energy into their surroundings.



If the jets in SpARCS1049 fired often enough, they might have filled the cluster with fast electrons, which then diffused outward to produce the observed haze.



The challenge for theorists is to explain how those particles retain enough energy while wandering hundreds of thousands of light-years from their birthplace.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-collisions-in-hot-cluster-gas">Collisions in hot cluster gas</h2>



The second possibility invokes cosmic ray hadrons - high-speed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/atomic-breakthrough-reveals-nucleus-that-loses-protons-to-survive/">protons</a> and heavier nuclei already sloshing around in the searing 100-million-degree gas.



When two such particles collide, the impact can create lighter particles, including electrons, that inherit a share of the kinetic energy. These electrons immediately begin to spiral in the cluster’s magnetic fields, giving off radio light.



This mechanism would operate wherever the gas is dense enough, meaning mini-halos could persist for billions of years without fresh input from black-hole jets.



Determining which process dominates is a hot topic because the answer affects how astronomers model everything from black-hole feedback to the way clusters shine in X-rays.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-radio-clues-from-long-ago">Radio clues from long ago</h2>



Before this discovery, every confirmed mini-halo sat in the comparatively nearby universe, less than five billion light-years away.



Doubling that record distance shows that clusters became “wired” with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/black-holes-capture-magnetic-fields-from-collapsing-stars/">magnetic fields</a> and relativistic particles remarkably soon after they formed. This newfound halo therefore offers a rare window onto the physical conditions inside young clusters.



Because the LOFAR data include multiple sub-bands, the team could measure how the halo’s brightness changes with frequency. That “radio spectrum” encodes information about the ages and energies of the electrons. It also reveals when and how they were accelerated.



By comparing the spectrum with those of younger halos, researchers can infer whether black-hole outbursts were more violent in the past or whether proton-proton collisions supplied most of the power.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-radio-clues-from-the-early-universe">Radio clues from the early universe</h2>



Extracting the halo from the LOFAR data required painstaking calibration to remove artifacts and foreground sources. Even so, the scientists suspect that many weaker halos lie just below the telescope’s current sensitivity.



The forthcoming <a href="https://www.skao.int/en">Square Kilometre Array</a> (SKA), slated to become the world’s largest radio observatory, will push that threshold far lower.



SKA will map distant halo shapes and probe their magnetic fields with unmatched resolution and collecting power. It may even capture them flickering as black holes cycle through active and dormant phases.



“We are just scratching the surface of how energetic the early universe really was,” Hlavacek-Larrondo said. “This discovery gives us a new window into how galaxy clusters grow and evolve, driven by both black holes and high-energy particle physics.”



For now, the mini-halo around SpARCS1049 stands as a spectacular signpost. It’s evidence that ten billion years ago, vast clouds of relativistic particles already crackled through the cosmic web, illuminating the universe’s darkness with a quiet radio glow.



A preprint of the study can be found on <a href="https://arxiv.org/html/2506.19901v1">arXiv</a>.



Image Credit: Chandra X-ray Center (X-ray: NASA/CXC/SAO; Optical: NASA/ESA/STScI; Radio: ASTRON/LOFAR; Image Processing: NASA/CXC/SAO/N. Wolk)



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Ancient radio signal just changed what we know about the early universe

When a team of astronomers working with the pan-European Low...

Anyone who has ever tossed and turned at night knows how much sleep matters. Stress, social distractions, and even the weather can disrupt our rest. And it turns out we’re not the only ones.



Orangutans - some of our closest living relatives - face similar challenges, and they’ve figured out a relatable solution: they nap.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tired-minds-and-busy-days">Tired minds and busy days</h2>



Life in the rainforest is no easy task for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orangutans-use-complex-vocal-patterns-found-in-human-language/">orangutans</a>. Every day involves travel, food gathering, social puzzles, and constant movement - mental and physical strain is inevitable.



“Moving through the canopy, finding food, solving problems, navigating social relationships; these are all tiring and cognitively demanding tasks,” said&nbsp;Alison Ashbury, the study’s first author. 



“When an orangutan doesn’t get enough sleep, it does what any sleep-deprived human might do: it climbs into bed, lies down, and takes a nap.”



Scientists from the <a href="https://www.ab.mpg.de/">Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior</a> (MPI-AB) and the University of Konstanz in Germany, together with collaborators at the Universitas Nasional in Indonesia, studied wild orangutans in the rainforests of Sumatra. 



The goal was to understand how these great apes manage their sleep in the wild and what that can teach us about the evolution of rest in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-group-cohesion-common-enemy-effect-do-not-kill-inside-their-species/">primates</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-monitoring-orangutan-bedtimes">Monitoring orangutan bedtimes</h2>



For over 14 years, the team collected behavioral data on 53 adult orangutans at the Suaq Balimbing Monitoring Station. They followed the animals through 455 days and nights, closely watching how and where they slept.



Each evening, adult orangutans build a sleeping “nest” high in the treetops. This nest acts as a bed, with branches woven together to form a secure platform. 



The orangutans even add leaves for a mattress and pillow. Mothers share nests with their nursing babies, but otherwise, adults sleep solo. At dawn, they leave the nest and begin the day.



“From our point of view on the ground, we usually can’t see orangutans at all in their night nests, but we can hear them rustling around, getting comfortable,” said Caroline Schuppli, the study’s senior author and a group leader at MPI-AB. “Eventually, everything goes quiet and still. And the reverse happens in the morning.”



The researchers measured the period of nighttime silence as a proxy for sleep. Although they couldn’t directly monitor brain activity, the length of this quiet period closely matched patterns of actual sleep observed in captive orangutans and wild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/baboons-walk-in-lines-just-to-stay-near-their-friends/">baboons</a>. On average, orangutans slept for nearly 13 hours each night.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-interrupts-orangutan-sleep">What interrupts orangutan sleep?</h2>



Several factors disrupted sleep. Orangutans had shorter sleep periods when they built their nests close to others and when nights were colder. Sleep was also reduced on days when they had traveled farther.



“We thought it was really interesting that just being near other orangutans when building a night nest was linked to shorter sleep periods,” said Ashbury. “Imagine you stay up late hanging out with your friends, or your roommate is snoring so loudly in the morning that you get up early. I think it’s a bit like that."



"They’re prioritizing being social over sleeping, or their sleep is being disrupted by others nearby, or even both.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-naps-after-sleepless-nights">Naps after sleepless nights</h2>



The team also explored how orangutans compensate for lost sleep. They found a consistent pattern: when orangutans had shorter nighttime sleep, they napped more during the day. In fact, for every hour less sleep the night before, they added 5 to 10 extra minutes of nap time the next day.



“For people, even a short nap can have significant restorative effects,” noted the researchers. “It’s possible that these naps are helping orangutans reset physiologically and cognitively after a poor night’s sleep, just like they do in humans.”



The orangutans used simple, quickly built day nests for these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-afternoon-naps-impact-our-health/">naps</a>. These nests took less than two minutes to construct, lacked many of the comfort features of night nests, and were used solely for short rest periods.



“Day nests are less sophisticated, have fewer comfort elements, and are made quicker than night nests,” said Schuppli. “But even so, when we’re able to see an orangutan resting in a day nest, we see that their bodies are relaxed and their eyes are closed. They really do appear to be sleeping.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-naps-and-brain-power">Naps and brain power</h2>



Scientists have long recognized the Suaq orangutans for their exceptional mental abilities. Their frequent napping habits may play a role in supporting this cognitive edge.



“Among all studied orangutan populations, the Suaq orangutans arguably exhibit the widest range of cognitively demanding behaviors,” said Schuppli, who also directs research at the site. 



“This may be linked to their relatively high propensity for daytime nest use. Either they need these high-quality naps to meet their cognitive demands, or their cognitive abilities can come about because they take high-quality naps in day nests so often.”



Another possible factor is their semi-solitary lifestyle. Orangutans don’t live in tight social groups, so they’re free to nap when they feel the need. 



The data showed that orangutans took at least one nap on 41% of observed days, and those naps averaged 76 minutes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-wild-sleep">Lessons from wild sleep</h2>



“Studying sleep in the wild, in the natural social and ecological conditions under which it evolved, is important to broadening our understanding of the evolutionary origins and the ultimate functions of sleep,” said Meg Crofoot, director at MPI-AB and a professor at the University of Konstanz. 



“Why did animals, from humans to primates to spiders to jellyfish, evolve to spend such large portions of their lives in this vulnerable unconscious state? If we’re going to answer this question, we need to bring sleep research out of the lab and into the field. Studies such as this one contribute to that effort.”



Orangutans napping in leafy nests may seem like a simple sight. But their resting habits may hold deeper clues about sleep’s role in intelligence, social life, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/survival-of-the-fittest-study-suggests-its-more-a-game-of-chance/">survival</a> - for them and for us.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0960982225006694">Current Biology</a>.



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Orangutans manage sleep much like humans do

Anyone who has ever tossed and turned at night knows...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



—–



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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