Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Many warming experiments may be painting an incomplete picture. Michigan State University researchers found that studies focusing only on summer heatwaves could be underestimate the effects of climate change. 



Plants live through winter too. Ignoring cold-season warming misses key processes like root growth and nutrient cycling.



Their latest global meta-analysis, published in Global Change Biology, analyzed 126 open-top chamber experiments. These covered 13 plant traits across varied ecosystems, from Antarctica to Michigan. 



The massive dataset helped identify how traits like biomass, nitrogen content, and flowering respond to warming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-summer-only-experiments-fall-short">Summer-only experiments fall short</h2>



“This important global synthesis of warming effects on plants across many ecosystems can be used to inform models of future impacts,” said Phoebe Zarnetske, professor in MSU’s <a href="https://integrativebiology.natsci.msu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Integrative Biology</a> department.



Year-round warming triggered stronger changes. Aboveground biomass, fruit weight, and leaf growth all showed greater increases. In contrast, seasonal (summer-only) warming produced muted effects. 



For instance, aboveground nitrogen content only dropped significantly under year-round warming.



Experiments that ignore winter might miss crucial ecological shifts. The study suggests that many past experiments may underpredict plant responses to climate warming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warming-changes-plant-traits">Warming changes plant traits</h2>



The researchers categorized plant responses into growth, reproductive, chemical, and phenological traits. Some responses were predictable. 



Warming increased leaf growth (Hedges’ g = 0.54) and belowground biomass (g = 0.60). It also led to earlier spring phenophases, though the effect was marginal (g = −0.12).



However, not all changes were positive. Aboveground nitrogen content fell (g = −0.41), likely due to nutrient dilution effects. Fruit weight increased with latitude, showing stronger <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-may-trigger-rapid-release-of-soil-carbon/">responses</a> at colder sites.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-colder-areas-show-bigger-plant-changes">Colder areas show bigger plant changes</h2>



As latitude increased, reproductive traits became more sensitive. Number of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/experts-say-this-is-the-best-fruit-to-eat-for-a-healthier-liver/">fruits</a> and fruit weight rose significantly in higher latitudes. Spring timing advanced more sharply near the poles.



Plants near their northern range edges also grew more under warming. These range-edge plants likely experience more variable climates. 



That variability may help them adapt quickly. Species farther from the edge showed smaller or even negative changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warming-responses-stabilize-over-time">Warming responses stabilize over time</h2>



Short-term experiments produced stronger trait shifts. Over time, communities may adjust, leading to smaller visible effects. For example, flower lifespan and fruit number showed weaker changes in longer experiments.



This pattern suggests plastic responses may fade or stabilize. Year-round warming more accurately mimics future conditions, especially with expected winter temperature increases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-all-species-react-alike">Not all species react alike</h2>



Growth forms made a big difference. Graminoids, like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-lawn-plays-a-key-role-in-absorbing-urban-carbon-emissions/">grasses</a>, responded to 9 of 13 traits. Shrubs followed, showing warming-related boosts in percent cover and fruit output.



Bryophytes and lichens, on the other hand, declined under warming. Their percent cover dropped, while vascular plants thrived. This contrast could offset community-level trends, masking specific plant changes in smaller species.



“Non-native species may benefit from future climate conditions,” the study noted. Yet, research on these species remains limited. Data on non-native responses were often too sparse for solid conclusions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warming-studies-need-more-plants">Warming studies need more plants</h2>



Phoebe Zarnetske’s SpaCE Lab contributed one of the 126 datasets. Their long-term warming plots at the Kellogg Biological Station captured seasonal changes often missed by others.



“This study is unique in terms of the size of the dataset we collected,” said Kara Dobson. “It brings together data from experiments across the globe and from all continents, including Antarctica.”



The team recommends a broader inclusion of species types. Non-native and non-vascular plants need more attention. Without them, predictions will remain skewed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-requires-better-models">Climate change requires better models</h2>



Many past warming studies looked only at one context, such as summer, certain species, or specific regions. This analysis shows that no single trait tells the whole story.



Warming affects plants differently depending on latitude, plant type, and experiment duration. The good news is that coordinated global efforts, like the LTER and WaRM networks, are beginning to close these gaps.



Plants are not passive players. They adapt, decline, or thrive, sometimes all at once. But to understand these shifts, we need to look through all seasons and across all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-environmental-stress-strengthens-ecosystems/">ecosystems</a>. Not just when the sun shines brightest.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.70306" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Change Biology</a>.



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Warming winters may reshape global plant communities

Many warming experiments may be painting an incomplete picture. Michigan...

Pets can’t tell you when they’re too hot, dizzy, or nauseous - or when something just feels off. As summer heats up, it’s up to you to recognize the signs and act fast if your pet shows symptoms of heatstroke.



Heatstroke is a medical emergency. It occurs when a pet's body overheats and is unable to cool down on itself. If you even suspect your pet may have it, you need to get in touch with your usual vet or an emergency animal health service immediately.



Researchers have been studying the <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5800390/">impacts of heatstroke</a> on animals, and their conclusions are definite: heatstroke can harm just about every system in your pet's body.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-exactly-is-heatstroke">What exactly is heatstroke?</h2>



Heatstroke occurs when your dog's body temperature gets too high - over 105.8°F. This may be caused by heat, lack of ventilation, excessive exercise, or being left inside a hot area such as a car or garage.



Some of the earliest symptoms of heatstroke are excessive drooling, heavy panting, and vomiting or dry heaving. You may find that your pet's body is unusually hot, particularly around the head. 



They may begin to stumble, move in an uncoordinated manner, or collapse. In more severe cases, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-detect-epileptic-seizures/">seizures</a> can happen, and some animals become unable to stand or walk at all.



If untreated, that the elevated temperature starts to disrupt essential functions such as circulation and digestion. It can spiral rapidly into organ damage - impacting the liver, kidneys, and digestive system - and can result in coma or death if left unaddressed in a timely manner.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-act-fast-don-t-wait">Act fast, don't wait</h2>



Start by getting your pet out of the heat. Bring them inside or move them to a shady area. Then, get them to a veterinarian immediately. Every second counts.



While preparing to leave, you can begin to gently cool them down. Wet towels with room temperature or cool (not cold) water and place them over your pet’s head and body. 



Keep air circulating by placing them in front of a fan or under air conditioning if available. The goal is to gradually reduce their temperature - not to shock the system.



Do not let active cooling efforts delay travel to your nearest veterinary support. Never submerge your pet in ice or cold water, as this can lead to shock.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-vets-treat-heatstroke">How vets treat heatstroke</h2>



Once at the clinic, your vet will assess the situation and begin treatment right away. In many cases, they will administer oxygen and start actively cooling the pet. 



They may provide fluids either intravenously or under the skin, depending on the severity of dehydration.



Some pets need medications to support their heart or gastrointestinal function. Vets will also run lab work to evaluate internal damage and may need to hospitalize the animal for monitoring and recovery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-pets-get-heatstroke">How pets get heatstroke</h2>



Heatstroke doesn’t necessarily occur in extreme situations. It’s usually a result of a combination of heat, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humidity-increases-urban-heat-stress/">humidity</a>, poor ventilation, and insufficient shade or access to drinking water. 



Cars are particularly perilous - even when the weather is not hot. The temperature in a parked car can quickly rise, making it a deadly trap.



Even though <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/expert-tips-how-to-keep-your-dog-safe-from-heatstroke-this-summer/">dogs</a> are more commonly afflicted, cats are also vulnerable. Cats don’t cool themselves with panting like dogs, so when they begin to pant, it means they're in distress. Stress or heat might be the reason.



Some animals are more susceptible than others. Short-snouted dogs - such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/english-bulldogs-are-suffering-from-poor-breeding-practices/">bulldogs</a> or pugs - will usually struggle more with body temperature control. Thickly coated pets, higher-weight pets, or pets who aren’t accustomed to warm temperatures are also at increased risk.



In a few situations, exertional heatstroke can occur in dogs from exercise, even on a cool day, if they have not acclimatized to the heat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prevention-starts-with-you">Prevention starts with you</h2>



Prevention of heatstroke is the simplest way to guard your pet. Always ensure your pet can get to shade and loads of fresh water if outside. Never leave them in a parked car for even a few minutes. 



If you’re walking your dog, try to do so early in the morning or later in the evening when the sun is less intense. When the weather is warm, keep things physically light and try to stay away from heavy exercise, particularly with pets that are most susceptible.



Our pets rely on us to protect them. Understanding how heatstroke occurs, how to recognize it, and what to do can be the difference between life and death.



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What every pet owner needs to know about heatstroke

Pets can’t tell you when they’re too hot, dizzy, or...

The Paleocene period, which followed the extinction of the dinosaurs, left behind many fossil traces across North America. Among these remnants, a remarkable discovery has emerged from what is now Big Bend National Park in Texas. 



Paleontologists from the University of Kansas (<a href="https://www.ku.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">KU</a>) have identified and named a previously unknown species of ancient near-marsupial, calling it Swaindelphys solastella.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-marsupial-relative-in-texas">Marsupial relative in Texas</h2>



This small but significant creature lived millions of years ago during a time when the region was far different from today - lush, tropical, and covered with flowing rivers. 



Despite the richness of the fossil record from that era, Swaindelphys solastella stood out due to its unusual size and unique <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-finally-confirm-species-identity-of-the-dragon-man-fossil-skull-denisovan/">features</a>.



While most Swaindelphys were small, this one was the size of a modern hedgehog - giant for its kind. The research team, led by doctoral student Kristen Miller, analyzed old fossil collections to reach this conclusion. 



The fossils were gathered decades ago by Judith Schiebout from Louisiana State University (<a href="https://www.lsu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LSU</a>) but had never been fully examined.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-solving-a-marsupial-mystery">Solving a marsupial mystery</h2>



Miller focused on molars that caught her attention, comparing them to those of many metatherian species - extinct relatives of marsupials. 



The researchers initially thought the fossils were either leftovers from Cretaceous-era survivors or early members of a later Eocene group. Miller’s deep analysis proved both theories wrong.



“Not only are they the largest metatherians from this time period, but they’re also the youngest and located at the most southern latitude,” Miller said.



Her adviser Chris Beard, a senior curator at KU, highlighted the importance of this find. He said that while Big Bend’s Paleocene mammals have been known for decades, this discovery sheds light on the larger ones often overlooked.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-into-primate-evolution">Insights into primate evolution</h2>



Beard also connected this marsupial’s story to early <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-find-a-47-million-year-old-cicada-fossil-with-preserved-wing-details/">primates</a>. The Leakey Foundation, which supported the research, saw the relevance. 



“These marsupials are probably ecological analogues of early primates,” Beard said. That connection might help scientists better understand how early primates behaved and spread.



<a href="https://leakeyfoundation.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Leakey Foundation</a> usually funds research in Africa but found this project compelling. 



“When the Leakey Foundation found out we wanted to do this kind of research, they said, ‘This sounds interesting,’” Beard explained. That led to a deeper look into fossils held by the <a href="https://www.utexas.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Texas at Austin</a> and LSU.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossils-from-a-warmer-texas">Fossils from a warmer Texas</h2>



Miller noted the climate differences. “It would have been warmer than it is now - probably more on the tropical side,” she said. 



Unlike today’s desert terrain, Paleocene Texas had vegetation, streams, and rivers. The fossils were found in fluvial deposits, left behind by ancient river systems.



The team compared fossils from other places like Wyoming and Alberta, Canada. Some species found in Texas didn’t quite fit the timeline. Miller called them “anachronistic.” 



That made them question the accuracy of fossil dating in southern regions, compared to places like the Bighorn Basin in Wyoming, where the fossil record is much clearer.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-animals-could-live">Where animals could live</h2>



To explain this, the KU researchers studied the region’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-modern-fossils-will-be-the-most-surprising-to-future-explorers/">ancient</a> topography. With help from the Department of Geology, they proposed that a high point in southern Wyoming might have divided marsupial species.



“North of that ancient divide, we see the classic Bighorn Basin taxa in their expected time periods,” Miller said. “But south of that, in river drainages that originate in the central Rockies and areas farther to the south, things start to go a little wacky.”



This divide might explain why some species stayed north while others lived only in the south. Physical features like rivers or mountains may have acted as barriers to migration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-texas-marsupial-and-mammal-evolution">Texas marsupial and mammal evolution</h2>



Miller plans to continue testing this idea. She’s looking to confirm whether species differences on either side of the divide are statistically significant. 



“That’s our working hypothesis, and it’s something I’ll be looking into later in my dissertation,” she said.



Through careful fossil analysis, unexpected connections, and geological insights, the story of&nbsp;Swaindelphys solastella offers a fresh glimpse into mammal evolution. 



And true to Texas style, this ancient creature proved that even marsupials could go big.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02724634.2025.2500501" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>.



Image Credit: Kristen Tietjen



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Surprising marsupial relative lived in ancient Texas

The Paleocene period, which followed the extinction of the dinosaurs,...

Some imported seafoods on American dinner plates are carrying an invisible threat: bacteria equipped with genes that can disarm a high-priority, critically important antibiotic called colistin.



Colistin is reserved for life-threatening infections that have outwitted every other drug. When it fails, clinicians have nowhere left to turn.



In research presented at <a href="https://asm.org/events/asm-microbe/home">ASM Microbe 2025</a>, scientists at the <a href="https://www.uga.edu/">University of Georgia</a> found colistin-resistance genes - known as mcr - in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrimp-crisis-alarming-virus-threatens-global-seafood-supplies/">shrimp</a> and scallops purchased from eight Atlanta-area grocery stores.



It is the first evidence that U.S. seafood shoppers are unknowingly buying products harboring bacteria capable of shrugging off one of medicine’s last lines of defense.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seafood-s-global-supply-chain">Seafood's global supply chain</h2>



Lead investigator Issmat Kassem has spent two decades tracing the global spread of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genes-for-antibiotic-resistance-lurk-in-our-wastewater-and-streams/">antimicrobial resistance</a>.



Sampling from local supermarkets, his team ran genetic screens on bacteria living in the imported seafood including shellfish and uncovered multiple plasmids - circular snippets of DNA - that carry mcr.



These plasmids make resistance “mobile,” because the genes can hop from one bacterium to another.



When Kassem talks about the popular appeal of shellfish, he puts it simply: “We love our seafood.”



And most Americans do: about 90 percent of the shrimp consumed in the United States are raised overseas. Many exporting nations still rely on antibiotics, including colistin, to treat or fatten farmed animals.



That practice creates selective pressure for resistant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-bacteria-breathe-by-creating-electricity/">bacteria</a>, which can end up in packing plants, shipping containers, and ultimately U.S. kitchens.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-last-resort-antibiotic">The last-resort antibiotic</h2>



Colistin debuted in the 1950s, then largely disappeared from U.S. hospitals because it can scar kidneys and nerves. Its toxic profile forced doctors to shelve it in favor of safer drugs.



That calculus reversed when so-called “superbugs” evolved resistance to nearly every other antibiotic. Colistin returned as a last resort, but its revival was overshadowed by news in 2016 of the first plasmid-borne mcr gene.



Until then, many scientists assumed colistin resistance evolved only through slow, vertical inheritance. The plasmid discovery rewrote that script, proving resistance could not jump between different bacteria - an assumption Kassem now calls dangerously outdated.



Today, at least ten mcr variants have been catalogued worldwide, and Kassem’s new findings reveal a pathway for them to enter U.S. ecosystems.



In earlier work, his lab found the same plasmids and bacterial hosts in Georgia wastewater. The match confirms that agricultural practices abroad can shape microbial landscapes at home.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-supply-chain-problem"><a></a>A supply chain problem</h2>



Although federal inspectors test imported seafood for chemical residues and visible pathogens, they do not routinely test for resistance genes.



“The bacteria that were carrying colistin resistance genes are not normally screened,” Kassem warned. Standard checks, designed decades ago, fail to catch this genomic stowaway.



“Our food is sourced from different places,” he said. “If you go out to lunch today, your plate might have ingredients from six, seven, eight countries.” These complex supply chains enable a hidden circulation of microbes.



“Some countries do not have strict regulations for using antibiotics in food animal production, so imported food can be a vehicle for transmission of resistance.”



Domestic aquaculture operations appear free of mcr for now, suggesting U.S. oversight can be effective when consistently applied.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-no-borders-for-seafood-superbugs">No borders for seafood "superbugs"</h2>



Resistance that travels by plasmid does not respect borders. “We live in a very connected world,” Kassem emphasized.



“We move a lot, we travel a lot, our food travels, and we are going to spread whatever emerges, even across national borders.” In other words, the United States cannot isolate itself from a problem embedded in international trade.



That reality underscores the need for better surveillance. “It’s important to invest in monitoring systems and expand them and collaborate, especially on the global level, on the issue of antimicrobial resistance,” Kassem said.



Enhanced screening at ports of entry could catch resistant bacteria before they enter the consumer market. Equally critical is global cooperation to reduce unnecessary antibiotic use in aquaculture and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacteria-in-livestock-are-major-drivers-of-antibiotic-resistance/">livestock</a> production.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-risks-in-the-kitchen">Hidden risks in the kitchen</h2>



Cooking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shellfish-waste-can-be-used-for-fresher-safer-produce/">shellfish</a> thoroughly destroys live bacteria, but plasmid DNA may survive and flow into wastewater systems.



Consumers should handle raw imported seafood with the same caution they would raw poultry. This includes washing hands, sanitizing cutting boards, and avoiding cross-contamination with ready-to-eat foods. Yet individual diligence cannot solve a systemic problem.



The study shows that antimicrobial resistance is no longer confined to hospitals or far-off farms - it can ride quietly into suburban kitchens on ice. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-global-health-warning">A global health warning</h2>



If policymakers act swiftly, the United States can reinforce its defenses by updating import regulations and requiring genetic testing for high-risk resistance genes. It can also partner with exporting nations to curb antibiotic misuse.



For now, Kassem’s message is a wake-up call. Colistin remains a critical, if imperfect, guardian against multidrug-resistant infections.



Allowing its defenses to erode - even incrementally - brings the world closer to a post-antibiotic era where routine surgeries and minor wounds become life-threatening. 



The microbes in our seafood are sending a warning. Whether we heed it will shape the future of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antibiotic-resistance-could-cause-a-health-crisis-globally/">global health</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.asm.org/journal/msphere">mSphere</a>.



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Imported seafood is spreading antibiotic resistance genes

Some imported seafoods on American dinner plates are carrying an...

Scientists recently discovered that certain changes in the roots of teeth can reveal whether someone is a current or former smoker. 



This breakthrough came from a team at <a href="https://www.northumbria.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northumbria University</a>, working alongside scientists from the <a href="https://le.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leicester</a>. Their findings could offer powerful tools for both forensic science and archaeology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-teeth-can-tell-us">What teeth can tell us</h2>



Your teeth aren’t just for chewing. They carry a hidden timeline of your life. Teeth are made up of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tooth-enamel-holds-a-record-of-human-health/">enamel</a>, dentine, and cementum. 



<a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/cementum" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cementum</a> is the hard tissue that coats the tooth’s root, and it grows in layers - similar to the way trees deposit annual growth rings. Every year, a new layer forms.



The research team originally set out to use these cementum rings to estimate a person’s age. That kind of analysis can help identify victims of disasters when DNA samples aren’t available.



“By looking at <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-rings-reveal-the-carbon-storage-capacity-of-a-forest/">growth rings</a> in the teeth, we can also estimate a person’s age when the tooth was removed, or when they died,” said Dr. Ed Schwalbe, coauthor and professor in the Faculty of Health and Life Sciences at Northumbria University.



“Together, this information could help identify unknown individuals - such as disaster victims or those buried in mass graves - and offer new tools for forensic and historical investigations,” he confirmed.



But they also found something unexpected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smoking-marks-teeth-as-well">Smoking marks teeth as well</h2>



They examined 88 teeth from both living dental patients and archaeological remains. In many cases, the cementum rings weren’t smooth and regular. Some had disruptions - changes in thickness or shape that didn’t line up with the typical growth pattern.



They looked more closely. These disruptions weren’t random. They were consistently found in the teeth of people who smoked or used to smoke.



“Our research shows that it’s possible to tell if someone was a smoker just by examining their teeth,” said Dr. Schwalbe. 



“We found that the regular annual deposition of rings was disrupted for some individuals and realised that these disruptions were associated with current or ex-smokers, but were very rare in non-smokers.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-smoking-s-undeniable-signature-in-teeth">Smoking's undeniable signature in teeth</h2>



In teeth from former <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/smokers-have-weaker-hearts-that-pump-less-blood/">smokers</a>, the team saw thick layers of cementum built up over disrupted rings. They believe that when someone quits <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quitting-smoking-at-any-age-brings-big-and-immediate-health-benefits/">smoking</a>, the cementum begins to return to a normal growth pattern, forming denser layers on top of the older, damaged ones. 



That may explain why ex-smokers’ teeth showed thicker cementum than was found in the teeth of current smokers.



The numbers were striking. Disrupted cementum appeared in 70% of ex-smokers and 33% of current smokers - but in only 3% of people who had never smoked.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/smoking_teeth-stains-damage_cementum-rings_credit-NorthumbriaU_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/smoking_teeth-stains-damage_cementum-rings_credit-NorthumbriaU_1s.webp" alt="Example of smoking damage in an archaeological tooth. The magnified image shows variations in the tooth's cementum rings from smoking. Credit: Northumbria University" class="wp-image-1975125"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Example of smoking damage in an archaeological tooth. The magnified image shows variations in the tooth's cementum rings from smoking. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Northumbria University</figcaption></figure>



“We compared the cemental deposition of smokers, ex-smokers and non-smokers visually and statistically to identify irregularities that were potentially connected to smoking activity,” said Dr. Valentina Perrone, lead author on the study. 



“We found that individuals with a history of smoking - whether as a current or former smoker – were significantly more likely to have disruption to their cementum than those who did not."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quitting-doesn-t-remove-smoking-markers">Quitting doesn't remove smoking markers</h2>



The study included 46 living participants who needed teeth extracted as part of routine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brushing-your-teeth-regularly-can-prevent-deadly-liver-disease/">dental care</a>. In one standout case, a participant’s tooth showed damage estimated to have occurred between the ages of 22 and 41.



When the researchers reviewed the patient’s history, they found that the individual, who was aged 58 at the time, had smoked between the ages of 28 and 38.



That matched the evidence exactly.



“Smoking is known to have a systemic impact on the body and numerous studies have highlighted the correlation between smoking, <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/periodontitis/symptoms-causes/syc-20354473" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">periodontitis</a> and tooth loss,” Dr Perrone added. 



“This study shows, for the first time, the biological record of smoking-related oral health damage within the dental structure.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-echoes-from-past-centuries">Echoes from past centuries</h2>



To test whether these markers of smoking could be found in much older remains, the team worked with Dr. Sarah Inskip, UKRI Fellow at the University of Leicester’s School of Archaeology and Ancient History. They examined 18 archaeological teeth dating from between 1776 and 1890.



Some of these teeth came from individuals known to have smoked. Signs included discoloration and even physical notches worn into the teeth by clay pipes.



Even after centuries underground, the cementum in those teeth still bore the same disruption patterns as found in the teeth of modern smokers.



“This could help us learn more about people’s lifestyles in the past, especially in archaeological studies where patterns of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tobacco-bans-could-help-prevent-1-2-million-lung-cancer-deaths/">tobacco</a> use can reveal important cultural insights,” said Dr. Schwalbe.



“The identification of 'smoking damage' in archaeological teeth opens up further avenues to understand how the long-term consumption of tobacco in populations has affected our health through time,” Dr. Inskip added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-your-teeth-don-t-lie">Your teeth don’t lie</h2>



These findings show that even if someone quits smoking, their teeth may carry the evidence for life. 



That insight has major implications - not just for understanding personal health histories, but for reconstructing the lives of people long gone.



The next time you smile, remember that your teeth are holding a history of some of your lifestyle choices.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0323812" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



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Smoking leaves permanent traces in teeth deep below the surface - a new forensic

Scientists recently discovered that certain changes in the roots of...

Ever found yourself glued to a playground spat, wondering what started it? You’re not alone. This common habit reflects our natural social curiosity, a deeply rooted instinct we share with chimpanzees.



A new cross-species study shows both children and chimpanzees enjoy watching <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-pressure-alters-how-you-make-decisions/">social</a> scenes more than solo performances, even when there’s something to lose.



Researchers found that curiosity about social life isn’t uniquely human. It likely helped our species build trust, choose allies, and survive in group settings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-young-minds-and-social-curiosity">Young minds and social curiosity</h2>



The study tested 94 children aged 4 to 6 and 27 chimpanzees living at the Ngamba Island Chimpanzee Sanctuary. 



The researchers used two boxes, each showing a video: one with a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-media-pressure-is-straining-teen-friendships/">social</a> interaction (like grooming, playing, or arguing), and another with an individual acting alone. Both kids and chimps spent more time with the social videos.



Statistical models showed strong effects. Chimpanzees watched social videos an average of 6.97 seconds, compared to 4.19 seconds for nonsocial ones. 



Kids showed an even stronger pattern, watching social videos for about 14 seconds versus just under 10 for the nonsocial ones.



Study lead author Dr. Laura Simone Lewis is an expert in developmental and evolutionary psychology at the <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California in Santa Barbara</a>.



“After years of observing both children and chimpanzees sometimes jumping up in the middle of research games to observe their peers, the research team was inspired to pursue a new social <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-activity-may-delay-the-onset-of-dementia-by-years/">avenue</a> in the blossoming field of curiosity research,” noted Dr. Lewis. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-info-over-rewards">Social info over rewards</h2>



The second experiment tested if participants would pay a cost for curiosity. For chimps, that meant giving up jackfruit seeds. For kids, it meant skipping a chance to earn marbles. Some, especially younger kids and male chimps, chose the social videos over the rewards.



The study showed 4-year-old children stayed longer at the video box in the social condition, while older children preferred the reward. Male chimps spent over 7.6 seconds watching the social video, significantly more than in the no-info condition.



“These findings mean social curiosity emerges early in human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gen-ai-and-social-media-divert-peoples-attention-from-climate-crisis/">development</a> and is shared with one of our closest living cousins, the chimpanzees,” said Dr. Lewis. 



“Our strong interest in the lives of others, think gossip magazines and celebrity shows, seems to have deep evolutionary roots in our great ape lineage.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-negative-or-positive-age-and-gender-matter">Negative or positive? Age and gender matter</h2>



In the third experiment, researchers tested interest in positive versus negative social content. Positive videos showed playing and grooming. Negative ones featured arguments or crying.



Chimpanzees didn’t care much either way. But in children, patterns emerged with age and gender. 



Younger boys watched more positive interactions. Older boys preferred negative ones. Girls, by contrast, leaned more toward positive content as they aged.



“This study tells us that curiosity about what others are doing, what you might call being a bit nosey, starts young and runs deep," noted study co-author Dr. Esther Herrmann.



"It’s probably something that helps not only us but also our closest living relatives to survive and thrive in complex social groups."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-curiosity-helps-us-survive">Social curiosity helps us survive</h2>



Social curiosity has clear benefits. It helps identify allies, threats, and opportunities without risk. Watching others helps us learn who to trust, what behaviors lead to success, and how relationships shift.



Children and chimps weren’t just seeking stimulation. They were seeking information. One possible reason is that a video with two agents contains more data than a solo video. Observers learn about both individuals and their relationship.



The study also suggests that male chimps may be more attentive to conflicts because they initiate the majority of them in the wild. Female chimps, who generally avoid conflict, showed less interest in aggressive videos.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-comes-next">What comes next?</h2>



The researchers suggest testing curiosity across different cultures, ages, and other great apes like bonobos or orangutans. 



Future work could explore how social roles, friendships, or dominance influence curiosity. Larger samples of young chimpanzees could also help compare developmental trajectories.



Curiosity is a tool that helps us build friendships, avoid danger, and understand the social web we live in. Whether at a zoo or on a playground, curiosity serves the same goal: making sense of the world through others.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2024.2242" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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Social curiosity starts young and helps us survive

Ever found yourself glued to a playground spat, wondering what...

As Earth’s temperature rises, nature begins to shift. Butterflies, along with many animals and plants, now move north into places that were once too cold. Scientists are closely watching this trend to see how evolution shapes these movements - and where it might fall short.



A new study focuses on wall brown butterflies, which offer big clues about the role of evolution in climate-driven movement. Researchers wanted to know how much change the species could manage on its own



The research reveals that while evolution helps, it has its limits. Temperature remains a gatekeeper, keeping some places off-limits despite warming trends.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butterflies-adapt-as-they-move-north">Butterflies adapt as they move north</h2>



The wall brown (Lasiommata megera) is a grassland <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterfly-hovering-technique-could-revolutionize-drone-design/">butterfly</a> found across Europe. In recent decades, it has become more common in parts of Scandinavia. Yet it has declined sharply in Western Europe. 



The butterfly's success in the north is not random. It has changed its life cycle to suit longer days and different seasonal patterns.



Mats Ittonen is one of the lead authors of the study, which was conducted by researchers in the Department of Zoology at <a href="https://www.su.se/english/education">Stockholm University</a>.



“Our results show that even though the butterflies adapt their life cycle as they move northwards, there are limits that evolution cannot easily overcome,” said Ittonen. 



Evolution seems to help the species match new environments. In particular, it allows the butterfly to respond to cues that remain steady, like the number of daylight hours. 



These cues are important because they guide dormancy and development. Still, not everything can change easily. Winters in northern regions continue to block further movement.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-does-evolution-help-butterflies-survive">Does evolution help butterflies survive?</h2>



To explore how the wall brown has changed over time, the researchers carried out detailed field experiments. They collected butterflies from both southern and northern parts of Sweden.



The southern group came from Skåne county. The northern group came from Södermanland and Uppland counties. Then, they placed the butterflies in cages in three places: Skåne, Södermanland, and southern Dalarna.



The goal was to see how each group fared when exposed to identical environmental conditions. 



Dalarna sits just beyond the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-learn-about-butterflies-day-an-enchanting-world-awaits/">species</a>’ current northern range. If butterflies from northern populations could survive there, it would suggest they had evolved better survival traits. The study looked at growth rate, timing of winter dormancy, and survival through the cold months.



“We wanted to know whether traits like faster growth, properly timed winter dormancy, and improved winter survival have evolved in northern butterflies, traits that could help them establish even further north,” said Professor Karl Gotthard.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-improved-some-butterfly-traits">Evolution improved some butterfly traits</h2>



The findings showed that northern caterpillars did indeed grow faster. Summers are shorter in higher latitudes, so a quicker life cycle helps. They also entered dormancy at the right time. 



But these advantages did not translate into long-term survival. When winter came, the caterpillars in Dalarna struggled. Most did not make it.



The researchers concluded that even though evolution had helped improve some of the butterfly's traits, it had not yet solved the problem of cold resistance. 



Insects need more than just good timing and growth to thrive through northern winters. Without <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/butterfly-migration-habits-are-not-determined-by-their-dna/">traits</a> that guard against extreme cold, they simply cannot expand further.



“These kinds of limits are important to recognize if we want to predict how far north other species, including pests and disease vectors, will be able to move in a future climate,” said Professor Gotthard.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-reality-of-environmental-pressures">The reality of environmental pressures</h2>



This study reveals something important about climate adaptation. Evolution can move quickly in insects, but it doesn’t always improve the right traits. 



Speed and timing matter, but without the ability to survive freezing temperatures, further expansion becomes impossible. Warmer summers help, but they do not guarantee success unless winters also become milder.



The butterflies serve as a reminder that not all environmental pressures can be overcome easily. Natural selection works with what’s available. 



If key genes for cold tolerance are rare or slow to spread, progress will stall. That seems to be the case with the wall brown butterfly. It has changed, but not enough.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-other-species">What this means for other species</h2>



Many insect species have shifted their ranges in the past few decades. Sweden, in particular, has seen a steady rise in insect diversity further north. But each species carries its own set of traits and limits. What works for one may not work for another.



“The wall brown is far from alone. Many other insect species have also expanded northward over the past few decades, both in Sweden and elsewhere," said Ittonen.



"Understanding both which traits evolve and which ones actually set the limits for where species can live is essential for predicting the future of ecosystems and biodiversity in a warming world."



If winters remain harsh, many species will hit similar boundaries. Their success will depend not just on temperature trends, but on how fast and in what direction evolution works. 



Predicting this will require close studies like this one, where fieldwork meets biology to trace nature’s next move.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-watching-the-edges-of-change">Watching the edges of change</h2>



The story of evolution in wall brown butterflies shows how nature reacts to climate change in small, careful steps. Evolution offers a path forward, but it is not a magic key. Cold winters still act as a wall. 



As climate change continues, scientists must ask not only if species can adapt, but whether those adaptations come in time.



For the wall brown and many others, survival at the edge depends not just on warming trends but also on biological timing, hidden traits, and chance. 



The cold sets a limit. And evolution, though powerful, sometimes stops short of breaking through.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2418392122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Butterflies can adapt quickly - but evolution has its limits

As Earth’s temperature rises, nature begins to shift. Butterflies, along...

Scientists have found that a common parasite might have a bigger impact on brain function than we previously realized - even when it infects only a few cells.



Most people who carry the parasite <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parasite-makes-infected-people-look-more-attractive/">Toxoplasma gondii</a> never even realize. It can hide in the brain for years without causing any symptoms.



A new study from researchers at the University of California, Riverside sheds light on how this microscopic intruder messes with the brain’s communication system. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-parasite-does-in-brain-cells">What the parasite does in brain cells</h2>



Toxoplasma gondii is able to infect almost any <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mammals-and-birds-became-warm-blooded-after-surviving-a-mass-extinction/">warm-blooded</a> animal, including humans. It tends to settle in the brain, where it forms long-lasting cysts inside neurons. Once there, it can stay dormant for decades.



Using both mouse models and human cells, the researchers found that infected neurons release fewer extracellular vesicles - small packets used by cells to pass information. This breakdown in communication can have ripple effects throughout the brain.



Emma H. Wilson, a professor of biomedical sciences in the <a href="https://medschool.ucr.edu/">UC Riverside School of Medicine,</a> led the research team. 



“We found this disruption in EV signaling can interfere with how neurons and glial cells, especially astrocytes, maintain a healthy brain environment,” said Professor Wilson. “Even a handful of infected neurons can shift the brain’s neurochemical balance."



"This suggests that communication between neurons and supporting glial cells is not only critical, but also vulnerable to hijacking by parasites.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-common-infection-with-hidden-risks">A common infection with hidden risks</h2>



About 10–30% of people in the U.S. are estimated to be infected with Toxoplasma gondii. The parasite is usually picked up from eating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worrying-levels-of-antibiotic-resistance-found-in-uncooked-meats/">undercooked meat</a> or contact with cat feces.



While a healthy immune system keeps it in check, it can become dangerous in people with weakened immunity, such as those undergoing chemotherapy or living with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetic-variant-linked-to-both-covid-risk-and-hiv-protection/">HIV</a>.



Current tests can only show if someone has been exposed by detecting antibodies. They can’t tell if the parasite is still in the brain or whether it’s affecting brain health.



According to Professor Wilson, the research opens the door to using EVs as biomarkers, which can be isolated from blood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-brain-chemistry-breaks-down">When brain chemistry breaks down</h2>



Professor Wilson explained that in healthy mouse brains, astrocytes help keep neurotransmitters like glutamate in balance, preventing neurons from becoming overexcited.



But when Toxoplasma gondii infects neurons and disrupts their EV signaling, that balance is lost. Glutamate levels rise, which can lead to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-19-is-more-likely-to-cause-seizures-than-the-flu/">seizures</a>, neural damage, or changes in brain connectivity.



“The parasite may play a larger role in neurological and behavioral conditions than we previously thought,” said Professor Wilson.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-blood-clues-and-future-treatments">Blood clues and future treatments</h2>



The research team is now analyzing human blood samples to search for EVs that could signal a Toxoplasma gondii brain infection.



They are also working to understand how glial cells sense and respond to parasite proteins. This knowledge could one day lead to new treatments - or even a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/universal-influenza-vaccine-could-offer-lifetime-immunity/">vaccine</a>.



“Our brains have built-in defenses that may recognize and respond to neurons infected by Toxoplasma gondii,” noted Professor Wilson. “If we can learn how to support or enhance that process, we may be able to better protect people, especially the most vulnerable.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-the-public">What this means for the public</h2>



Despite its potential effects, the parasite is often misunderstood. “There’s no need to avoid someone who is infected; most people live their entire lives without symptoms,” said Professor Wilson.



 “Pregnant individuals should be cautious as the parasite can cause serious birth defects if contracted for the first time during pregnancy."



The most effective prevention is proper food handling and hygiene. "Cook meat thoroughly, wash vegetables, and always wash your hands after handling cat litter, especially from young cats, which are more likely to shed the parasite."



This research doesn’t mean everyone needs to panic. But it does mean we should take this tiny parasite seriously - not just because of what it does when active, but because of how it quietly changes the way brain cells talk to each other. 



Understanding those changes may eventually help protect millions of people living with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/viruses-can-hide-in-lung-cells-and-cause-chronic-disease/">chronic infections</a> they never knew they had.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.1012733">PLOS Pathogens</a>.



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Common parasite may be affecting your brain without symptoms

Scientists have found that a common parasite might have a...

For centuries, scientists have tried to understand how sharks and other animals grow and function as they increase in size. 



At the heart of this inquiry lies a simple geometric principle: surface area grows more slowly than volume. The "two-thirds scaling law" captures this relationship, suggesting that surface area scales with volume to the power of 2/3. 



While the idea is elegant, proving it in large, complex animals like sharks has been a challenge.



Now, a new study led by researchers from James Cook University (JCU) and the <a href="https://www.umass.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Massachusetts</a> offers compelling proof that this rule holds true for one of the most diverse and ancient animal groups on the planet - sharks. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharks-grow-by-the-rules">Sharks grow by the rules</h2>



Using digital models of 54 shark species, the team uncovered remarkable consistency in how these animals scale in size. Their work not only strengthens a foundational principle in biology but also reveals hidden constraints that may shape evolution itself.



“We found that sharks follow what's known as the 'two-thirds scaling law' almost perfectly,” said Joel Gayford, lead author and PhD candidate at <a href="https://www.jcu.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JCU</a>.



This means that as the body of a shark gets larger, the surface area increases in a predictable way based on their volume.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-3d-models-map-the-shark-s-body">3D models map the shark's body</h2>



The team created high-resolution 3D meshes from CT scans and photogrammetry of museum specimens. The models were cleaned and processed in Blender software to remove distortions caused by preservation. Surface area and volume were measured digitally for accuracy.



The sample ranged from the tiny&nbsp;Euprotomicrus bispinatus&nbsp;to the massive&nbsp;Rhincodon typus, the whale shark. Across these, the team observed nearly perfect adherence to the expected geometric rule. 



They scaled every <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/prehistoric-sea-monster-shark-fossils-found-in-worlds-largest-cave-325-million-years/">species</a> to the same body length (500 cm) and still found minimal differences in surface area and volume. This step removed body length as a confounding factor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shark-scaling-stays-consistent">Shark scaling stays consistent</h2>



The study grouped sharks by habitat - pelagic, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nearly-two-thirds-of-coral-reef-sharks-and-rays-face-extinction/">reef-associated</a>, demersal, and others. Most showed near-identical surface area-to-volume relationships. 



Only reef-associated sharks showed minor deviation, with a scaling exponent of 0.60. Pelagic sharks matched the theoretical 0.66 almost exactly.



The team also accounted for evolutionary history using phylogenetic generalized least squares (PGLS) analysis. This ensured close relatives did not skew the results. Even after this, the average scaling value was just 0.64, only 3% off from 0.66.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biology-restricts-growth">Biology restricts growth</h2>



“This ratio is fundamental,” said Professor Jodie Rummer. “It underpins how animals breathe, regulate temperature, and process waste.” The near-perfect fit hints at deep-rooted evolutionary and developmental constraints.



Developmental limitations may prevent major changes in tissue distribution. Altering body geometry early in development is likely energy-intensive.



“Changing the way tissue is distributed throughout the body might require major changes during early embryonic development, and that's expensive, energetically speaking,” said Gayford.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-shape-stills-matters">Why shape stills matters</h2>



The two-thirds law is not just theoretical. It supports models predicting how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sharks-may-benefit-from-rising-temperatures-but-not-from-rising-co2/">animals</a> regulate heat, absorb oxygen, or respond to climate change. 



“Surface area-to-volume ratios are key inputs in equations used to model how animals respond to climate change,” said Gayford. These equations can now be applied with greater confidence to sharks and other large animals.



The authors also observed that surface area in sharks did not follow phylogenetic patterns as strongly as volume did. This suggests that surface area may be more flexible but still constrained by developmental factors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shark-body-follows-deep-biology">Shark body follows deep biology</h2>



Despite massive variation in shark ecology and movement, some are sluggish bottom-dwellers and others fast-swimming predators, their surface-to-volume relationships stay constant. 



Even differences in shape and lifestyle do not seem to change the rule. That consistency points to deeper biological limits rather than ecological demands.



This study adds weight to the idea that body design follows strict physical and developmental rules. It also shows how new tools like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-ever-3d-map-of-human-brain-created-by-harvard-and-google/">3D imaging</a> can answer long-standing questions in biology. 



Although researchers still need to explore the energy costs of body shape changes, this study lays a strong foundation.



Sharks obey the geometry of life, their body surfaces grow in lockstep with volume in a way that supports a basic biological law. The rule holds true across shape, size, and ecological function.



That’s a rare kind of simplicity in biology and one that might apply far beyond sharks.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.242205" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



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How the shark's body grows with geometric precision

For centuries, scientists have tried to understand how sharks and...

Thick, planet-wide blankets of clay are among the Red Planet’s most intriguing geological puzzles. Because clay forms only in the presence of abundant liquid water, scientists have long viewed these deposits as potential time capsules for ancient life.



A new study now paints a clearer picture of where, when, and how those mineral layers took shape.



Led by planetary geologist Rhianna Moore during her postdoctoral work at <a href="https://www.utexas.edu/">The University of Texas at Austin</a>, the team sifted through high-resolution images and topographic data for 150 previously cataloged clay outcrops.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quiet-clay-terraces-on-mars">Quiet clay terraces on Mars</h2>



Thick clay deposits span across Mars and consistently show a surprising set of shared traits. Most sit at low elevations, adjacent to the vestiges of long-vanished lakes. Yet they remain distinctly removed from ancient river valleys that once carved the highlands.



“These areas have a lot of water but not a lot of topographic uplift, so they’re very stable,” Moore said. She added that such stability would have limited destructive erosion by fast-moving water. 



This would have allowed clays to accumulate layer upon layer rather than being scoured away.



“If you have stable terrain, you’re not messing up your potentially habitable environments. Favorable conditions might be able to be sustained for longer periods of time,” she said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-earth-s-tropics"><a></a>Lessons From Earth’s tropics</h2>



Study co-author Tim Goudge, an assistant professor in <a href="https://eps.jsg.utexas.edu/">UT Austin’s Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences</a>, sees an echo of earthly analogues in Mars’ ancient past.



“On Earth, the places where we tend to see the thickest clay mineral sequences are in humid environments, and those with minimal physical erosion that can strip away newly created weathering products,” said Goudge.



The Martian patterns, he noted, match the latter half of that recipe almost perfectly. “These results suggest the latter element is true also on Mars, while there are hints at the former as well.”



Because Mars lacks plate tectonics, its surface doesn’t undergo the constant stirring seen on Earth. 



That relative stillness, combined with a clement climate billions of years ago, created quiet basins where rainfall and standing ponds could slowly break down <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-volcanic-clues-hint-at-ancient-life-on-mars/">volcanic rock </a>into clay minerals. Violent floods didn’t sweep the new sediments away, allowing them to accumulate over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-carbonate-conundrum"><a></a>A carbonate conundrum</h2>



The same conditions that favored clay formation could also explain one of Mars’ long-standing mysteries: the scarcity of carbonate rocks.



On Earth, volcanic CO2 reacts with fresh basaltic crust, eventually locking carbon into sprawling beds of limestone and dolomite. But on Mars, with no tectonic conveyor belt to bring up fresh <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/strange-lava-worlds-magma-oceans-affect-the-evolution-of-hot-planets/">lava</a>, that cycle stalled.



Instead, the study proposes, CO2 may have remained aloft longer, warming the planet and further fueling slow, persistent weathering that built clays.



At the same time, by trapping byproducts of that weathering inside impermeable mineral layers, clay growth might have robbed the environment of ingredients needed to form carbonates in the first place.



“It’s probably one of many factors contributing to this weird lack of predicted carbonates on Mars,” Moore said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signs-of-life-friendly-conditions">Signs of life-friendly conditions</h2>



Taken together, the findings hint at expansive, placid watery habitats that persisted long enough to concentrate minerals - and perhaps organic molecules - essential for life.



Thick clays help astrobiologists by preserving biochemical evidence, protecting it from radiation and geological disruption.



Moore, now part of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grow-plants-on-moon-by-2026-nasa-artemis-iii-mission/">NASA’s Artemis</a> program team, emphasized that the work grew out of <a href="https://habitability.utexas.edu/">UT Austin’s Center for Planetary Systems Habitability</a>, an initiative that crosses disciplinary boundaries to answer where life might arise beyond Earth.



By mapping mild, lake-adjacent clay basins, the study offers a shortlist of enticing targets for future rover missions or even human explorers looking for fossilized biosignatures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conditions-where-life-may-have-thrived">Conditions where life may have thrived</h2>



Mars today is frigid and desiccated, but during the period when these clays formed - more than three billion years ago - it was likely dotted with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-largest-lake-once-contained-an-enormous-amount-of-water/">lakes</a> and seas.



The new analysis suggests those bodies of water were not just transient puddles fed by catastrophic floods. Instead, long-lived, shallow basins may have hosted slow-unfolding chemical reactions over millennia.



Although valley networks delivered water downhill, the most extensive clay blankets on Mars avoided the valleys themselves. This is evidence that turbulence and sediment-choked streams were not the primary architects.



Instead, chemical dissolution - not physical abrasion - sculpted much of the ancient surface. That balance created calm, warm conditions where life might have thrived beneath a thicker, greenhouse-gas-rich atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-probing-clays-for-clues">Probing clays for clues</h2>



With <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/curiosity-rover-captured-driving-for-the-first-time/">orbiters</a> continuing to beam back ever finer data, researchers hope to refine models of how water cycled through early Mars. Drill cores from future missions could verify the age, chemistry, and longevity of the newly mapped clay fields.



Meanwhile, laboratories on Earth will experiment with simulated Martian conditions to test whether stable, low-energy ponds truly can yield the mineral fingerprints observed from space.



For now, the study suggests that Mars’ most promising habitats might not have been in raging river deltas. Instead, they may have been in quiet lakeshores where mud settled gently, season after season, sealing away the planet’s watery secrets - and perhaps its biological ones as well.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-025-02584-w">Nature Astronomy</a>.



Image Credit: Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/UArizona



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Clay layers on Mars may have harbored ancient life

Thick, planet-wide blankets of clay are among the Red Planet’s...

In the sweltering crown of the Amazon rainforest, nearly 200 feet above the forest floor, researchers have spent years chasing a deceptively complex question: How do tropical canopy trees keep from frying in the very sunlight they rely on?



A new study led by <a href="https://msu.edu/">Michigan State University</a> (MSU) has found that Amazonian trees juggle sunlight with remarkable finesse - yet that balance may falter as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-foundation-of-life-is-at-risk-from-climate-change/">climate change</a> turns the forest hotter, drier, and brighter.



Doctoral candidate Leonardo Ziccardi led the study under the guidance of forestry ecophysiologist Scott Stark. 



Since 2019, the team has mounted multiple field campaigns near Manaus, Brazil. They carried handheld photosynthesis instruments and ropes strong enough to haul scientists and gear into the leafy heights.



“It’s been a long journey,” Ziccardi said, recalling hundreds of hours spent aloft, recording minute-by-minute fluctuations in leaf temperature, humidity, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-dance-entangled-photons-wave-functions-captured-real-time/">photon</a> capture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trees-manage-light-like-solar-panels">Trees manage light like solar panels</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nature-inspired-energy-lessons-from-leaves-and-raindrops/">Leaves</a> are biological solar panels, absorbing photons to power photosynthesis. But excess light can scorch the photosynthetic machinery unless trees convert the overload to harmless heat or a faint red glow known as chlorophyll fluorescence.



For decades, ecologists have used satellite-detected “solar-induced fluorescence” (SIF) as a stand-in for photosynthesis across vast regions.



Until now, however, no one had mapped in detail how individual canopy leaves partition light between photosynthetic work and protective dissipation in the ever-shifting conditions of an Amazon dry season.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-every-photon">Tracking every photon</h2>



Using the MultispeQ - a portable device created at <a href="https://prl.natsci.msu.edu/about/index.aspx">MSU’s DOE-funded Plant Research Laboratory</a> by co-author David Kramer - the team clipped onto thousands of leaves spanning dozens of tree species and all levels of the canopy.



The instrument measures absorbed light, photosynthetic electron flow, heat loss, and real-time fluorescence, letting the scientists trace every photon’s fate.



The data reveal canopy leaves acting as huge, sensitive antennas. Under mild conditions, leaves direct most light to carbon fixation, releasing only small amounts as heat and fluorescence.



As midday sun or dry-season humidity deficits intensify, the balance shifts. Leaves ratchet up safety valves that vent surplus energy as heat.



When those safeguards max out, fluorescence surges as a last-ditch outlet, even while photosynthetic rates plunge - an early warning that cell machinery is approaching burnout.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-three-phase-stress-signature"><a></a>A three-phase stress signature</h2>



This nuanced response emerged as a consistent three-phase pattern across species and canopy positions.



In a balanced phase, at low to moderate light, photosynthesis and fluorescence rise in tandem. Leaves are using energy efficiently, and protective heat dissipation remains secondary.



In the transition phase, higher light or drier air forces leaves to divert more absorption into heat. In this stage, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/revealing-the-secrets-of-photosynthesis-through-pep/">photosynthesis</a> plateaus and fluorescence begins to decouple from it.



Finally, in the overload phase, heat dissipation hits its ceiling. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fluorescent-caves-on-earth-can-teach-us-about-extraterrestrial-life-environments/">Fluorescence</a> spikes even higher, signaling potential photodamage, while photosynthesis collapses.



Such high-resolution leaf physiology had never before been charted in Amazonian forests. For Ziccardi, the breakthrough sprang from relentless canopy work.



“Since 2019, we’ve run multiple field campaigns across seasons, climbing giant trees in the heart of the Amazon to understand how these forests respond to environmental changes," he said. "We’ve spent hundreds of hours up in the canopy doing measurements - some of the most intense and rewarding work I’ve ever done."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-satellites-may-misread-tree-stress">Satellites may misread tree stress</h2>



The discovery carries a caution for global remote-sensing efforts. Researchers often map SIF from space to estimate gross primary productivity. This key metric tracks how much carbon dioxide vegetation converts into biomass each year.



The study shows that during severe droughts - when cloud cover thins and sunlight becomes harsher - canopy leaves may glow brightly even as their photosynthetic capacity craters. Relying on SIF alone could therefore exaggerate the forest’s true productivity at precisely the times it is most stressed.



As the Amazon’s dry season lengthens under warming temperatures and regional deforestation, clouds are thinning, and insolation is rising. Whether canopy leaves can sustain their intricate balancing act under these compound pressures remains an open question.



The team’s measurements suggest resilience but not invincibility: energy-dissipating pathways can adjust, yet they have limits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-amazon-trees-up-close">Studying Amazon trees up close</h2>



By combining leaf-level measurements with satellite imagery, researchers can refine algorithms that translate fluorescence into carbon uptake, improving forecasts of the forest’s future. But such calibration requires continued boots - or rather, ropes - in the canopy.



Stark notes that the Amazon’s towering biomes host myriad species, each with distinct physiology. Ongoing field campaigns will probe whether <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amazon-forests-can-survive-drought-but-it-comes-at-a-high-cost/">drought</a>-adapted trees hold hidden advantages or if a tipping point looms where protective strategies fail en masse.



The work also provides a template for monitoring other tropical forests edging toward hotter, clearer climates.



Integrating handheld devices like the MultispeQ with flux towers, drones, and satellites could provide a multiscale view of photosynthetic health. This is crucial for sounding alarms before irreversible die-back sets in.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-delicate-dance-with-light"><a></a>A delicate dance with light</h2>



The Amazon’s canopy trees evolved to thrive in a Goldilocks zone of radiant power. They receive enough sunlight to drive one-fifth of the planet’s photosynthesis, yet it's softened by frequent clouds and moist air. Climate change threatens to tip that balance.



Ziccardi’s data offer a first-hand glimpse of how each leaf on a giant tropical tree responds second by second to light’s bounty and burden. 



The delicate choreography between photosynthesis, heat venting, and fluorescence could determine whether the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rainforest-emissions-shape-the-climate-and-cloud-formation/">rainforest</a> continues to trap carbon - or begins to release it back to an already warming world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nph.70183">New Phytologist</a>.



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Climate change is disrupting how Amazon trees process sunlight

In the sweltering crown of the Amazon rainforest, nearly 200...

Hope isn’t just a nice feeling - it is a lifeline. While happiness and gratitude often get the spotlight in discussions around well-being, new research shows that hope might be even more important. 



A recent study from researchers at the <a href="https://missouri.edu/">University of Missouri</a> challenges long-held assumptions about hope. It’s not about wishful thinking - hope gives life depth, purpose, and direction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-powerful-emotional-force">A powerful emotional force </h2>



For years, hope has been primarily linked to motivation and setting goals. But this latest research suggests that there’s something deeper going on. 



Hope is not just about achieving things. It’s a powerful emotional force that helps us feel like our lives matter.



Study lead author Megan Edwards earned a doctorate at Mizzou and is now a postdoctoral scholar at Duke University.



"Our research shifts the perspective on hope from merely a cognitive process related to goal attainment to recognizing it as a vital emotional experience that enriches life's meaning," said Edwards. "This insight opens new avenues for enhancing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/houseplants-boosted-psychological-well-being-during-covid-19-lockdown/">psychological well-being</a>.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hope-isn-t-a-luxury-it-s-essential">Hope isn’t a luxury - it’s essential</h2>



The study, conducted in the Department of Psychological Sciences, included six experiments and more than 2,300 participants from different backgrounds. 



The team looked at a wide range of positive emotions - amusement, excitement, contentment, happiness. But again and again, one emotion stood out.



Only hope consistently predicted a stronger sense of meaning in life. This isn’t just an abstract idea. Feeling like your life has meaning has real-world effects. It’s tied to better relationships, improved physical health, higher income, and greater emotional well-being.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/we-often-undervalue-the-most-meaningful-experiences-in-life/">Experiencing life as meaningful</a> is crucial for just about every good thing you can imagine in a person's life,” said study co-author Professor Laura King.



“This cornerstone of psychological functioning is not a rare experience - it is available to people in their everyday lives and hope is one of the things that make life feel meaningful.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-sets-hope-apart">What sets hope apart</h2>



So what sets hope apart from other positive emotions? It isn’t just about feeling good in the moment - it’s about feeling like tomorrow might be better than today.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/where-does-happiness-come-from-it-depends-on-who-you-are/">Happiness</a>, for example, is often tied to what’s happening right now. A fun event, a compliment, a good day. 



Gratitude reflects on what has already happened - what you’ve received or survived. But hope is forward-looking. It lives in possibility, and that’s what gives it power.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-getting-through-the-tough-times">Getting through the tough times</h2>



Hope helps people move through hard times, not by pretending things are perfect, but by allowing them to imagine that things could improve. 



It’s that sense of potential - even when things are rough - that keeps people going. Hope is what helps someone apply for a job after a rejection, try again after a setback, or get out of bed when life feels heavy.



And unlike fleeting moments of happiness, hope can stick around. It can grow quietly, even in tough conditions, shaping how we see our lives and what we believe is possible.



This emotional staying power might explain why hope plays such a strong role in shaping how meaningful life feels. It’s not just a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/houseplants-improve-mood-and-productivity/">mood</a> - it’s a mindset. One that’s deeply connected to resilience, purpose, and mental health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-simple-ways-to-build-hope-daily">Simple ways to build hope daily</h2>



You don’t need a big life overhaul to build hope. The researchers suggest simple, practical habits that can make a real difference. 



Start by noticing the good moments - even something as small as a peaceful morning or a kind gesture. These small wins remind us that things can go right.



In chaotic times, look for small chances to move forward. Even tiny steps can help you feel more in control. 



Recognize and celebrate progress - in yourself and others. Whether it’s healing, learning something new, or simply getting through a tough week, every step forward can fuel hope.



Taking care of something - a plant, a pet, or another person - reinforces the idea that the future matters.



And above all, remember that nothing stays the same forever. Hard times don’t last. Change is always possible, and hope begins with believing that.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-the-research-is-going">Where the research is going</h2>



This study opens up a lot of questions, and the researchers are already looking ahead. They plan to dig deeper into how hope works in the middle of serious challenges. 



Can it help people find meaning even when they’re going through <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cats-mourn-the-loss-of-other-pets-similar-to-human-grief/">grief</a>, illness, or major setbacks? That’s what they want to find out next.



One thing is clear: hope isn’t just a feel-good emotion. It’s something we need to live well. And it’s something we can practice every day. 



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Femo0001513">Emotion</a>.



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Experts identify the simple emotion that gives life meaning - and it's not happiness

Hope isn’t just a nice feeling - it is a...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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