Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Woman,Protect,Herself,From,The,Hot,Sun,While,Walks,In

In advance of next month’s <a href="https://www.worldclimatesummit.org/">COP27</a> climate change summit in Egypt, the United Nations and the Red Cross released a report arguing that heatwaves will become so extreme in several regions of the world that human life there will become unsustainable. For instance, in the Sahel, the Horn of Africa, and south and southwest Asia, heatwaves are predicted to “exceed human physiological and social limits,” with extreme events triggering “large-scale suffering and loss of life,” as the experts put it.



“There are clear limits beyond which people exposed to extreme heat and humidity cannot survive,” the report authors wrote. “There are also likely to be levels of extreme heat beyond which societies may find it practically impossible to deliver effective adaptation for all. On current trajectories, heatwaves could meet and exceed these physiological and social limits in the coming decades, including in regions such as the Sahel and south and southwest Asia.”



According to the researchers, extreme heat is a “silent killer,” claiming thousands of lives each year as the deadliest weather-related hazard. “Projected future death rates from extreme heat are staggeringly high - comparable in magnitude by the end of the century to all cancers or all&nbsp;infectious diseases - and staggeringly unequal,” the experts explained.



The scientists estimate that the number of poor people living in extreme heat conditions in urban areas will increase by 700 percent by 2050, particularly in southeast Asia and west Africa. Among them, agricultural workers, the elderly, as well as pregnant or breastfeeding women will be at the highest risk of death.



“As the climate crisis goes unchecked,&nbsp;extreme weather events, such as heatwaves and floods, are hitting the most vulnerable people the hardest,” said UN’s humanitarian chief Martin Griffiths. “The humanitarian system is not equipped to handle crisis of this scale on our own.”



The UN and the Red Cross suggest several strategies for combating the impact of extreme heatwaves, including providing early information to help people and authorities react in time, finding new ways of financing local actions, building more thermally-appropriate emergency shelters and cooling centers, and convincing communities to change their development planning to take into account such extreme weather events.



If aggressive steps to mitigate climate change are not taken immediately, the world will likely (and very soon) face previously unimaginable levels of extreme heat. “We don’t want to dramatize it, but clearly the data shows that it does lead towards a very bleak future,” concluded Jagan Chapagain, the secretary-general of the <a href="https://www.ifrc.org/">International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies</a> (IFRC).



The report can be found <a href="https://www.ifrc.org/document/extreme-heat-preparing-heat-waves-future">here</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Heatwaves will make some regions uninhabitable

In advance of next month’s COP27 climate change summit in...

The Salton Sea – well-known as California’s most polluted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-will-have-major-consequences-for-lakes-worldwide/">lake</a> – has lost a third of its water over the past 25 years. As it dries up, the concentration of salt and chemicals in the remaining water has increased dramatically, leading to mass die-offs of fish and birds, including some already threatened species. Moreover, the dry lakebed, coated in the salty and toxic water, becomes dust causing respiratory issues to residents living in the lake’s vicinity.&nbsp;



According to a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/">University of California, Riverside</a> (UCR), the main reason for this massive shrinking has been a steady decline in the Colorado River flow. “It is an environmental catastrophe,” said study lead author Juan S. Acero Triana, a hydrologist at UCR.



Over the years, scientists have proposed a variety of hypotheses about why the lake’s water levels are declining. While some blame global warming for drying up Salton Sea, others suspect that agriculture could be to blame, since, as irrigation systems get more efficient and crops are modified to use less water, the quantity of water reaching the lake has declined. However, this new study argues that these are not the main causes of the decline.



“There is less water coming from the Colorado River into the Sea, and that is driving the problem,” explained study co-author Hoori Ajami, another UCR hydrologist. By using a hydrologic model which accounted for all processes in the surrounding areas that impact the lake’s water balance - such as climate, land slope, soil types, or plant growth – the scientists were able to simulate long-term water balance dynamics and identify reduced Colorado River flows as the main cause of the Salton Sea shrinking.



“It’s not entirely clear, however, whether the decline in Colorado River water is more due to global warming drying out the river, or reductions in allocation levels to California, or both,” Acero Triana said. Nonetheless, these findings should send a clear message to water management agencies and lawmakers: the Salton Sea watershed should be considered part of the Colorado River basin.



“Usually, the Sea is considered an independent system, and a watershed-centric approach considering surface and groundwater resources is needed to find a solution. As the environmental risks of a shrinking Sea mount, all parties must work together to mitigate the danger,” Ajami concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2022WR032281">Water Resources Research</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Why is the Salton Sea turning into toxic dust?

The Salton Sea – well-known as California’s most polluted lake...

Squirrel,Monkey,,Saimiri,Oerstedii,,Sitting,On,The,Tree,Trunk,With

A large-scale international study of 47 species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-monkeys-with-strong-friendships-survive-longer/">monkeys</a> and lemurs has found that climate change and deforestation are currently driving these tree-dwelling primates to the ground, where they are at higher risk due to lack of proper food and shelter, and increased negative interactions with humans and other animals.



The scientists – 118 researchers from 124 institutions – examined over 150,000 hours of observational data on 32 monkey species and 15 lemur species at 68 sites in the Americas and Madagascar. “This study began with a discussion among colleagues about how we’d noticed certain populations of arboreal primates spending more time on the ground, yet at sites with relatively less disturbance, members of the same species may never descend to the ground,” explained study lead author Timothy Eppley, a postdoctoral fellow at the <a href="https://sandiegozoowildlifealliance.org/">San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance</a>.



According to Dr. Eppley and his colleagues, primates that consume less fruit and live in larger social groups were more likely to change their habitat, moving closer to the ground. Moreover, those living in hotter environments with less canopy cover were also more prone to adapt to such changes by shifting towards more extensive ground use.&nbsp;



However, while primates consuming a more generalized diet and living in larger groups may efficiently adapt to a terrestrial lifestyle, other species could face significant problems. “It’s possible that spending more time on the ground may cushion some primates from the effects of forest degradation and climate change; however, for the less-adaptable species,&nbsp;fast and effective conservation strategies will be necessary to ensure their survival,” Dr. Eppley warned.



The study also revealed that primate populations closer to human establishments and infrastructures were less likely to descend to the ground. “This finding may suggest that human presence, which is often a threat to primates, may interfere with the natural adaptability of the species to global change,” said study co-senior author Luca Santini, an expert in Ecology and Conservation at the <a href="https://www.uniroma1.it/it/">Sapienza University of Rome</a>.



While the transition from an arboreal to a terrestrial lifestyle has occurred previously in primate evolution, today’s rapid climatic and environmental changes are a serious threat.&nbsp;



“Though similar ecological conditions and species traits may have influenced previous evolutionary shifts of arboreal primates, including hominins, to ground living, it is clear that the current pace of deforestation and climate change puts most primate species in peril,” concluded the other senior author, Giuseppe Donati, a primatologist and biological anthropologist at <a href="https://www.brookes.ac.uk/">Oxford Brookes University</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Climate change is driving tree-dwelling primates to the ground

A large-scale international study of 47 species of monkeys and...

A new study has investigated the relative effects of genetics, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diet-is-the-most-powerful-weapon-against-aging/">aging</a>, and the environment on how 20,000 human genes are expressed. The researchers, led by the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/">University of California, Berkeley</a>, found that aging and the environment are far more important than genetic variation in affecting the expression profiles of many of our genes as we get older, leading to diseases such as diabetes or cancer.



“How do your genetics — what you got from your sperm donor and your egg donor and your evolutionary history — influence who you are, your phenotype, such as your height, your weight, whether or not you have heart disease?”&nbsp;asked study senior author Peter Sudmant, an assistant professor of Integral Biology at UC Berkeley.



&nbsp;“There’s been a huge amount of work done in human genetics to understand how genes are turned on and off by human genetic variation. Our project came about by asking, ‘How is that influenced by an individual’s age?’ And the first result we found was that your genetics actually matter less the older you get.”



Thus, while our individual genetic makeup can help predict gene expression when we are younger, it is less useful in predicting which genes are ramped up or down as we age. “Almost all human common diseases are diseases of aging: Alzheimer’s, cancers, heart disease, diabetes. All of these diseases increase their prevalence with age,” Professor Sudmant explained. “Massive amounts of public resources have gone into identifying genetic variants that predispose you to these diseases. What our study is showing is that, well, actually, as you get older, genes kind of matter less for your gene expression. And so, perhaps, we need to be mindful of that when we’re trying to identify the causes of these diseases of aging.”



These findings are in line with <a href="http://www.programmed-aging.org/theories/medawar_hypothesis.html">Medawar’s hypothesis</a>, which argues that genes that are activated when we are young are more constrained by evolution since they are critical to making sure we will survive long enough to reproduce, while genes that are expressed after we reach reproductive age are under less evolutionary pressure.



“We’re all aging in different ways. While young individuals are closer together in terms of gene expression patterns, older individuals are further apart. It’s like a drift through time as gene expression patterns become more and more erratic,” Professor Sudmant concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-33509-0">Nature Communications</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Age plays a bigger role than genetics in disease susceptibility

A new study has investigated the relative effects of genetics,...

Young,Man,Suffering,From,A,Common,Cold,And,Flu,Or

Aside from catching Covid itself, many other factors could increase the risk of someone developing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-long-covid-cases-started-out-as-mild-infections/">long Covid</a> – a chronic condition that develops after acute Covid infections and is characterized by a variety of symptoms, such as fatigue, breathing problems, or brain fog. Some of these risk factors include having asthma, type 2 diabetes, autoimmune conditions, or being female.



Now, a team of scientists led by <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard University</a> has found that patients with arthritis who developed long Covid showed evidence of an underwhelming antibody response to SARS-CoV-2, but a massive antibody response to OC43 - one of the several endemic coronaviruses that cause common colds.



The researchers tested the blood of 43 patients who had arthritis or a similar condition before the pandemic, and discovered that, when their immune systems were exposed to SARS-CoV-2, they responded with OC43 antibodies which, although similar, were less than ideal in fighting the novel coronavirus, leading to chronic inflammation and other long Covid symptoms.



According to Eric Topol, a professor of Molecular Medicine at <a href="https://www.scripps.edu/">Scripps Research</a>, these new findings come in a “very interesting report that adds to the possible underpinnings of long Covid.” While previous research investigated the relationship between prior infections with the Epstein-Barr virus and other pathogens and long Covid risk factors, this is the first study to assess the role common cold may play in the development of this debilitating conditions.&nbsp;



However, the researchers warned that that are multiple categories of long Covid with, perhaps, different triggers for each type (aside from Covid itself). Thus, although prior infection with this common cold may play a role in arthritis patients with long Covid, it may or may not play a similar role in other categories of patients. Nonetheless, this discovery could serve as a way of identifying long Covid risk levels in arthritis patients and possibly find new ways of treating it.



A pre-print version of the study is published in <a href="https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.09.25.22280335v1">medRxiv</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Common cold may increase the risk of long Covid

Aside from catching Covid itself, many other factors could increase...

Currently, fewer than 300 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/judge-us-failed-protect-red-wolves/">red wolves</a> survive in the world today, mostly in captivity. While these animals once roamed the southern and eastern United States from Texas to New England, by the early 1900s, they had been virtually wiped out by hunters and farmers who considered them as threats. Today, the red wolf is a federally protected endangered species.&nbsp;



Now, <a href="https://www.brookgreen.org/">Brookgreen Gardens</a> – a nature preserve in South Carolina established in 1931 – is expecting to receive three red wolves from a zoo in Ohio as part of an effort to revive this critically endangered species in South Carolina and other states. The plan is to breed these wolves in captivity for displays at zoos or even release in eastern North Carolina and, possibly, in the low country of South Carolina.



“These animals are disappearing and if we don’t do something to help them, you’re going to just be looking at pictures or cadavers in a museum,” said Andrea DeMuth, an animals curator at Brookgreen Gardens. “You’re not going to be looking at the real thing.”



The initial three wolves going to Brookgreen will be young males, to be followed by two breeding pairs of wolves. “We started very similar,” said Eric Albers, the curator of animal operations at the <a href="https://www.akronzoo.org/">Akron Zoo</a> in Ohio, from which the wolves will be brought to South Carolina. “We had a pair of (females) to let us get used to working with red wolves and handling them before we got a breeding pair. With a new facility, it makes a lot of sense.’’



Since today only 21 red wolves are living in the wild at the Alligator River (down from 120 in 2012), increased efforts are needed to restore this population. Another possible place for releasing some of the captive wolves include the 259,000-acre Francis Marion National Forest in South Carolina. However, many fear that releasing these animals into the wild is problematic, since they tend to breed with coyotes.



“We’re going to make our coyotes about 25 pounds larger, your turkey population is going to get decimated, your white-tailed deer population is going to get decimated,” said David Strickland, a Lowcountry hunter interested in tracking the red wolf situation. “Your bobcats are going to lose all of their prey species. They are going to become a targeted species.’’



Other scientists and conservationists, such as Ron Sutherland, the chief scientist at the <a href="https://wildlandsnetwork.org/">Wildlands Network</a> conservation organization, consider such recovery plans necessary. “The recovery plan calls for a total of three (separate) populations, so that could certainly bring South Carolina back into play. Francis Marion-Cape Romain still seems like a pretty good spot to me to think about red wolf recovery,” he concluded.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Rare wolves headed to South Carolina from Ohio

Currently, fewer than 300 red wolves survive in the world...

Hybrids are rare in nature. Many mechanisms, including genetic, behavioral and physiological, usually prevent two different species from reproducing successfully. But in June of 2020, Stephen Gosser, a self-described “diehard birder,” identified an unusual <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-seabirds-fly-into-the-eye-of-the-storm-to-survive/">bird</a> out in the woods of Western Pennsylvania. It sang like an elusive and beautiful scarlet tanager (Piranga olivacea) but looked more like a rose-breasted grosbeak (Pheucticus ludovicianus). Both these species are found in the area, but they have different habitat preferences. Gosser immediately took some photographs and then called for a team from the National Aviary in Pittsburgh to help clarify his conundrum.



The ornithologists helped catch the strange bird and took a blood sample to use for DNA analysis. Researchers, led by a team from Penn State, then used a variety of different methods, including low-coverage whole-genome sequencing, analysis of vocalizations, and inferences from natural history, to investigate the unusual bird.&nbsp;



Their results, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ece3.9152">Ecology and Evolution</a>, show that this was indeed a hybrid bird, formed as a result of reproduction between a male scarlet tanager and a female rose-breasted grosbeak. Although hybridization between bird species is not uncommon, this usually takes place between closely related species. In contrast, the new bird is the first record of hybridization between these two species that are from lineages that diverged more than 10 million years ago.&nbsp;



“I love this story, because it starts with a little mystery and ends with a surprising discovery,” said David Toews, lead author of the study and assistant professor of biology at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Penn State</a>.



The researchers have no idea how the two parental birds managed to breed, as tanagers typically hide away in the canopy cover of mature forests while rose-breasted grosbeaks are happy out in the open, along the edges of woodlands. Toews explained that the two species have very divergent nesting preferences, making their successful breeding attempt all the more mysterious.&nbsp;



In addition to the DNA analysis, the researchers investigated the acoustic characteristics of the hybrid’s song. It sounded like a tanager when it sang, and this was confirmed by comparison of the bioacoustics of both species. Since songbirds usually learn their calls from the father, this finding implied that the male tanager had been around the nest at least until the offspring had learned to imitate its call.&nbsp;



“Something people may not understand is that when we analyze birdsongs, we're not actually listening to them. We're looking at them,” said Toews. “We're looking at wavelengths of the sound&nbsp;– or the ‘spectrogram’ is a more accurate term&nbsp;– and we’re actually measuring visual components of a soundwave to analyze the song.”



The researchers emphasize the usefulness of using combined evidence from visual, bioacoustic, and genetic analyses to confirm that the bird was indeed a hybrid and that the parents were a rose-breasted grosbeak and a scarlet tanager. They stress that this is a straightforward method that can be used effectively to assign ancestry for any putative hybrid individuals, given that whole genome sequences are now available for more and more bird species.&nbsp;



“We used the same tools that we’ve used to identify other hybrids, but we typically have more ambiguous answers that are a bit more esoteric,” said Toews. “In this case, we identified the species. We know who the parents were and we have a somewhat satisfying conclusion at the end. I find this story resonates with more than just your average ornithological nerd like myself.”



Although the hybrid was judged to be a healthy male at the time of its detection and capture, a thorough search for it on the same territory the following breeding season came up negative. It will never be known whether this unusual hybrid was able to pass its genes on to future generations.



Image Credit: Stephen Gosser



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Rare hybrid songbird traced to two very different species

Hybrids are rare in nature. Many mechanisms, including genetic, behavioral...

Pelagic seabirds, which spend most of their lives in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/how-the-ocean-and-climate-influence-each-other/">ocean</a>, are in many ways still mysterious compared to our land dwelling species. Direct observation of these birds is challenging, except for the brief window of time when they venture onto land for nesting and rearing chicks.&nbsp;



A new study from <a href="https://www.swansea.ac.uk/">Swansea University</a> in the UK opens a window into one aspect of pelagic seabird life - how they survive storms. The research was specifically focused on shearwaters in the Sea of Japan.&nbsp;



The team was led by Professor Emily Shepard and Dr. Emmanouil Lempidakis, from Swansea and included scientists from Nagoya University, the University of Leeds, and Nagoya Institute of Technology. The researchers tagged adult shearwaters with GPS trackers over a period of 11 years.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



When the GPS data was analyzed and compared to wind movement, the team was surprised by what they found. It appeared that the shearwaters were heading into the eyes of storms.&nbsp;



“We were astonished when we saw from the GPS tracks that shearwaters were flying towards the eye of the storm, and sometimes tracking it for several hours. This is unlike any response to storms that has been seen before in seabirds," said Professor Shepard.



The scientists believe that the shearwaters are exhibiting this behavior to avoid being blown to land and possibly injured or killed.&nbsp;



“Shearwaters, like albatrosses, are adapted to windy conditions, as their flight style enables them to fly without much flapping when it’s windy, but there comes a point where their flight speed cannot match the wind speed," explained Dr. Lempidakis. "When this happens birds start to drift with the wind, which is why we were surprised that they fly towards some of the strongest typhoon winds.”



The researchers found that some birds avoided storms by flying around the edges, but only when they were far out at sea with no danger of striking land. This behavior could explain why many young birds wash up after storms. These birds simply don't have the experience to know where land is located.&nbsp;



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2212925119">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Some seabirds fly into the eye of the storm to survive

Pelagic seabirds, which spend most of their lives in the...

Farmer,Man,Spraying,Fumigating,Pesti,,Pest,Control.,Weed,Insecticide,Fumigation.

Per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a class of over 12,000 chemical substances generally used to manufacture thousands of water-, stain- and heat-resistant products. These substances – known as “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forever-chemicals-are-raining-down-all-over-the-world/">forever chemicals</a>” - do not naturally break down and accumulate in both humans and the environment. A wide variety of recent scientific studies links them to major health problems such as cancer, birth defects, liver and kidney disease, autoimmune disorders, high cholesterol, and low immunity.



Now, a research team led by the <a href="https://www.ttu.edu/">Texas Tech University</a> has checked ten insecticides which are mostly used on cotton, but can also be used on food and other crops, and discovered that seven of them contained PFAS, and six what the scientists labelled as “screamingly high” levels of PFOS (Perfluorooctanesulfonic acids), one of the most dangerous PFAS compounds. According to the study authors, the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/">Environmental Protection Agency</a> (EPA) has known about these findings for over 18 months, but has not yet investigated the products or took any action against the manufacturers.



“We know PFOS is a carcinogen, we know it’s a deadly chemical and there’s no safe level in drinking water,” said Kyla Bennett, a former EPA official and science policy director at the non-profit organization <a href="https://peer.org/">Public Employees for Environmental Responsibility</a> (PEER). “Our soil and water are now contaminated.”



While the EPA has not set limits for PFAS in pesticides, in June 2022 they lowered their advisory health limit in drinking water to 0.02 parts per trillion (ppt), a level so low as to suggest that no amount of exposure to these compounds is safe. The Texas Tech researchers found much higher levels of these toxic chemicals in most of the pesticides they analyzed, with a particular insecticide sporting a level as high as 19m ppt.



It is unclear what purpose PFAS in insecticides may serve, but the scientists believe that they could be used as a dispersing agent, helping the pesticide spread evenly. The presence of PFOS could be the result of either chemical companies illegally adding the compound or PFAS added to the fertilizers breaking down into PFOS.&nbsp;



According to Bennett, there is little consumers can do to immediately protect themselves, besides eating organic foods. Unfortunately, many people do not have access to or can afford such healthier products. This leaves it up to the EPA to take faster and more decisive action to eliminate PFAS from pesticides.



“We have to get the EPA to stop allowing PFAS in pesticides. We’ve got a toxic chemical in them that doesn’t need to be there, and pesticides are bad enough on their own without adding another carcinogen,” Bennett concluded.



The study is published in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hazl.2022.100067">Journal of Hazardous Materials Letters</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Toxic “forever chemicals” present in most pesticides

Per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a class of over 12,000...

Each year, mule <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tick-carrying-deer-are-living-in-the-suburbs/">deer</a> migrate in the American West to follow the green-up of plants as they sprout at various elevations – a phenomenon biologists call “surfing the green wave.” The deer rely on this surfing behavior to find the freshest and most nutritious plants that help them recover from winter and put on fat in preparation for the next lean season. However, according to a new study led by the <a href="http://www.uwyo.edu/">University of Wyoming</a> (UW) in collaboration with the <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/">U.S. Geological Survey</a> (USGS), when energy development disrupts their migration corridors, deer often lose their ability of foraging with the wave of the most nutritious springtime plants.



“Mule deer are known for how precisely they match their movements with spring green-up, so this result was particularly striking,” said study lead author Ellen Aikens, a UW PhD graduate, currently working at the USGS South Dakota Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit. “The gas wells caused them to let the best food of the year slip away from them.”



The researchers followed a herd of migratory deer that winters in sagebrush basins and summers in the Sierra Madre Mountains for 14 years. During this period, dozens of new wells were drilled for coalbed methane extraction in the middle of a deer corridor. The analysis revealed that, as development intensity increased over time, the deer began to “hold up” when reaching natural gas wells, pausing their spring migration, and letting the wave of green vegetation pass them by, thus becoming decoupled from their best food resources at a critical time of the year. The development of these wells resulted in a 38.65 reduction in green-wave surfing.



These findings can help wildlife managers understand how intact corridors must be in order to retain their ecological functionality, and devise strategies for sustaining mule deer migrations. “The impact is quite clear, but also points to conservation solutions that will allow us to retain viable migrations for generations to come,” explained study co-author Matt Kauffman, a researcher at the USGS Wyoming Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit at UW. “Once migrations have been mapped, development can be planned in a way that minimizes the disruptions to migrating herds, whether in Wyoming, the American West, or wherever landscapes are rapidly changing.”



“This new research provides the most convincing case, so far, that efforts to minimize development within migration corridors will benefit their long-term persistence amid changing landscapes,”&nbsp;he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41559-022-01887-9">Nature</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Energy development disrupts mule deer migration

Each year, mule deer migrate in the American West to...

According to a new <a href="https://repository.library.noaa.gov/view/noaa/46437">assessment</a> by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gray-whales-are-dying-in-alarming-numbers/">gray whales</a> which migrate along the West Coast of North America continued to decline over the past two years, the population being now down 38 percent from its peak in 2015 and 2016. Moreover, as an accompanying <a href="https://repository.library.noaa.gov/view/noaa/46436">report</a> explained, the whales also produced the fewest calves this year since counts began in 1994.



Although this decline from a peak of about 27,000 whales in 2016 to 16,650 this year resembles past fluctuations in the eastern North Pacific population, it warrants continued monitoring. “Given the continuing decline in numbers since 2016, we need to be closely monitoring the population to help understand what may be driving the trend,” said David Weller, the senior author of the reports and director of the <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/about/marine-mammal-and-turtle-division-southwest-fisheries-science-center">Marine Mammal and Turtle Division</a> at NOAA. “We have observed the population changing over time, and we want to stay on top of that.”



A significant increase in gray whale strandings led NOAA Fisheries to declare an “Unusual Mortality Event” (UME) in 2019, prompting an investigation into the possible causes of this population decline. According to the scientists, some of the contributors include changes in the Arctic seafloor and the amphipods and other invertebrate species that gray whales feed upon in the summer, predation by killer whales, or accidents involving ships. Since the number of strandings spiked in 2019 and subsequently fell, most of the gray whale population decline probably occurred in the years before the UME was declared.



“There is no one thing that we can point to that explains all of the strandings,” said Deborah Fauquier, a Veterinary Medical Officer at NOAA Fisheries’ <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/national/marine-life-distress/marine-mammal-health-and-stranding-response-program">Marine Mammal Health and Stranding Response Program</a>, who coordinates the UME investigation. “There appears to be multiple factors that we are still working to understand.”&nbsp;



Since many gray whales migrate between their feeding grounds in the Arctic during summer and lagoons in Baja Mexico in the winter where they nourish their newborn calves – a 10,000 miles-long roundtrip – they most likely encounter many stressors along the way, a factor which led to population declines in previous decades too. These stressors affecting whale survival also had a major impact of their reproductive capacities, leading to lower calf production.



Fortunately, after most of the previous declines, the number of gray whales increased again.&nbsp;“The population has rebounded multiple times from low counts in the past,” said Tomoharu Eguchi, the lead author of the reports and an expert in Cetacean Health at NOAA. “We are cautiously optimistic that the same will happen this time. Continued monitoring will determine whether and when they rebound.”&nbsp;



&nbsp;“What we hope to see in the next few years is that the abundance stabilizes and then starts to show signs of increase. We will be watching closely,” concluded co-author Aimee Lang, a research scientist at NOAA.



Image Credit: NOAA Fisheries



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Gray whale populations continue to decline

According to a new assessment by the National Oceanic and...

According to the <a href="https://www.who.int/">World Health Organization</a> (WHO), approximately 39 million children were overweight or obese in 2020 – conditions often leading to increased risks of heart disease, diabetes, cancers, and even early death. While <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ultra-processed-foods-can-make-you-feel-mentally-unwell/">ultra-processed foods</a> such as packaged baked goods and snacks, sugary cereals, and fizzy drinks – which are commonly found in Western diets – are associated with weight gain in adults, it is still unclear whether there is a link between a mother’s consumption of ultra-processed foods during pregnancy and her offspring’s future body weight.



Now, an international team of experts has discovered that prospective mothers’ consumption of such foods during their pregnancies seems to be linked to an increased risk of overweight or obesity in their offspring, irrespective of other lifestyle factors. The scientists suggest that mothers may benefit from limiting their intake of ultra-processed foods, and that dietary guidelines from health authorities should be refined, and financial and social barriers removed to improve nutrition of pregnant women and thus reduce childhood obesity.



The researchers collected data on 19,958 children born to 14,553 mothers (45 percent of them boys with ages between seven and 17 at the beginning of the study) from the <a href="https://nurseshealthstudy.org/">Nurses’ Health Study II (NHS II)</a> and the <a href="https://gutsweb.org/">Growing Up Today Study</a> (GUTS I and II) in the United States. In their analysis, they also took into consideration a range of other potentially influential factors that are known to be highly correlated with childhood obesity, such as mother’s weight, levels of physical activity, smoking, living status (with or without a partner), and partner’s education, as well as children’s consumption of ultra-processed foods, physical activity, and sedentary time.



During an average follow-up period of four years, 2471 children became overweight or obese, suggesting that a mother’s ultra-processed food consumption was associated with an increased risk of such conditions in her offspring. For instance, a 26 percent higher risk was identified in the group with the largest ultra-processed food consumption (12.1 servings per day) in comparison to the lowest consumption group (3.4 servings per day).



Although this is only an observational study, so causality cannot be properly established, the findings “support the importance of refining dietary recommendations and the development of programs to improve nutrition for women of reproductive age to promote offspring health,” as the authors concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.bmj.com/content/379/bmj-2022-071767">The BMJ</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Childhood obesity linked to mother's poor dietary choices

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), approximately 39 million...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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