Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

According to a new study presented at the <a href="http://www.eurospe.org/meetings/2022/espe-2022/programme/">60th Annual European Society for Paediatric Endocrinology Meeting</a>, exposure to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blue-light-exposure-may-cause-premature-aging/">blue light</a> through regular use of smartphones and tablets may alter hormone levels and increase the risk of early-onset puberty. Although this study has only focused on the effects of blue light exposure on rats, its findings could potentially be applied to humans too, due to the similarities between the time-point of puberty and the hormonal changes occurring during pre-puberty and puberty in both rats and humans.&nbsp;



Scientists have long noticed that the escalating use of blue light emitting devices can reduce sleep quality in both children and adults, by disrupting the functioning of melatonin, a hormone which plays a fundamental role in regulating our circadian rhythms. Since melatonin levels are generally higher during pre-puberty than in puberty, researchers have argued that this hormone could also play a role in delaying the onset of puberty.



To test this potential correlation in the case of rats, the scientists used a cohort of female rats divided into three groups and exposed to either a normal light cycle, or to six hours or 12 hours of blue light. In both groups exposed to blue light, the first signs of puberty occurred significantly earlier, and the longer the duration of exposure, the earlier the onset of puberty. Rats exposed to blue light also had lower melatonin levels and higher levels of specific reproductive hormones – such as oestradiol and luteinising hormone - as well as physical changes in their ovarian tissues, which are all known to be trademarks of puberty onset. Moreover, at the 12 hours exposure, rats showed some signs of inflammation and even cell damage in their ovaries.



“We have found that blue light exposure, sufficient to alter melatonin levels, is also able to alter reproductive hormone levels and cause earlier puberty onset in our rat model. In addition, the longer the exposure, the earlier the onset,” said study lead author Aylin Kilinç Uğurlu, an expert in Pediatric Endocrinology at the <a href="https://gazi.edu.tr/">Gazi University</a> in Turkey. “As this a rat study, we can’t be sure that these findings would be replicated in children but these data suggest that blue light exposure could be considered as a risk factor for earlier puberty onset.”



“Although not conclusive, we would advise that the use of blue light emitting devices should be minimized in pre-pubertal children, especially in the evening when exposure may have the most hormone-altering effects,” she concluded.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;

Excessive screen time may lead to early puberty

According to a new study presented at the 60th Annual...

A team of researchers led by the <a href="http://english.kiz.cas.cn/">Kunming Institute of Zoology</a> (KIZ) in China has recently discovered and described the earliest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gibbon-new-species-found/">gibbon</a> fossil in the Yuanmou area of the Yunnan Province in southwestern China. This finding could help scientists fill a long-elusive evolutionary gap in the history of apes.



The study focused on hylobatids – a family of apes also including 20 species of living gibbons found throughout tropical Asia, from the northeastern part of India to Indonesia. “Hylobatids fossil remains are very rare, and most specimens are isolated teeth and fragmentary jaw bones found in cave sites in southern China and southeast Asia dating back no more than two million years ago,” said study co-author Terry Harrison, a professor of Anthropology at the <a href="https://www.nyu.edu/">New York University</a>.



“This new find extends the fossil record of hylobatids back to seven to eight million years ago and, more specifically, enhances our understanding of the evolution of this family of apes.”



This specific fossil belongs to a species of small ape called&nbsp;Yuanmoupithecus xiaoyuan. By analyzing the teeth and cranial specimens discovered in Youanmou, the researchers estimated that&nbsp;Yuanmoupithecus&nbsp;was similar in size to today’s gibbons, with a body weight of approximately six kilograms.



“The teeth and the lower face of&nbsp;Yuanmoupithecus&nbsp;are very similar to those of modern-day gibbons, but in a few features the fossil species was more primitive and points to it being the ancestor of all the living species,” Professor Harrison reported.



The scientists also found that Kapi ramnagarensis – an ape claimed to be an earlier species of hylobatid, based on a single isolated fossil molar discovered in India, is in fact not a hylobatid, but a member of a more primitive group of primates which are not closely related to modern apes.



“Genetic studies indicate that the hylobatids diverged from the lineage leading to the great apes and humans about 17 to 22 million years ago, so there is still a 10-million-year gap in the fossil record that needs to be filled. With continued exploration of promising fossil sites in China and elsewhere in Asia, it is hoped that additional discoveries will help fill these critical gaps in the evolutionary history of hylobatids,” Professor Harrison concluded.



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2022.103251">Journal of Human Evolution</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;

Earliest gibbon fossil discovered in China

A team of researchers led by the Kunming Institute of...

Wandering albatrosses (Diomedea exulans) are known to some as the most romantic birds on Earth. A recent study published in the journal <a href="https://nam02.safelinks.protection.outlook.com/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1098%2Frsbl.2022.0301&amp;data=05%7C01%7Ckylee.denesha%40whoi.edu%7C4c702b0d08f8404ead1008da95b5423d%7Cd44c5cc6d18c46cc8abd4fdf5b6e5944%7C0%7C0%7C637986903012872775%7CUnknown%7CTWFpbGZsb3d8eyJWIjoiMC4wLjAwMDAiLCJQIjoiV2luMzIiLCJBTiI6Ik1haWwiLCJXVCI6Mn0%3D%7C3000%7C%7C%7C&amp;sdata=9ogBmLDL9wNNAow7%2BnntUbCVd80onHomCyzxnFDdjm8%3D&amp;reserved=0">Royal Society Biology Letters</a> has revealed that bolder males of this species are likely to get and keep <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cowbird-chicks-need-nest-mates-but-two-is-better-than-four/">mates</a>. This paper is notable because it's the first to show a link between personality and divorce in the species.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



Researchers with the <a href="https://www.whoi.edu/">Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution</a> (WHOI) utilized data from long-term studies conducted on Possession Island in the Southern Indian Ocean. They found that bolder males were more able to keep their mates when other males attempted to usurp them.&nbsp;



These love birds are known to mate for life, but sometimes "forced divorces" occur because of Possession Island's high female death rate, partially due to conflict with commercial fishing. Consequently, many male widowers are looking for a new mate; some of these males simply try to steal a female from another male.&nbsp;



"In instances of forced divorce, bolder individuals are more likely to guard their partner. Shyer individuals tend to avoid risks and engaging in antagonistic interactions with intruders," explained lead author Ruijiao Sun, a Ph.D. candidate with the MIT-WHOI joint program. "Breeding is very costly to wandering albatross. So individuals have to make a trade-off between reproduction and their own survival."



The researchers analyzed data from a 54-year monitoring program to carry out their study. They also conducted their own experiments, which included approaching albatrosses and observing their reaction to human or novel object presence. If the male birds were marked as bold if they called or stood up, they were deemed shy if they had little to no response.



Although fascinating, this phenomenon may not occur with albatross populations that have more breeding females since there would be less competition for partners.



"Divorce can sometimes be adaptive, to gain a better partner or offspring. But in the case of forced divorce, there is no benefit to future reproduction," explained Stéphanie Jenouvrier, a WHOI biologist, Sun's advisor, and senior author of the paper. "We were able to study the impact of personality on divorce only because we had access to incredible long-term data sets combining demography and personality for this population."



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Albatrosses with bolder personalities have lower divorce rates

Wandering albatrosses (Diomedea exulans) are known to some as the...

Throughout Earth’s geologic history, the sea level has risen and fallen numerous times, under the influence of cooling and warming conditions, as well as tectonic plate movements. At times in the past there was no ice at the poles, and the sea surface was several hundred meters higher than it is now. In contrast, when ice covered the planet the sea level was more than a hundred meters lower. These changes are part of Earth’s natural glacial cycles but they are of special interest to climate scientists today as we consider the potential consequences of the current <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-soils-may-be-deeply-changed-by-global-warming/">global warming</a>.



A team of researchers, led by scientists from <a href="https://www.wgtn.ac.nz/">Victoria University of Wellington</a> (NZ) and Birmingham (UK) have recently published the first record of Antarctic Ocean temperatures over the past 45 million years, which offers important insights into future sea level changes. They used a combination of evidence from molecular fossils and machine learning in order to track changes in sea temperature.



The molecular fossils came from core samples obtained during ocean drilling projects. Within these cores are the fossilized remains of lipid molecules that were produced by archaea – single-celled organisms that are similar to bacteria. The lipid molecules were part of the organism’s outer membrane and the composition of these molecules changed in response to differences in sea temperature. By studying these changes, scientists can draw conclusions about the ancient sea temperature which would have surrounded the archaea when they were alive.



While the use of molecular fossils is familiar to paleoclimatologists, the current researchers went a step further and used machine learning to refine the technique. This gave them the first record to date of changing Antarctic sea temperatures throughout the past 45 million years, which represents much of the Cenozoic Period.



The findings, published in Nature Geoscience, enable scientists to pinpoint much more accurately the historic temperatures which caused ice sheets to grow and shrink during that period. This is critical to our understanding of the possible consequences of the current global warming, as the loss of ice sheets and the retreat of glaciers in the Antarctic could mean a sea level rise of up to 50 m.



“The record we’ve produced offers a much more robust overview of fluctuating Antarctic temperatures and how these relate to changes in the amount of ice, and the topography of Antarctica, over this period and paves the way for improved estimates of future events,” explained study lead author Dr. James Bendle.



The link between CO2, sea-surface temperatures and the amount of ice on Antarctica is clearly evidenced in the study’s data from the last 45 million years. But one surprising finding was that ocean cooling did not always correspond to increases in Antarctic ice. This applies specifically to a period of 1 million years of ocean cooling that occurred between 25 and 24 million years ago. “We show that this is likely related to tectonic subsidence and the influx of relatively warm ocean water in the Ross Sea region,” said Dr. Bendle.



“We can see that ice in Antarctica is currently changing, not least with the loss of some ice-shelves and cracks appearing recently in the Thwaites Glacier, one of the largest glaciers in the region. This new study of Earth’s past is one of the clearest indications yet that humans continue to produce CO2&nbsp;levels for which we can expect major ice loss at the Antarctic margins, and global sea-level rise over the coming decades and centuries.”



In fact, the researchers say their results suggest we are nearing a ‘tipping point’ where ocean warming, caused by atmospheric CO2,&nbsp;will lead to catastrophic rises in sea levels because of melting ice sheets. They plan to continue to apply biomarker and machine learning approaches to reconstruct the climatic evolution of Antarctica and understand the implications for future warming and sea-level rise.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Earth is heading for a tipping point as Antarctic ice sheets melt

Throughout Earth’s geologic history, the sea level has risen and...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/female-hummingbirds-mimic-males-to-avoid-violence/">Birds</a> with bright and unique colors are often considered the most beautiful, and this makes them attractive and aesthetically valuable to people. Not only do some of these species end up as icons and logos for famous brands and conservation programs, but they also become targets of the global pet trade because people want to own them. Ironically, this means that the most uniquely and brightly colored birds are often those most threatened with extinction.&nbsp;



In a new study published in the journal Current Biology, researchers have used data on the international trade in songbirds to explore the link between commercially desirable birds and their coloration. They used novel metrics of color to evaluate the aesthetics of taxonomic groups of birds across the world and found that the exploitation of songbirds for trade is closely linked to their coloration.&nbsp;



“Aesthetic value is an important part of how people value nature,” said study senior author Rebecca Senior of Durham University. “However, there is potential for conflict when what motivates some people to protect certain species is the same thing that makes other people want to own them. Songbirds are highly sought after in the pet trade, particularly for their beautiful songs. However, songbirds can also be remarkably colorful – a highly desirable trait in other commonly traded species, such as parrots.”



Using the recently published Songbirds in Trade Database, Senior and colleagues found that the total pet trade impacts 1,408 passerine species (perching birds, including songbirds), which amounts to approximately 30 percent of them. Globally, close to 3,000 bird species are traded as pets or products (e.g., as feathers, bills, or eggs). This trade is, in large part, driven by humanity’s passion for beauty and aesthetics, based on attributes like color, pattern, shape, and texture, state the authors of the study.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The researchers also found that trade status was non-random with respect to bird phylogeny, meaning that certain groups of related bird species, such as birds-of-paradise (Paradisaeidae) and weavers (Ploceidae), were more likely to be traded than others. Further analysis showed that these groups generally contain more colorful species.&nbsp;



The researchers measured color using two novel approaches. They determined the diversity of a bird’s coloration by recording the plumage colors present in six different anatomical locations on the bird’s body, and they also assessed the uniqueness of a bird’s colors.&nbsp;



The analysis shows that the tropics are the epicenter of bird color, with 91 percent and 65 percent of the world’s most diversely and uniquely colored assemblages of songbirds, respectively. They report that the pet trade particularly targets clusters of related birds that have unique color signatures; species with more unique coloration were both more likely to be traded as pets, and more likely to be classed as threatened. More colorful bird species were also likely to fetch higher prices than duller species when traded.



“We were surprised to see the strength of the latitudinal gradient in color; even when you account for the greater number of species in the tropics, the diversity of color in the tropics dwarfs all other regions,” Senior said.



While it seems obvious that birds with plumages of brilliant blues, oranges, and yellows would be more at risk, the researchers also discovered that pure white is a unique color found in many sought-after species, such as the endangered Bali myna. The findings highlight that the same color features that make some people willing to travel around the world for a mere glimpse of a bird through binoculars also potentially puts these birds at risk for pet trading. The findings have important implications for conservation.



“Understanding what motivates trade is essential to identify at-risk species potentially requiring more proactive protection from trapping,” Senior said. “Trade has the capacity to be regulated and managed sustainably with a better understanding of what is traded as well as where and why trade occurs. Loss of colorful species also directly erodes aesthetic value, which is problematic because, for better or worse, it is this value that often fundamentally motivates and funds conservation efforts.”



As the more colorful species succumb to global trade pressures, their numbers are likely to decrease and their populations will edge closer to extinction. In this scenario, the authors note that, as the abundance of prized species declines, trade will probably shift to congenerics (others in the same family group) with similarly desirable features. According to their analysis, this puts approximately 500 additional passerine species that are not currently traded, at risk being traded as pets in future.&nbsp;



Furthermore, as the most uniquely and diversely colored songbird species are gradually removed from wild bird communities, the authors predict that bird fauna left behind will manifest more drabness. This may have the consequence of making them less valuable to humans aesthetically, which may mean they will not be adequately conserved.&nbsp;



The researchers recommend programs to conserve nature’s aesthetic value through protecting the most colorful hotspots on Earth, which are to be found in tropical forests of South America, Africa and Indonesia. They say that because these areas are also hotspots of biological diversity in general, protecting them would also be beneficial for other exploited and threatened species.&nbsp;



In future studies, they hope to disentangle even more factors that play into regional variation in patterns of trade among birds. They’d also like to explore the role of color in the trade of other groups of animals and plants.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

For songbirds, bright colors are a blessing and a curse

Birds with bright and unique colors are often considered the...

Astronomers have long known that planets are born in protoplanetary disks – rings of dust and gas surrounding young, newborn stars. However, although hundreds of such disks have been spotted throughout the universe, observations of actual planetary birth and formation are quite difficult due to technological limitations. Now, a team of astronomers from the&nbsp;<a href="http://cfa.harvard.edu/">Center for Astrophysics | Harvard &amp; Smithsonian</a> has developed a novel method to detect such elusive newborn planets through which they spotted a young <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astronomers-have-found-a-planet-that-could-support-life/">planet</a> located 518 light years away.



“Directly detecting young planets is very challenging and has so far only been successful in one or two cases,” said study lead author&nbsp;Feng Long, a postdoctoral fellow at the Center for Astrophysics. “The planets are always too faint for us to see because they’re embedded in thick layers of gas and dust.”



“In the past few years,&nbsp;we’ve seen many structures pop up on disks that we think are caused by a planet’s presence, but it could be caused by something else, too. We need new techniques to look at and support that a planet is there.”



Together with her colleagues, Dr. Long re-examined a protoplanetary disk called LkCa 15, located 518 light years away from the Earth, in the Taurus constellation. By using high-resolution data collected from the <a href="http://almaobservatory.org/en/home/">ALMA Observatory</a>, the scientists discovered a dusty ring with two separate, bright bunches of material orbiting within it approximately 42 astronomical units from the star (about 42 times the distance between the Earth and the Sun). This material consisted of a small clump and a larger arc separated by 120 degrees. According to Dr. Long, the size, location, and structure of these materials suggested the presence of a newborn planet.



“This arc and clump are separated by about 120 degrees. That degree of separation doesn’t just happen — it’s important mathematically,” she explained. “We’re seeing that this material is not just floating around freely, it’s stable and has a preference where it wants to be located based on physics and the objects involved.”&nbsp;



To detect this planet, the scientists investigated positions in space known as Lagrange points, where two bodies in motion, such as a star and its orbiting planet, produce enhanced areas of attraction around them where matter can accumulate.&nbsp;In this case, the arc and clump of material detected were located at the L4&nbsp;and L5&nbsp;Lagrange points. Hidden 60 degrees between them was a small, young planet causing the accumulation of dust at these points. The analysis revealed that the planet is roughly the size of Saturn or Neptune, and was formed between one and three million years ago – a young age when it comes to planets.&nbsp;



Although imaging this small, newborn planet may not be possible in the near future due to technological limitations, the researchers hope that further ALMA observations of LkCa 15 can provide additional evidence supporting this planetary discovery, and that this new approach of detecting planets – with material accumulating at Lagrange points – could be used by other astronomers.



“I do hope this method can be widely adopted in the future. The only caveat is that this requires very deep data as the signal is weak,” Dr. Long concluded.



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3847/2041-8213/ac8b10">Astrophysical Journal Letters</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Newborn planet detected hundreds of light years away

Astronomers have long known that planets are born in protoplanetary...

Green,Leaf,Of,A,Soybean,Plant,Close-up,On,The,Background

While most viral infections negatively affect an organism’s health, one specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-plant-virus-could-help-cure-cancer/">plant virus</a> – the soybean vein necrosis orthotospovirus (SVNV) – may actually benefit a species of insects which commonly feeds on soybean plants and can transmit them the virus. According to a laboratory study conducted by researchers from the <a href="https://agsci.psu.edu/">Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences</a>, when soybean thrips – small insects ranging from 0.03 to 0.20 inches in length – are infected with SVNV, they tend to survive longer and reproduce better than uninfected thrips.



Soybean vein necrosis orthotospovirus causes vein necrosis in soybean plants. Once the plant is infected, the pathogen first attacks the veins of the leaves, causing them to turn yellow, and later on spreads to other parts of the leaves, which eventually develop brown lesions. If the infection progresses, the leaves can turn necrotic and fall off. In addition, this virus can also reduce the amount of oil and proteins in the plants’ seeds and can lower seed germination rate and seed weight. The virus is usually spread by either infected seeds or infected soybean thrips.



“Since there are no cures for plants infected with viruses, control of the virus vectors [in this case, thrips] is one of the best options for virus disease management,” said study co-author Cristina Rosa, an associated professor of Plant Biology at Penn State. 



“Knowing the identity, biology, transmission propensity, and changes in behavior and physiology of the thrips that transmit soybean vein necrosis virus is fundamental to designing soybean vein disease prevention programs and to calculating the economic threshold of any intervention.”



The scientists collected soybean thrips and released them onto soybean plants in a laboratory setting. Both plants and thrips were monitored regularly for SVNV using PCR (polymerase chain reaction) testing, and the thrips’ lifespan, mortality, fertility, and reproduction were observed through two generations.



Surprisingly, the analyses revealed that infected thrips tended to survive longer. “We also found that infected thrips tended to produce more offspring,” said lead author Asifa Hameed, who conducted the study during her doctoral degree at Penn State. “On average, uninfected females produced 84 eggs on average while those infected with SVNV produced 89.”



“In addition to prolonging the life of the insects, SVNV infection also shortened the doubling time of soybean thrip populations [the amount of time it takes a population to double in size]. This means infected thrips populations grew much more quickly, which could enhance the spread of the virus to additional soybean plants.” While among uninfected thrips, the doubling time was around four days, in the SVNV-infected populations, it was just half a day.



Although more research is needed to clarify the interaction between soybean thrips and SVNV, a possible explanation for why infected thrips survive longer may be an increase in amino-acids in the virus-infected plants, which can benefit the insects.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/insects13070632">Insects</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;

Plant virus can benefit soybean-eating insects

While most viral infections negatively affect an organism’s health, one...

Insect,Fly,On,On,Green,Leaf.,Fly,House.

As increasingly frequent and more intense heat waves expose a wide range of animals to temperatures outside of their normal limits, an international team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> has investigated more than 100 species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-insects-are-more-sensitive-to-climate-change-than-expected/">insects</a> to clarify how these climatic changes will affect them. The analysis revealed that insects have weak ability to adjust their thermal capacities to withstand high temperatures, and are thus more susceptible to global warming than previously thought.



One way in which insects deal with extreme temperatures is through a process called acclimation, where previous thermal exposure extends their critical thermal limits. Acclimation usually triggers a series of physiological changes, such as the upregulation of heat shock proteins, and results in modifications of the phospholipid composition in their cell membranes.&nbsp;



However, the scientists found that most insects have significant problems to do this effectively: for each 1°C shift in exposure, their limits were adjusted by only 0.092°C and 0.147°C respectively (a 10 and 15 percent compensation). However, juvenile insects appeared to be better able to acclimate, suggesting that there can be critical periods in development when experiencing heat waves may improve later resilience.



“As temperature extremes become more intense and frequent in our warming world, many insects will have to rely on shifting to new ranges or changing their behavior to cope, rather than being able to physiologically tolerate wider temperatures,” said study lead author Hester Weaving, an expert in Biology at the University of Bristol.



“Our comparative study identified some major gaps in understanding insect responses to climate change and we urge for more studies on species in underrepresented groups and locations.”



The scientists are currently investigating how the reproduction of insects is affected by exposure to extreme temperatures. Clarifying this aspect could turn out to be more important in predicting future distributions than measures of performance or survival.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-32953-2">Nature Communications</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;

Insects struggle to adjust to high temperatures

As increasingly frequent and more intense heat waves expose a...

Tuataras are strange reptiles found living only in New Zealand. A few key traits like teeth fused to jaws and an odd chewing motion point to their divergence from lizards some 230 million years ago. Instead of lizards, tuataras are rhynchocephalians. Now, scientists from the <a href="https://www.si.edu/">Smithsonian</a> have found the fossil remains of another member of rhynchocephalia.&nbsp;



The newly discovered animal was described in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14772019.2022.2093139">Journal of Systematic Palaeontology</a>. The reptile, named Opisthiamimus gregori, lived in Jurassic North America alongside such superstars as Stegosaurus and Allosaurus. The animal in question was much smaller, only about 6 inches long, but representative of a massive evolutionary epic.



“What’s important about the tuatara is that it represents this enormous evolutionary story that we are lucky enough to catch in what is likely its closing act,” said Matthew Carrano, the National Museum of Natural History curator of Dinosauria. “Even though it looks like a relatively simple lizard, it embodies an entire evolutionary epic going back more than 200 million years.”



The discovery comes from several specimens, including a complete one, discovered in a Morrison formation quarry in Wyoming focusing on an Allosaurus nest. During the late Jurassic, rhynocephalians were common.&nbsp;



At the peak of their existence, rhynocephalians were found all over the world and made a diverse group from herbivores to dedicated fishers. As lizards and snakes grew in diversity, for unclear reasons, rhynocephalians dwindled. Today, the tuatara is the only living representative.&nbsp;



“These animals may have disappeared partly because of competition from lizards but perhaps also due to global shifts in climate and changing habitats,” said Carrano. “It’s fascinating when you have the dominance of one group giving way to another group over evolutionary time, and we still need more evidence to explain exactly what happened, but fossils like this one are how we will put it together.”



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New Mesozoic reptile was an ancient relative of the tuatara

Tuataras are strange reptiles found living only in New Zealand....

The development and composition of the gut microbiome in humans are known to be important in shaping host physiology, immunity and long-term health outcomes. However, our understanding of this dynamic process in wild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-mammals-of-the-anthropocene-are-deeply-altered/">mammals</a> is poor. Mothers are important initially, as bacteria are transmitted to the young offspring through milk and suckling, determining the composition of the bacterial populations colonizing the gut. But as the offspring transition to an adult diet, the gut bacteria gradually change in ways not yet understood.&nbsp;



A new study has investigated developmental changes in the gut microbiomes of wild geladas (Theropithecus gelada), Old World monkeys that live in the highlands of Ethiopia and consume a diet consisting almost entirely of grass. The study provides the first evidence of clear and significant maternal effects on the gut microbiome both before and after weaning in a wild mammal. The findings are published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2022.08.037">Current Biology</a>.



The research team, co-led by Stony Brook University anthropologist&nbsp;Dr. Amy Lu, and biologists&nbsp;Dr. Alice Baniel&nbsp;and&nbsp;Dr. Noah Snyder-Mackler&nbsp;at <a href="https://www.asu.edu/">Arizona State University</a>, made use of one of the largest datasets on gut microbiome&nbsp;development in any wild mammal. The experts used high throughput DNA sequencing to identify and characterize the bacteria present in the guts of young geladas in their first three years of life, and assessed the role of maternal effects in shaping the young’s gut microbiome.



The analysis revealed a total of 3,784 different genetic strains of bacteria, belonging to 19 distinct phyla and 76 families, that resided in the gut microbiomes of the geladas. Overall, they found that&nbsp;postnatal microbial colonization in geladas was remarkably similar to that seen in humans, with microbial diversity increasing rapidly after birth and being followed by gradual changes in composition until the time of weaning.&nbsp;



Young infants that were still feeding predominantly off milk had microbiomes that reflected this diet – for instance, there were bacteria present that could digest milk glycans, molecules that cannot be broken down without the action of bacteria. In contrast, older geladas that included more plant matter in their diet had fewer milk-oriented gut microbes and more microbes necessary for the digestion of grass.



Although the main driver of gut microbe composition was the change in diet from milk dominated to grass dominated food, maternal input was also a key factor. The researchers found that the infants of experienced mothers (who had raised infants previously) showed faster maturation of the microbial biome in the gut. This reflected a faster developmental pace overall for infants born to these mothers.&nbsp;



“Infants of first-time moms showed slower development of their gut microbiota, meaning that their guts were specialized toward milk digestion for longer, compared to kids from other moms. This may put offspring of newer moms at a slight developmental disadvantage,” said Baniel. “In addition, even after infants were weaned, their microbiome community was more similar to mom’s than to other adult females in the population, suggesting that moms may be sharing microbes with their offspring.”



“Early life gut microbial development is known to have a large impact on later life health in humans and other model organisms," said Lu. "Now we have solid evidence that mothers can influence this process, both before and after weaning. Although we’re not 100 percent certain how mothers do this, one possible explanation is that they transfer specific bacteria to their offspring.”



According to Snyder-Mackler, these early life changes might have far-reaching consequences which impact the health and survival of these offspring once they become adults.



Future work from this research team is therefore going to examine how differences in the gut microbiome during infancy influence other aspects of development, such as growth, the maturation of the immune system, and the pace of reproductive maturation. Luckily, because they are continuing to study the same infants as they age, the researchers will eventually be able to link the infant gut microbiome and the early-life maternal effects to health, reproduction, and survival in adulthood.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Primate moms influence their child’s microbiome, even after weaning

The development and composition of the gut microbiome in humans...

A recent grant from the <a href="https://www.energy.gov/science/office-science">Department of Energy’s Office of Science</a> will fund a three-year project led by the <a href="https://www.uh.edu/">University of Houston</a> to investigate the impact of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-will-clouds-be-affected-by-climate-change/">clouds</a> on our planet’s climate. By studying the interaction between clouds and the tiny particles that comprise them -&nbsp; known as aerosols - the scientists will try to better understand how cloud formation and location in the atmosphere maintain the Earth’s temperature.



“Clouds cover about 70 percent of the Earth’s surface,” said project leader Professor Yunsoo Choi. “They are one of the most essential components of the global climate system because of their regulation of surface precipitation and the atmosphere’s radiation balance,” i.e. the difference between the amount of solar radiation absorbed by the Earth and the amount released back into space.



The scientists will focus on how aerosols form various types of clouds with different radiative impacts. Aerosols – which can be both inorganic, consisting of sulfates, nitrates, or ammonium, and organic, such as black carbon or soil particles – play a fundamental role in cloud formation. When water vapor condenses on their surface, it forms cloud condensing nuclei, which are essentially the “seeds” from which clouds grow.



“The formation of cloud droplets typically cannot occur without aerosols. Clouds strongly affect the Earth’s energy balance by trapping heat near the surface and reflecting solar radiation back to space,” explained study co-author Ali Mousavinezhad.



To better understand the role of aerosols in cloud formation and their impact on the Earth’s climate, the researchers will use data from the Department of Energy-funded Atmospheric Radiation Measurement’s&nbsp;<a href="https://stories.uh.edu/2021-tracer-campaign/index.html">TRacking Aerosol Convection Interaction ExpeRiment</a>, together with data from an aerosol-cloud interaction targeted modelling system.



“For me, the most interesting aspect of this project is the combination of a modeling system with the dataset from an ongoing campaign, happening right here in our backyard,” said study co-author Arman Pouyaei. “The idea is to use this dataset in a novel technical approach. We hope to learn important lessons about the capabilities of current modeling frameworks in representing the impacts of aerosols on cloud formation and climate change.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Climate change is primarily discussed in terms of greenhouse gases. By the end of this project, we&nbsp;will gain a deeper understanding of how aerosols as air pollutants influence cloud formation and our planet’s climate, which I am very excited about,” concluded Mousavinezhad.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

How do clouds influence Earth’s climate?

A recent grant from the Department of Energy’s Office of...

Flying,Bat,Hunting,In,Forest.,The,Grey,Long-eared,Bat,(plecotus

A new study led by the <a href="https://illinois.edu/">University of Illinois</a> and <a href="https://www.brown.edu/">Brown University</a> has investigated the diets of endangered Indiana bats and threatened northern long-eared bats, in order to identify ways to effectively manage both species and their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/red-pandas-face-shrinking-habitats-and-tough-decisions/">habitats</a>.



“This was an in-depth study of these two imperiled species in landscapes where they co-occur. Nobody’s done that before. This investigation gives us a much better sense of how bats not only coexist, but also how they benefit our forests and how we can thus manage the forest to provide bats with better habitat,” said study senior author Joy O’Keefe, a wildlife extension specialist at the University of Illinois.



“When you have two closely related species sharing the same habitat, that means they’re probably built similarly and need similar places to live and things to eat. This brings up a lot of questions about how they’re doing that. Are they competing? Or is there some system in place where they're able to divide resources? Our job was to figure that out,” added study lead author Timothy Divoll, a data scientist at Brown University who completed his doctoral studies under Professor O’Keefe’s supervision.



During four summers, the researchers captured bats of both species and collected fecal samples at two locations in Indiana – a large managed forest and a region with small forest patches close to a major airport – in order to identify insect prey from DNA found in bats’ feces.



The analysis revealed that the two bat species consumed many of the same insects – such as moths, beetles, mosquitoes, crickets, or wasps – as well as a number of agricultural and forest pest species, which proves their crucial role as providers of beneficial ecosystem services.&nbsp;



Surprisingly though, the northern long-eared bats (the smaller of the two species) usually pick up slightly larger prey items, most likely because they are gleaners – meaning they grab prey off surfaces – which would make it easier for them to locate larger insects on leaves or bark. By contrast, the Indiana bats are aerial hawkers, detecting and hunting prey that moves through the air, be it large or small. Although this difference in prey size preference and feeding style could explain how the two species avoid direct competition, the scientists are not yet sure whether this is the case.



“It’s difficult to say whether they’re in direct competition without measuring the availability of different insect types, and we didn’t measure that in our study. But our&nbsp;earlier research in the same forested site&nbsp;showed northern long-eared bats use much less space when foraging than Indiana bats. And they’re selecting habitat slightly differently. At the end of the night, they might end up eating all the same things, but they’re finding them differently,” Dr. Divoll explained.



Ultimately, the bats’ diets were so similar that there were greater differences between the sites investigated – large forest vs. small, near-airport forest patches – than between bat species. “This tells us that, at some level, they are generalizing on whatever is available at a given site. They might be flexible and specialize at certain times, but these two bats are going to go after whatever is predominantly there. They may use different hunting techniques and search different heights of the forest, but they both likely capture easy targets while searching for preferred prey,” Dr. Divoll concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/edn3.354">Environmental DNA</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;

Bats’ diets offer clues on how to protect them

A new study led by the University of Illinois and...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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