Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

The discovery of 693 stone artifacts inside Dargan Shelter, a high-elevation cave in Australia’s Blue Mountains, rewrites what we know about life during the last Ice Age.



First Nations community members worked side by side with archaeologists to reveal a story of repeated visits to this shelter, even when the landscape above the tree line lay frozen and treeless.



The research team included scientists from the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sydney</a> and the Australian National University, together with staff from the Australian Museum.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-home-in-the-highlands">A home in the highlands</h2>



Dargan Shelter sits 1,073 metres (3,500 feet) above sea level. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/radiocarbon-could-be-key-in-predicting-earths-future/">Radiocarbon dating</a> shows that people first used the cave about 20,000 years ago, making it the oldest known occupied high-altitude site in Australia.



Dr. Amy Mosig Way, one of the lead researchers on the project, explained the broader significance of the findings. “This new evidence aligns Australia with global data that shows glacial landscapes were not necessarily natural barriers to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-age-climate-shifts-changed-early-human-migration-patterns/">early human movement</a> and occupation,” she said.



“Until now, we thought the Australian high country was too difficult to occupy during the last Ice Age. Yet, despite the harsh conditions, our research demonstrates people were moving in and through this high elevation landscape, which is approximately 400 m (1,300 feet) above the tree line.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-well-preserved-ice-age-record">A well-preserved Ice Age record</h2>



Archaeologists found signs of daily life dating back to Ice Age times, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-humans-were-much-better-at-harnessing-fire-ice-age-than-believed/">hearths and tools</a>, preserved in layers that clearly mark different periods of use.



“It was the excellent state of preservation that enabled us to construct such a robust chronology for Dargan Shelter spanning the last 20,000 years,” said Professor Philip Piper, second author of the paper.



These physical traces of Ice Age life in the mountains are matched by cultural connections that continue today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-indigenous-knowledge-carried-forward">Indigenous knowledge carried forward</h2>



The study began when Gomeroi knowledge holder Wayne Brennan invited scientists to join First Nations custodians in exploring the region’s cultural history.



“Our people have walked, lived and thrived in the Blue Mountains for thousands of years and we knew the cave was there," said Leanne Watson Redpath.



"It is not only a tangible connection to our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ice-age-teens-romito-2-went-through-puberty-grew-up-like-modern-teens/">ancestors</a> who used it as a meeting place for sharing, storytelling and survival, but is a part of our cultural identity. We need to respect and protect our heritage for the benefit of all Australians."



It is not possible to identify which groups accessed the mountain retreat in the Ice Age times, but it is likely that multiple groups were connected to the Blue Mountain environment. 



"Today, Dargan Shelter is considered by local custodians to represent a family space of high cultural significance,” said Erin Wilkins.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-passing-the-torch-to-new-scholars">Passing the torch to new scholars</h2>



“The Blue Mountains [are] a UNESCO World Heritage-listed site for the protection of flora and fauna but there are no safeguards for our cultural heritage," said Brennan.



"We hope that by combining our traditional knowledge with scientific research, we can protect these invaluable storehouses of our history for generations to come."



The project also trained undergraduate students from both universities. Fieldwork formed part of the University of Sydney’s “Archaeology in the Field” unit, giving future researchers hands-on experience while deepening respect for First Nations culture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-ice-age-evidence-is-hard-to-find">Why Ice Age evidence is hard to find</h2>



Finding clear evidence of human life during the Ice Age is not easy. Many of the places where people may have lived thousands of years ago have changed dramatically.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-last-ice-age-shows-how-rising-sea-levels-will-transform-coastal-habitats/">Rising sea levels</a> since the end of the Ice Age have flooded ancient coastal sites, while erosion, vegetation growth, and human development have altered or buried others.



In cold, high-altitude areas like the Blue Mountains, preservation is another challenge. Organic materials like food, clothing, or wooden tools decay quickly unless conditions are just right.



Freeze-thaw cycles, rockfalls, and soil movement can disturb archaeological layers, making it difficult to tell how long a site was used or what kind of activities took place there. 



That’s what makes Dargan Shelter so remarkable. Its protection from the elements and long record of use offer a rare window into a time and place long assumed uninhabitable. 



The shelter doesn't just hold artifacts - it holds a story of endurance, ingenuity, and deep connection to country that echoes through the layers of Earth and ice.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41562-025-02180-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Human Behaviour</a>.



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Traces of a thriving Ice Age culture found in the Blue Mountains

The discovery of 693 stone artifacts inside Dargan Shelter, a...

Oceanographers have long used a simple rule of thumb: green water teems with microscopic life, while ultramarine blue usually signals relative scarcity.



A fresh analysis of two decades of satellite images suggests that the dividing line between those hues is on the move. 



Scientists have determined that open-ocean waters are steadily <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-ocean-turning-green-thanks-to-climate-change-algae-blooms/">greening</a> at high latitudes and becoming bluer in the tropics and subtropics.



Because the tint of seawater tracks chlorophyll - the pigment that phytoplankton use for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/revealing-the-secrets-of-photosynthesis-through-pep/">photosynthesis</a> - the trend hints at a large-scale rearrangement of life at the base of marine food webs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-our-oceans-shifting-color-code">Our oceans' shifting color code</h2>



The research team, led by <a href="https://duke.edu/">Duke University</a> post-doctoral scholar Haipeng Zhao, sifted through global data captured from 2003 to 2022. The data came from <a href="https://aqua.nasa.gov/modis">NASA’s MODIS-Aqua</a> instrument, which scans the planet every two days.



Each pass measures subtle shifts in reflected light that reveal chlorophyll concentration right at the surface. To avoid the optical noise of sediment-rich coastlines, the researchers focused exclusively on the open ocean.



“In the ocean, what we see based on satellite measurements is that the tropics and the subtropics are generally losing chlorophyll, whereas the polar regions - the high-latitude regions - are greening,” Zhao said.



In practical terms, that means less plankton in warm, blue waters flanking the equator and a rising abundance in polar waters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inventive-math-for-a-noisy-planet"><a></a>Inventive math for a noisy planet</h2>



Working with satellite imagery always involves gaps - patches of cloud, sensor dropouts, differences in daylight.



To tease out a coherent story, Zhao and colleagues borrowed a pair of statistical tools more often used to study household incomes: the Lorenz curve and the Gini coefficient.



Lead investigator Nicolas Cassar, a scientist at Duke, explained the leap from economics to oceanography: “We borrowed concepts from economics called the Lorenz curve and the Gini index, which together show how wealth is distributed in a society.



“We thought, let’s apply these to see whether the proportion of the ocean that holds the most chlorophyll has changed over time.”



The result? Over twenty years, the ‘chlorophyll rich’ zones - already green - grew greener, particularly in the northern hemisphere, while blue regions lost even more pigment. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-the-climate-connections"><a></a>Testing the climate connections</h2>



Greener poles and bluer tropics might sound like a straightforward fingerprint of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-is-accelerating-beyond-control-as-co2-levels-rise/">global warming</a>. However, the study stops short of that conclusion.



The authors compared chlorophyll shifts with four environmental variables: sea-surface water temperature, wind speed, light availability, and mixed-layer depth. 



Only warming tracked consistently with the observed color change; the others showed no strong association.



Even so, co-author Susan Lozier of <a href="https://www.gatech.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Georgia Tech</a> cautioned against a rush to label climate change the culprit. “The study period was too short to rule out the influence of recurring climate phenomena such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/el-nino-climate-shifts-date-back-250-million-years/">El Niño</a>,” Lozier said.



“Having measurements for the next several decades will be important for determining influences beyond climate oscillations.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-plankton-big-impact">Changing plankton, big impact</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invisible-forest-of-phytoplankton-thrives-in-a-warming-climate/">Phytoplankton</a> do more than tint the waves. Through photosynthesis, they absorb carbon dioxide and convert it to organic matter, sequestering carbon when dead cells sink.



A poleward migration of productivity could rearrange that natural pump. Cassar notes that the geographic shift may decide how long that captured carbon remains out of circulation.



“If carbon sinks deeper or in places where water doesn’t resurface for a long time, it stays stored much longer. In contrast, shallow carbon can return to the atmosphere more quickly, reducing the effect of phytoplankton on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-storage-mystery-emerges-in-the-southern-ocean/">carbon storage</a>,” he said.



Food security is another concern. Many equatorial nations rely on rich fisheries sustained by plankton blooms. A steady drop in primary producers could disrupt the food web, reducing fish stocks vital to diets and economies.



“Phytoplankton are at the base of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-twilight-zone-stabilizes-the-marine-food-chain/">marine food chain</a>. If they are reduced, then the upper levels of the food chain could also be impacted, which could mean a potential redistribution of fisheries,” Cassar warned.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-color-shift-continues">Ocean color shift continues</h2>



The study adds the open ocean to a list of Earth systems already showing poleward ecological drift. On land, satellite records have documented expanding forests in high latitudes and stressed vegetation in the subtropics. 



Now, with the ocean’s own chlorophyll belt shifting, researchers see a consistent planetary story unfolding.



Still, the authors emphasize that two decades are only an opening chapter. Longer records, deeper observations, and improved models of phytoplankton physiology are needed to predict the full ecological impact.



The ocean’s color shift signals change - green in high latitudes, blue near the equator - as ecosystems quietly reorganize. It silently tracks a significant re-ordering of marine life that could reshape climate feedbacks and global fisheries alike.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.adr9715" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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Ocean waters are changing colors and pushing marine life toward the poles

Oceanographers have long used a simple rule of thumb: green...

When a bonobo wrinkles its nose or lifts its browridge, those expressions do more than pose for the camera. Those flashes of movement form a language that researchers have struggled to pin down.



Now an international team has sharpened that language map by adapting a human facial‑coding toolkit to <a href="https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Pan_paniscus/">Pan paniscus</a> (bonobos), cataloging 28 distinct moves and <a href="https://peerj.com/articles/19484/">showing</a> that 22 stem from specific muscles.



Dr. Catia Correia‑Caeiro of <a href="https://www.lw.uni-leipzig.de/institut-fuer-biologie" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leipzig University’s Institute of Biology</a> leads the project, which unites experts from Germany, Switzerland, France, the United Kingdom, and the United States. 



The team borrowed the Facial Action Coding System, a 1978 catalog that labels every visible muscle shift with a numeric action unit, then upgraded the scheme for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobo-communication-shares-many-structural-similarities-with-human-language/">bonobos</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobos-use-expressions-to-communicate">Bonobos use expressions to communicate</h2>



“This adaptation of <a href="https://www.animalfacs.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ChimpFACS</a> for bonobos fills an important gap in our ability to study facial expressions across different primate species,” said Dr. Correia‑Caeiro, who is also affiliated with the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. 



The new manual lets scientists compare <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-bonobo-day-a-celebration-of-love-peace-and-conservation/">bonobo</a>, chimpanzee, and human faces move for move.



Humans can muster about 30 action units, yet bonobos rival their chimpanzee cousins with 22, demonstrating the social weight of facial cues rather than sheer anatomical range. 



The catalog even adds a rarely recorded brow‑lowering move, <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7790396/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AU41</a>, that deepens the <a href="https://www.imaios.com/en/e-anatomy/anatomical-structures/glabella-1536895880#" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">glabella</a> without the human‑exclusive corrugation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobo-expressions-mirror-spoken-language">Bonobo expressions mirror spoken language </h2>



The team sifted through roughly 55 hours of high‑definition <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12169169/#supplemental-information" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">video</a> featuring 241 bonobos in zoos, sanctuaries, and the wild, coding each frame by hand.



The footage revealed three independent ear gestures, ears forward, ears elevated, ears flattened, expanding the expressive palette beyond eyes and mouth. 



The researchers also spotted brief lid‑tightening blinks that accompany nose wrinkles, hinting at graded intensity in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-and-chimps-express-empathy-much-like-humans/">bonobo</a> signals.



The experts noticed that some action units, such as cheek‑raisers and glabella‑lowerers, often fire in rapid succession - suggesting combination rules that mirror syllables in spoken language.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-bonobos-needed-their-own-system">Why bonobos needed their own system</h2>



Despite their similarities to chimpanzees, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bonobos-are-more-endangered-than-previously-known/">bonobos</a> have distinct facial features that complicate direct comparison. 



Subtle traits, like lighter lip coloration, reduced brow-ridge prominence, and more flexible lower lips, affect how facial movements appear and are perceived. These differences can confuse coders if using chimpanzee references alone.



Without a dedicated coding system, earlier studies on bonobos varied wildly in the number of described expressions, from just 5 to as many as 46. 



That inconsistency made it hard to compare results or identify patterns. A tailored toolkit ensures more reliable tracking and opens the door to rigorous, reproducible analysis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-expressions-helps-bonobo-care">Decoding expressions helps bonobo care</h2>



“By better understanding their facial expressions, we can more accurately evaluate their emotional states and overall well‑being,” Correia‑Caeiro explained. Caretakers can now read those signals with new confidence.&nbsp;



Bonobos are endangered, with population estimates hovering between 29,000 and 50,000 individuals according to the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/15932/102331567" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN Red List</a>.



Knowing when a captive ape is tense or relaxed helps zoos tweak enrichment schedules, separate clashing individuals sooner, and design habitats that cut social friction before it spirals into injury.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bonobo-expressions-and-social-units">Bonobo expressions and social units</h2>



Shared action units let scientists trace which facial abilities pre‑date the split between humans and the Pan lineage six million years ago. 



A 2020 multi‑species <a href="https://researchportal.port.ac.uk/files/19273293/Measuring_the_evolution.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">review</a> argues that facial mobility scales with social complexity, placing bonobos near the top of the primate scale.



Bonobos live in female‑bonded, relatively tolerant groups, so extra facial nuance may diffuse conflicts without resorting to violence, offering a living model for hypotheses on early human cooperation.



The <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.3758/s13428-021-01692-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NetFACS project</a> applies network analysis to thousands of coded faces, revealing that great‑ape expressions form dense interaction graphs where muscle combos shift with context. 



In bonobos, preliminary graphs show tighter clustering of play‑related units than threat units, hinting that relaxed social atmospheres encourage richer facial “vocabularies.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-facial-complexity-and-social-evolution">Facial complexity and social evolution</h2>



Computer‑vision engineers are training algorithms on the new bonobo library, aiming for real‑time welfare dashboards that flag stress before keepers can see it. 



The advanced systems could eventually watch forest camera traps, letting conservationists gauge mood across remote populations without intrusive tagging.



Comparative biologists plan to pit bonobo, chimpanzee, and human FACS data against group size, food‑sharing rates, and dominance styles. 



If facial complexity tracks tolerance as predicted, the findings could rewrite textbooks on primate social evolution.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://peerj.com/articles/19484/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PeerJ</a>.



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Facial expressions of bonobos offer a window into their lives

When a bonobo wrinkles its nose or lifts its browridge,...

Bee populations around the world have been slipping for decades, even in areas with meadows. Across the United States, managed hives have dropped from about five million in the 1940s to 2.7 million in <a href="https://www.pollinator.org/threats" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">2023</a>.



Pollination keeps the produce aisle stocked, and honey bees alone add roughly <a href="https://www.usda.gov/about-usda/general-information/initiatives-and-highlighted-programs/peoples-garden/importance-pollinators/honey-bees" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">$15 billion</a> to the value of U.S. crops every year. 



Kathrin Czechofsky of the University of Göttingen says the latest <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.70074" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fieldwork</a> shows there is still room for optimism when farms and conservation <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-bee-day-2025-protecting-the-pollinators-that-feed-the-world/">habitats</a> are planned together.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-are-disappearing-despite-meadows">Bees are disappearing despite meadows</h2>



Habitat loss, pesticide exposure, and disease form a triple threat, yet land conversion remains the clearest driver of wild <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-dangers-threaten-the-survival-of-bees-and-pollinators/">bee</a> decline. 



Climate stress adds another layer, and recent work warns that many bumblebee broods fail when nest temperatures top 96 °F, a threshold that rising heat waves frequently exceed.



Fields blanketed in a single commodity crop create long floral dry spells that leave solitary bees hungry between brief bloom windows. 



Even well‑intended local actions, such as installing small flower strips, often struggle to reverse losses because bees forage across landscapes, not single fields.



Without a coordinated plan, conservation patches can cancel one another out or fail to meet nesting needs over an entire season.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-different-farm-types-were-tested">How different farm types were tested</h2>



To explore what really works, researchers at the <a href="https://www.uni-goettingen.de/">University of Göttingen</a> mapped 32 German farm landscapes roughly 0.6 mile across.



Each circular site combined different shares of organic cropland, annual flower strips, and <a href="https://xerces.org/sites/default/files/publications/23-028_01_Creating-Perennial-Habitat-Using-Plugs-FS_web.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">perennial habitat</a> dominated by long‑lived plants such as meadow knapweed.



Transects criss‑crossed wheat, clover, hedgerows, and the open lanes where <a href="https://www.bumblebeeconservation.org/learn-about-bumblebees/species-guide/red-tailed-bumblebee/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bombus lapidarius</a> and dozens of lesser‑known species feed. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overlapping-support-for-bees">Overlapping support for bees</h2>



Over three summer runs, the team recorded more than 4,500 individual bees, and then scaled those counts to the full landscape for a big‑picture view.



The design allowed the researchers to test whether habitats simply add, work together in a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/synergistic-effect" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">synergistic effect</a>, or cancel each other out.



The analysis leaned on the same statistical muscle used in crop‑yield forecasting, but here the harvest metric was buzz and diversity. 



Organic acreage, flower strips, and perennial pockets each lifted flower cover, yet the payoff for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-are-highly-concerned-that-so-many-bee-hives-have-disappeared/">bees</a> hinged on how those elements overlapped.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bees-thrive-when-farms-meet-meadows">Bees thrive when farms meet meadows</h2>



Organic fields, managed without synthetic pesticides, proved especially valuable when at least five percent of the surrounding land also held perennial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bees-sleep-like-humans-with-similar-brain-patterns/">habitat</a>. 



Densities of non‑bumblebee wild species climbed steeply under that mix, evidence of a synergy between pesticide‑free forage and nearby nesting ground.



“This study offers important guidance for shaping future measures for agriculture and the environment. It highlights the value of coordinated, landscape‑scale planning,” noted Dr. Annika Haß, a lead scientist on <a href="https://www.uni-goettingen.de/en/646422.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the ComBee project</a>.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stable-meadow-edges-support-bees">Stable meadow edges support bees </h2>



Organic plots alone boosted bumblebee numbers too, yet the gains were additive rather than synergistic. 



Many common Bombus species nest flexibly in grass margins or old rodent burrows, so they profit from pesticide‑free blossoms even without extra meadows. 



For orchard managers in the United States pondering organic transitions, the message is clear: pesticide reduction helps, but pairing it with stable meadow edges helps even more.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flower-strips-meadows-and-mixed-signals">Flower strips, meadows, and mixed signals</h2>



Annual flower fields, those bright strips tilled and reseeded every spring, sound perfect on paper but told a more tangled story in practice. 



When large flower strips were paired with broad organic acreage, overall bee numbers often plateaued rather than doubled because both habitats bloom at similar times. Redundancy in food, without added nesting sites, meant no bonus for pollinators.



Perennial meadows, by contrast, flower in staggered waves and offer bare or lightly vegetated soil where ground‑nesting bees dig. Their long-lived stems survive winter, protecting larvae and overwintering adults. 



That structural difference explains why meadows completed the resource puzzle alongside organic crops, while annual strips sometimes crowded it.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/honey-bees-spread-viruses-to-bumblebees-in-the-spring/">Bumblebees</a>, with their social colonies and bigger flight ranges, took advantage of annual strips only in simple landscapes that lacked meadows. For solitary bees with shorter foraging ranges, perennial patches again tipped the scale.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-benefits-of-diversified-landscapes">Benefits of diversified landscapes</h2>



The ComBee team calculated practical thresholds: organic farming starts to raise species richness when annual strips cover less than five acres inside a 500‑acre landscape. 



Synergy with perennial meadows kicks in once those meadows reach about 12 acres. These numbers translate neatly to many Midwestern farm sections or European parish blocks, giving planners concrete targets instead of guesswork.



Because budgets are limited, the authors argue for steering organic incentives toward places where annual flower strips are scarce, while investing separate funds to create long‑term meadows in regions already rich in organic acreage.



Such mixing of functionally different habitats promises the biggest biological return per dollar. Beyond bees, diversified landscapes cushion farms against drought, improve soil structure, and harbor predators that curb <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-assist-farmers-by-consuming-harmful-pests/">crop pests</a>.



Policies that reward cooperation among neighboring landowners, rather than isolated actions, could therefore yield multiple wins.



The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2664.70074" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Applied Ecology</a>.



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Organic farms and meadows can help save wild bees

Bee populations around the world have been slipping for decades,...

The smell of toast drifts from the kitchen. Across the room, you notice a hand reach for a butter knife. Without thinking, you already sense the next move. 



Your brain predicts that a slice of bread will meet a dab of butter, and it usually gets the call right. That quiet, automatic guesswork keeps everyday scenes feeling smooth rather than jumbled.



Behind this split-second foresight is a set of brain regions known to researchers as the "<a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/human-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnhum.2021.627983/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">action observation network (AON)</a>," a collection that fires up whenever we watch another person reach, grasp, or tinker with an object. 



Decades of lab tests - often showing only one- to two-second video snippets - mapped out the basics of that network. 



Yet real life rarely serves actions in single bites. It offers full recipes, packed with intention and order. That difference set the stage for a revealing new study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-action-observation-network-in-the-brain">Action observation network in the brain</h2>



The project came from a team at the <a href="https://nin.nl/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience</a> led by Christian Keysers and Valeria Gazzola. 



Keysers puts it simply: “What we would do next becomes what our brain sees,” a reminder that prediction lies at the heart of perception. 



Earlier work suggested that information flows in one direction - visual regions pass details to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sitting-for-hours-daily-shrinks-your-brain-even-if-you-exercise/">parietal and premotor hubs</a>, which then plan a matching response. The new study asked whether that pipeline flips when a viewer can forecast the next step.



To probe the question, researchers created two versions of everyday scenes - say, building a sandwich or folding a shirt. 



In the natural cut, actions played out in their expected order; in the scrambled cut, the same clips were shuffled. Volunteers watched both while their brain activity was recorded. 



Because some participants were epilepsy patients already implanted with intracranial electrodes for medical monitoring, the team captured electrical signals deep <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-brain-pathways-identified-as-being-unique-to-humans/">inside the cortex</a> with millisecond precision.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-you-and-your-brain-see">What you and your brain see</h2>



When the action order made sense, the brain worked differently than textbook diagrams predicted. Feedback signals ran from higher-level motor regions down to the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/sensory-cortex" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sensory cortex</a>. 



That top-down push quieted visual areas, as if the brain decided it could lighten the workload because the next move was practically a foregone conclusion. 



In contrast, the jumbled cut forced the cortex to lean on incoming sight alone, reviving the classic feed-forward path from eye to hand.



The switch was clearest in the premotor cortex. This area, best known for preparing our own movements, pulsed first when scenes unfolded logically. Electrical rhythms then traveled backward toward regions that handle <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blinking-plays-crucial-role-vision-human-perception/">touch and vision</a>. 



The result hints that motor memories - habits such as slicing a roll - prime the brain to handle what our eyes are about to see.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brain-uses-memory-to-see">Brain uses memory to 'see'</h2>



Valeria Gazzola puts the reversal in plain terms: “Now, information was actually flowing from the premotor regions, that know how we prepare breakfast ourselves, down to the parietal cortex, and suppressed activity in the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/visual-cortex" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">visual cortex</a>.” 



She adds, “It is as if they stopped to see with their eyes, and started to see what they would have done themselves.” 



The quotes capture a striking idea: in familiar settings, action perception may depend more on stored know-how than raw sight.



That idea slots neatly into the larger framework of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-nose-is-a-clever-smell-prediction-system/">predictive coding</a>, a theory proposing that the brain constantly compares expectations to incoming data, then sends error signals when reality misses the mark. 



By showing the mechanism in natural sequences, the study strengthens the view that prediction is not a special feature reserved for high-stakes moments. It is a default mode woven into everyday social life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-efficiency-through-feedback-loops">Efficiency through feedback loops</h2>



Suppressing the visual cortex during a well-known routine might sound risky, yet it saves energy and speeds comprehension. 



If the brain trusts its guess, it trims redundant sensory checks, freeing resources for surprises - such as an unexpected ingredient swap. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/caffeine-at-night-disrupts-sleep-and-brain-activity-especially-in-young-adults/">Electroencephalography</a> and functional MRI data from the same study revealed lower metabolic demand when actions were predictable, backing the idea that foreknowledge cuts neural overhead.



These feedback loops also clarify how we keep track of other people in noisy or visually cluttered places. 



By leaning on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-the-human-brain-create-retrieve-memories-engram-cells-connections/">motor memories</a>, the brain can stitch together patchy views into a coherent scene, a skill vital for teamwork on a crowded street or communication across a dinner table.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-this-is-weird-why-does-it-matter">This is weird, why does it matter?</h2>



Understanding how the motor system shapes perception could help fine-tune rehabilitation after stroke. Therapies that train patients to anticipate movement sequences - rather than simply imitate single motions - might better rewire damaged circuits. 



The findings also inspire engineers working on assistive robots and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/augmented-reality-ar-glasses-bring-3d-holograms-closer-to-reality/">augmented-reality glasses</a>. Systems that predict human intent a fraction of a second early can choose safer paths, hand over tools at the right moment, or flag anomalies before accidents unfold.



Beyond medicine and machines, the work nudges us to appreciate the hidden labor our brains perform. Every time we pass the salt or catch a tossed set of keys, layers of neural forecasting keep the exchange seamless. 



By mapping that choreography with intracranial precision, the researchers have shown that much of what we ‘see’ comes from inside, projected forward by experience rather than painted on solely by the eye.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-studies-on-how-the-brain-sees">Future studies on how the brain sees</h2>



Future studies will test whether the same feedback pattern appears in more complex social exchanges - playing music together, learning a new sport, or reading facial expressions in fast-moving conversations. 



If motor-based prediction proves central across those domains, training programs that expand a person’s movement repertoire could sharpen perceptual skills as well.



For now, the take-home message is clear. When an action unfolds in a familiar rhythm, the brain lets memory call many of the shots. That shortcut keeps life running smoothly, one well-timed guess at a time.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell-reports/fulltext/S2211-1247(23)01444-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell Reports</a>.



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Human minds see what we "expect" to see, not what we actually see

The smell of toast drifts from the kitchen. Across the...

Since 2014, June 21 has been observed globally as World Giraffe Day. Chosen deliberately for its distinction as the longest day of the year, the date honors the world’s tallest land mammal. The symbolism is compelling, but the message is urgent. 



Giraffes are undergoing a rapid and largely unrecognized population decline. While often admired for their appearance, their ecological importance and conservation status remain overlooked by the global public.



The <a href="https://giraffeconservation.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Giraffe Conservation Foundation</a> emphasizes that celebrating giraffes must go hand-in-hand with acknowledging the threats they face. Current trends suggest that without widespread intervention, these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giraffes-are-suffering-a-silent-extinction-and-need-more-protection/">animals</a> could disappear within our lifetime.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-roles-of-giraffes">Ecological roles of giraffes </h2>



Giraffes may be quiet and unassuming, but they play a vital role in nature. They perform key ecological functions that support <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/its-world-giraffe-day-celebrate-the-worlds-tallest-animal-on-the-earths-longest-day/">biodiversity</a> in savanna ecosystems.



While feeding, giraffes naturally trim tree canopies, allowing more sunlight to reach the plants below. This promotes understory growth and enhances the structural diversity of the ecosystem.



As giraffes move across landscapes, they disperse seeds, contributing to forest regeneration.



Giraffes help many other animals by changing their surroundings. Birds, insects, and mammals all benefit. Yet, much like their silent presence, the decline of giraffes has largely gone unnoticed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-world-giraffe-day-a-quiet-decline">World Giraffe Day: A quiet decline</h2>



Over the past three decades, giraffe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giraffes-gained-their-long-necks-for-food-not-sex/">populations</a> have declined by nearly one third. They have been extirpated from at least seven African countries. Despite this, their situation has received minimal public attention. Conservationists have described this phenomenon as a “silent extinction,” noting the contrast between the giraffe’s visibility in tourism and media, and its invisibility in conservation policy.



In comparison to elephants and rhinos, which receive considerable international focus, giraffes rarely appear in global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giraffes-hate-slopes-and-its-threatening-their-survival/">conservation</a> discourse. Their quiet presence may be contributing to their neglect. Yet, the threats they face are no less severe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drivers-of-population-loss">Drivers of population loss</h2>



Habitat fragmentation is a primary driver of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giraffes-have-gut-bacteria-that-are-unaffected-by-their-diet/">population</a> decline. Human expansion through agriculture, infrastructure, and urban development has significantly reduced the land available to giraffes. 



Poaching also persists. Some giraffes are killed for meat; others for tails, which are used as charms or tools.



Climate change compounds these pressures. Droughts force giraffes to approach farmlands, leading to human-wildlife conflict. In these cases, crop protection often results in giraffe fatalities. 



The cumulative effect of these stressors is a gradual erosion of giraffe populations across the continent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emerging-scientific-urgency">Emerging scientific urgency</h2>



Recent genetic studies have shifted scientific understanding of giraffe taxonomy. What was once considered a single species with subspecies is now recognized as four distinct <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-four-unique-giraffe-species-across-africa/">species</a>. 



This taxonomic clarification carries conservation implications. Protection strategies must now be tailored to individual species, as threats and habitat needs vary. 



With improved clarity comes a renewed obligation to act swiftly. Several giraffe species are critically endangered, with populations below 2,000 individuals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-supporting-active-conservation-efforts">Supporting active conservation efforts</h2>



The Giraffe Conservation Foundation leads key interventions across Africa. One major strategy involves tracking giraffes using GPS collars to map their movement patterns and identify ecological corridors. These insights inform landscape-level protection strategies.



Translocation efforts have also proven successful. In areas where populations are especially vulnerable, small herds have been moved to protected zones with favorable conditions. 



Though resource-intensive, this approach has led to successful breeding and the birth of new calves, offering cautious optimism.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-public-action-on-world-giraffe-day">Public action on World Giraffe Day </h2>



Public involvement remains essential. While direct participation in fieldwork is not feasible for most individuals, awareness-raising remains powerful. 



Sharing verified information, supporting conservation organizations, and advocating for sustainable tourism all contribute to broader efforts.



Educators can also play a key role by integrating giraffe conservation into curricula. Artists, writers, and communicators can amplify messages that connect people emotionally and intellectually with the issue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cultural-significance-of-giraffes">Cultural significance of giraffes</h2>



Beyond biology, giraffes hold symbolic importance in many African cultures. Their image appears in rock art, oral traditions, and modern storytelling. 



Often associated with grace, patience, and heightened vision, giraffes represent qualities that humans value deeply.



In this sense, their disappearance would constitute not only an ecological loss but also a cultural one. Preserving giraffes means preserving shared human heritage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-than-a-celebration">More than a celebration </h2>



This observance offers more than celebration. It invites reflection. Why has the decline of such an iconic animal gone largely unnoticed? What assumptions have shaped our collective inaction? And more importantly, how do we shift from admiration to responsibility?



The extra daylight on June 21 becomes a metaphor for awareness. The question is whether we will use it wisely. We already have the tools and science is catching up. 



Protecting giraffes isn’t just about saving a species - it’s about preserving the wild itself. We can’t afford to wait. What stands tall today could disappear tomorrow.



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World Giraffe Day 2025 calls for urgent action to save giraffes

Since 2014, June 21 has been observed globally as World...

Venus has long carried the nickname “Earth’s twin,” yet most people picture it as a static, oven‑hot wasteland with a geologically dead surface. 



A fresh look at radar and gravity records from NASA’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/magellan/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Magellan</a> orbiter now shows the planet is still shifting and rumbling in real time, rewriting that bleak image.



Study lead <a href="https://science.gsfc.nasa.gov/solarsystem/p3g/bio/gael.cascioli" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Gael Cascioli</a> of the <a href="https://umbc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maryland</a> in Baltimore County and <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center</a> says his team’s work has provided a new and important insight into the possible subsurface processes currently shaping the surface of Venus.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-venus-the-basics">Understanding Venus - the basics</h2>



Venus, the second planet from the Sun, has evolved in a dramatically different direction than Earth. 



Its thick atmosphere is composed mainly of carbon dioxide, with clouds of sulfuric acid, creating a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-hellish-planet-venus-can-help-us-find-alien-life/">runaway greenhouse effect</a> that pushes surface temperatures to around 900 degrees Fahrenheit (475°C) - hot enough to melt lead. 



This oppressive heat makes Venus the hottest planet in our solar system, even hotter than Mercury, which is closer to the Sun.



The planet rotates very slowly and in the opposite direction of most other planets, including Earth. A day on Venus - measured from one sunrise to the next - lasts about 117 Earth days. 



Curiously, its rotation is so slow that a Venusian day is longer than its year, which lasts about 225 Earth days. 



Scientists believe that billions of years ago, Venus might have had liquid water and Earth-like conditions, but extreme volcanic activity and atmospheric changes turned it into the scorching, uninhabitable world we see today.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-venus-keeps-reshaping-its-surface">Venus keeps reshaping its surface</h2>



Out of 75 giant circular scars on the surface called <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41561-020-0606-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coronae</a>, 52 sit above hot, buoyant mantle plumes that continue to push and pull the crust today. That tally alone means tectonic motion on the second planet is the rule, not a rare exception.



Venus lacks moving tectonic plates like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-gravity-pulls-earth-closer-to-the-sun-warming-our-climate-scientists-say/">Earth</a>, yet its crust still buckles because the mantle’s heat has few ways to escape. The result is a landscape that rises, splays outward, and sinks in a perpetual slow‑motion churn.



Temperatures near 867 °F and a surface pressure ninety times that of Earth would seem to freeze rocks in place, but the same harsh <a href="https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/planet_table_british.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">conditions</a> help preserve the telltale deformations for scientists to study. 



Magellan’s radar, which peered through the cloud deck between 1990 and 1994, mapped 98 percent of that tortured terrain in detail.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coronae-offer-clues-to-hidden-forces">Coronae offer clues to hidden forces</h2>



A corona can span hundreds of miles, ringed by concentric fractures that betray the upward shove of rising magma blobs. <a href="https://annagulcher.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Anna Gülcher</a> of the <a href="https://www.unibe.ch/index_eng.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bern</a> calls them “very large features” whose variety shows “ongoing active processes driving their formation.”



Some show hints of subduction, where surface slabs sink back toward the mantle despite the absence of plate boundaries. 



Others display telltale trenches that form when dense surface material breaks loose and drips downward, a process geophysicists label lithospheric dripping.



Computer models that match Magellan’s gravity readings reveal warm, low‑density zones beneath the most active coronae. 



Those zones act like slow‑boiling pots, flexing the overlying crust and sometimes punching magma to the surface as fresh lava flows.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tectonic-tricks-on-venus-surface">Tectonic tricks on Venus' surface</h2>



Magellan data reanalyzed in 2023 showed a volcanic vent near eight‑mile‑high Maat Mons doubling in size within eight months, proof that eruptions are not ancient history. 



Further radar comparisons in 2024 uncovered young lava draping the plains around <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/images/pia00108-venus-3-d-perspective-view-of-sif-mons/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sif Mons</a> and <a href="https://www.lpi.usra.edu/resources/venus_maps/2467_1/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Niobe Planitia</a>, suggesting eruptions there are even more widespread than first thought.



These eruptions differ from Earth’s ring‑of‑fire blasts. Without water to lubricate cracks, Venusian magma seeps and oozes, forming broad shields and flood lavas instead of explosive cones.



Cascioli’s catalog, however, shows that plume‑powered coronae may mimic proto‑plate behavior. They redistribute crust, recycle material, and could have shaped early Earth before modern plate tectonics took over.



“The <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/PSJ/ad991a" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">VERITAS</a> gravity maps of Venus will boost the resolution by at least a factor of two to four,” notes <a href="https://science.jpl.nasa.gov/people/smrekar/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Suzanne Smrekar at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a>, she sees the upcoming VERITAS mission, set to launch in 2031, as the game changer that’s promising sharper insight into the processes now only glimpsed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-it-means-for-early-earth">What it means for early Earth</h2>



If plume‑driven coronae once dotted our young planet, they may have provided the first recycling engine for crust and atmosphere. Studying them on Venus offers a time capsule into that primordial era.



Active geology also keeps atmospheres fresh by venting gases. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-venus-alive-new-signs-of-volcanic-activity-emerge/">Venus</a> clearly retains enough internal heat to power frequent eruptions, so questions grow about how its once‑Earth‑like climate tipped into today’s hellish greenhouse.



A lingering mystery is whether hidden pockets of cooler terrain or highland plateaus shelter minerals that hint at lost oceans. Future radar and near‑infrared scans will probe for basalt alteration that water would leave behind.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-missions-ready-for-answers">Future missions ready for answers</h2>



VERITAS will orbit with a synthetic‑aperture radar six times sharper than Magellan’s and track the craft’s slight wobbles to map the planet’s gravity shell‑by‑shell. That data will locate fresh lava flows only yards thick and measure how the crust flexes in real time.



<a href="https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Envision/ESA_selects_revolutionary_Venus_mission_Envision" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Europe’s EnVision probe</a> will follow later in the decade, bouncing radio waves to pick out variations in surface roughness that betray young volcanic rock.



 Together, the pair should turn Venus from a blurry enigma into a laboratory for planetary change.



Earth’s twin is hot, crushing, and toxic, yet it refuses to sit still. Every new line of evidence points to a world that continues to stretch, bend, and breathe beneath its sulfurous clouds.



The study is published in <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40367154/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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NASA discovers that Earth's twin planet, Venus, is not geologically dead

Venus has long carried the nickname “Earth’s twin,” yet most...

A single fossil of a giant Appalachian salamander has been discovered by scientists at East Tennessee State University. 



Millions of years ago, this 16-inch salamander with a powerful bite threaded its way through the soft earth of what is now northeastern Tennessee.



The salamander tunnels criss-crossed ancient forests, and its appetite likely shaped the mix of smaller <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saving-amphibians-wildlife-tunnels-prevent-road-deaths/">amphibians</a> in the surrounding ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-may-explain-salamander-diversity">Fossil may explain salamander diversity </h2>



Today, the fossil of this new species may help explain how the region's salamanders became so diverse. The specimen surfaced at the Gray Fossil Site &amp; Museum, a dig next door to <a href="https://www.etsu.edu/ehome/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">East Tennessee State University</a> (ETSU).



After careful study, researchers described the animal - Dynamognathus robertsoni - in a publication in the journal Historical Biology.



The work comes from a team that includes assistant collections manager Davis Gunnin, professor of geosciences Dr. Blaine Schubert, head curator Dr. Joshua Samuels, museum specialist Keila Bredehoeft, and assistant collections manager Shay Maden.



“Our researchers are not only uncovering ancient life, they are modeling the kind of collaboration and curiosity that define ETSU,” said Dr. Joe Bidwell, dean of the College of Arts and Sciences. 



“This exciting find underscores the vital role our university plays in preserving and exploring Appalachia’s deep natural history.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-species-named-for-its-powerful-jaw">Species named for its powerful jaw</h2>



Dynamognathus robertsoni ranks among the largest of the lungless salamanders from the family Plethodontidae. It exchanged gases through its skin and the lining of its mouth, rather than by means of lungs. 



The jaw anatomy of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/salamanders-can-adapt-better-to-climate-change-than-previously-thought/">ancient salamander</a> suggests a striking bite force, which would have made it a formidable predator.



“This group of salamanders has unusual cranial anatomy that gives them a strong bite force, so the genus name, Dynamognathus – Greek for ‘powerful jaw,’ is given to highlight the great size and power of the salamander compared to its living relatives,” explained Maden.



The species name honors Wayne Robertson, a longtime volunteer who spotted the first bone and has sifted through more than 50 tons of sediment since 2000.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-appalachia-s-surprising-salamander-legacy">Appalachia’s surprising salamander legacy</h2>



Today, the Southern Appalachian forests host more than 50 salamander species - about one-eighth of all known salamanders on Earth. 



Many of them are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/plethodontidae" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plethodonts</a> like the new fossil species. Scientists have long wondered how so many species could have arisen in this small corner of the world.



“Finding something that looks like a Red Hills salamander here in East Tennessee was a bit of a surprise,” Gunnin said. 



“Today they’re only found in a few counties in southern Alabama, and researchers thought of them as a highly specialized dead-end lineage, not particularly relevant to the evolution of the dusky salamanders."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-salamander-communities">Evolution of salamander communities </h2>



The discovery of Dynamognathus robertsoni in Southern Appalachia indicates that this type of relatively large, burrowing salamander was once more widespread in eastern North America, explained Gunnin.



He noted that this may have had a profound impact on the evolution of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/three-new-black-bellied-salamanders-were-hidden-in-plain-sight/">Appalachian</a> salamander communities.



Modern dusky salamanders max out at about seven inches (18 centimeters) - less than half the length of the fossil giant. The research team suspects that predators like D. robertsoni drove smaller stream-dwellers to diversify rapidly, setting the stage for today’s variety.



“The warmer climate in Tennessee 5 million years ago, followed by cooling during the Pleistocene <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/disastrous-climate-changes-of-the-last-ice-age-could-happen-again/">Ice Ages</a>, may have restricted large, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/red-backed-salamanders-will-struggle-to-adapt-to-climate-warming/">burrowing salamanders</a> to lower latitudes, like southern Alabama, where the Red Hills salamander lives today,” said Samuels.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-salamander-fossil">Significance of the salamander fossil</h2>



“The latest salamander publication is a testament to this teamwork and search for answers,” said Schubert. 



“When Davis Gunnin, the lead author, began volunteering at the museum as a teenager with an interest in fossil salamanders, I was thrilled because this region is known for its salamander diversity today, and we know so little about their fossil record."



From high-school volunteers to seasoned faculty, the Gray Fossil Site team keeps uncovering stories buried beneath Appalachian soil.



The stories explain why a walk through a modern Tennessee stream still reveals more salamander shapes and colors than almost anywhere else on Earth.



This shared effort blends curiosity, dedication, and local pride in a way that brings science to life. With each new find, the team adds another piece to the puzzle of Appalachia’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/triassic-fossils-shed-new-light-on-ancient-ecosystems/">ancient ecosystems</a>.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08912963.2025.2501332" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Historical Biology</a>.



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Giant salamander fossil reveals deep roots of Appalachian diversity

A single fossil of a giant Appalachian salamander has been...

Artificial intelligence (AI) is no longer a futuristic dream. It’s already shaping how people learn, work, communicate, and make decisions. 



From virtual assistants and advertising to grading exams and diagnosing diseases, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/evolutionary-ai-can-balance-climate-goals-and-economic-progress/">artifical intelligence</a> is everywhere. With each breakthrough, the future of the workplace evolves in ways many people never imagined.



As AI takes on more complex roles, many jobs that humans do today may disappear. This reality creates both a challenge and an opportunity. Governments and schools now face the question: How can they prepare people for a future dominated by AI?



New research from the University of Georgia (<a href="https://www.uga.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UGA</a>) offers answers. It explores how 50 countries are dealing with this shift, especially in education and workforce development. 



The study's findings show a wide range of strategies and priorities, offering a glimpse into what the future of work might look like worldwide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-will-replace-jobs-and-create-jobs">AI will replace jobs and create jobs</h2>



The fear that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-human-brain-thinks-differently-than-ai/">machines</a> will replace humans has existed for centuries. But this time, it's not just physical labor at risk. White-collar and creative roles are also under pressure. 



Previous research estimates that nearly half of today’s jobs could disappear within the next 20 years.



Still, this change is not entirely negative. Researchers also believe that 65% of today’s elementary school students will work in careers that don’t yet exist. 



Most of these new roles will require deep knowledge of AI tools, systems, and logic. That means the real risk lies not in losing jobs but in failing to prepare for the jobs of the future.



The human element remains essential. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-is-transforming-pollen-science-and-health-planning/">Machines</a> may learn patterns, but they lack emotional intelligence and intuition. These traits will continue to set people apart.



"Human soft skills, such as creativity, collaboration and communication cannot be replaced by AI," noted Lehong Shi from the College of Education.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-countries-are-planning-for-ai-jobs">How countries are planning for AI jobs</h2>



The UGA study, led by Lehong Shi, reviewed national <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/if-ai-has-free-will-whos-responsible-when-things-go-wrong/">artificial intelligence</a> strategies from 50 countries. It looked closely at how each nation planned to educate its citizens and train workers in AI-related areas. 



Shi examined six indicators to rank these efforts: the strategy’s goals, methods of implementation, examples of projects, success metrics, support structures, and timelines.



Based on this analysis, countries were grouped into three categories: high, medium, or low priority for developing an AI-ready workforce. Only 13 countries earned a high-priority status. Eleven of them were European, with Mexico and Australia rounding out the group.



This shows that some nations are already thinking long-term. According to Shi, European countries often benefit from strong educational systems and cultures that support lifelong learning. These factors make it easier for them to act quickly and plan deeply.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-the-united-states-stands">Where the United States stands</h2>



The U.S. did not make the high-priority list. It was among 23 countries that placed medium importance on preparing for AI. This means its national AI strategy lacks the same level of detail found in more committed countries.



That doesn’t mean nothing is happening. American universities are building AI labs, and companies are offering training. But without a coordinated national effort, the U.S. risks falling behind. 



Nations that make bigger investments now may have a stronger and more flexible workforce in the future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-expanding-ai-programs-for-students">Expanding AI programs for students</h2>



Despite their differences, countries often shared certain priorities. Nearly every nation aimed to expand AI programs in universities. Many also wanted to include AI in primary and secondary education, preparing students from an early age.



More than half of the countries focused on using AI for on-the-job training. These efforts ranged from formal internships to custom programs for industries like healthcare, finance, or manufacturing. 



While these steps are helpful, the study found a lack of focus on vulnerable groups. Older adults, unemployed people, and those with limited education were often left out of national strategies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-national-priorities-for-the-use-of-ai">National priorities for the use of AI</h2>



Some countries focused their efforts in other directions. For instance, several Asian countries prioritized AI for defense and healthcare instead of education. Shi emphasized that these choices reflect national priorities and don’t mean AI is being ignored.



A few countries stood out for their unique approaches. Germany, for example, chose to build a culture around AI awareness. The goal is to promote long-term interest in AI, rather than just offering training. 



Spain took a different but equally impressive route. It started teaching AI-related skills to children in preschool. These examples show that preparing for AI does not begin in adulthood. 



Building curiosity and confidence from an early age helps children adapt easily to future careers. It also reduces fear and builds resilience in the face of rapid change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-countries-lack-a-key-strategy">Many countries lack a key strategy</h2>



Yet, even among countries with strong strategies to prepare for the age of AI, one key area was often ignored. 



"Human soft skills, such as creativity, collaboration and communication cannot be replaced by AI," Shi said. "And they were only mentioned by a few countries."



This is a critical oversight. Machines can analyze data and solve technical problems, but they can’t brainstorm like humans. 



Soft skills support teamwork, leadership, and customer service. Without them, even the most technically skilled worker may struggle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-toward-an-ai-ready-future">Looking toward an AI-ready future</h2>



The study has a clear conclusion. Some countries are charging ahead with AI workforce plans. Others are still testing the waters. A few focus mostly on education and training. Others lean into AI <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neuromorphic-computing-where-ai-meets-human-brain/">technology</a> for healthcare, security, or economics.



The routes vary, but the finish line looks the same. To keep up, people need real skills - not just tech know-how, but the ability to think clearly, lead with confidence, and connect with others. 



Some countries begin this work early, ohers drag their feet, and a few cast a wide net. Too many still leave entire groups behind.



What happens next isn’t about machines. It’s about the decisions we make now. The countries that keep learning, stay flexible, and bring everyone along will handle the AI wave better than the rest.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/15344843251332360" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Human Resource Development Review</a>.



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AI is disrupting jobs, but countries are learning to adapt

Artificial intelligence (AI) is no longer a futuristic dream. It’s...

Watching babies babble, play, or interact with others may offer surprising insights into how their thinking skills will develop and function decades later.



That’s the central finding of a study showing that even at 7 months old, some of a baby's cognitive behaviors can hint at their thinking skills as 30-year-old adults. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-infancy-shapes-thinking-skills-for-life">Infancy shapes thinking skills for life</h2>



Scientists at the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/">University of Colorado Boulder</a> studied more than 1,000 twins over the span of 30 years. Their research shows that early-life assessments of cognitive function can help predict performance on cognitive tests at age 30. 



The findings also suggest that an infant’s environment plays a more important role in shaping life-long thinking ability than previously believed. According to the researchers, it could even affect a person’s risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/risk-of-dementia-is-much-higher-than-previously-thought/">dementia</a> later in life.



“Our findings highlight the enduring consequences of the very early childhood environment on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lifestyle-choices-in-young-adulthood-impact-cognitive-ability-in-midlife/">cognitive ability</a> and suggest that early life is a critical developmental period that we should be paying attention to,” said Daniel Gustavson, assistant research professor at the Institute for Behavioral Genetics (IBG).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-few-studies-of-infant-thinking-skills">Few studies of infant thinking skills</h2>



General cognitive ability, or GCA, is a broad measure of a person’s ability to learn, reason, understand, and solve problems. It’s similar to the more familiar term <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-hormones-during-pregnancy-may-affect-child-iq/">IQ</a>, though GCA is a composite of several cognitive factors.



Previous research has shown that a large portion of GCA is already set during childhood. For instance, if you test an 8-year-old’s cognitive skills, the result will likely resemble their score at age 30. 



In fact, intelligence scores at age 20 are highly correlated with scores at age 62. IQ doesn’t change much between ages 11 and 90.



But until now, very few studies have explored whether signals from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/caregiver-speech-shapes-infant-language-development/">infancy</a> - long before school starts - can tell us anything meaningful about future thinking ability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-assessments-of-thinking-skills-began-early">Assessments of thinking skills began early</h2>



To answer this question, Gustavson and senior author Chandra Reynolds analyzed data from 1,098 individuals enrolled in the Colorado Longitudinal Twin Study. 



The IBG began the project in 1985 by enrolling baby twins from Colorado’s Front Range to study how genetic and environmental factors influence development over time.



Since then, researchers have collected large amounts of data through lab samples, home visits, interviews, surveys, and behavioral testing.



“We have co-authors on this paper who have been involved since the start and watched these twins grow up,” said Gustavson.



At 7 months old, each infant completed assessments of seven cognitive skills. These included vocalization, task persistence, and what researchers called “novelty preference” - whether the baby chose a new toy over a familiar one.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-twin-studies-continue-for-decades">Twin studies continue for decades</h2>



So far, participants have completed cognitive testing at five different ages throughout their lives.



The study found that early thinking skills could explain about 13% of the variation in cognitive performance at age 30. Two infant traits, namely task orientation and novelty preference, were especially strong predictors. Though modest, the researchers found this link notable.



“We certainly do not want to imply that cognition is somehow fixed by seven months old,” Gustavson said. “But the idea that a very simple test in infancy can help predict the results of a very complicated cognitive test taken 30 years later is exciting.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-thinking-skills-affected-by-nature-and-nurture">Thinking skills affected by nature and nurture</h2>



To understand the extent to which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lifespan-is-influenced-more-by-lifestyle-than-genetics/">genetics</a> (nature) and environment (nurture) each contribute to cognition, the researchers looked at differences in GCA scores between identical twins, who share all of their genes, and fraternal twins, who share about half. 



When identical twins show more similar outcomes than fraternal twins, this points to a stronger genetic influence. The team also examined DNA samples collected from blood or saliva.



As expected, genetics played a significant role. By age 7, inherited traits accounted for roughly half of the variation in cognitive scores measured at age 30. Still, environmental factors in early life also left a meaningful and lasting mark.



"One of the most exciting findings was that 10% of the variability in adult cognitive ability was explained by environmental influences before year one or two,” elaborated Gustavson. “This suggests that even the pre-preschool environment matters," he added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-baby-years-matter-for-cognitive-ability">Baby years matter for cognitive ability</h2>



Chandra Reynolds, a co-author of the research paper who studies dementia risk, sees a bigger picture.



“Cognitive aging is a life-long process, not just something that begins in mid-life,” said Reynolds. 



“It could be that certain interventions, like strong educational foundations in early life could help maximize what people are capable of and help them keep that cognitive gas in the tank for as long as possible.”



Good childcare, stimulating play, and stable living conditions might help preserve brain power into old age.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-genes-impact-thinking-skills">Many genes impact thinking skills</h2>



The study also showed that polygenic scores are a valuable tool for estimating cognitive ability.



These scores combine the effects of many individual genetic variants into a single number, offering an estimate of a person’s genetic likelihood for a trait - such as intelligence.



“There are thousands of genes that influence intelligence, so you are never going to find an ‘intelligence gene,' but we have found many with tiny effects that, when put together, can have an impact,” Gustavson said.



“Studies like ours show us that both family-based and genomic-based datasets are valuable in answering questions about how genetic and environmental influences change across the lifespan"



Together, these findings reinforce the idea that what happens in babyhood doesn’t just fade - it shapes thinking for a lifetime.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2426531122">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Adult thinking skills may be forged during our early infancy

Watching babies babble, play, or interact with others may offer...

The pandemic didn’t just bring masks and lockdowns. It brought science into living rooms. One term stood out - mRNA vaccines. These shots rolled out fast and saved lives. But the excitement faded when vaccine-driven immune protection wore off too soon.



A few months after the jab, people lined up again for boosters. The world wanted immunity that stuck around. Scientists started asking: Can we make mRNA <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-vaccine-strategy-paid-off-and-its-still-saving-lives/">vaccines</a> last longer without piling on more doses?



Turns out, maybe we can. A group of researchers may have figured out how.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-vaccine-looks-like-a-virus">The vaccine looks like a virus</h2>



Researchers from the University of Copenhagen and biotech firm AdaptVac gave the mRNA <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-failure-patients-may-live-longer-with-covid-19-vaccination/">vaccine</a> a new outfit. They disguised it as a virus.



“Our study combines two technologies: mRNA vaccines and what we call virus-like particles," said lead author Cyrielle Fougeroux, senior scientist at AdaptVac. 



"By engineering the mRNA vaccine to produce virus-like particles, we trick the immune system into thinking it’s encountering a real virus."



"This triggers a much stronger and more durable immune response in mice, which is exactly what we want."



So what does this actually mean? They added a second piece of genetic code. One part builds the usual spike protein. 



The new part builds a virus-like shell. Together, these parts form something that looks like a threat. The immune system doesn’t hesitate - it charges in.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-less-vaccine-stronger-immune-response">Less vaccine, stronger immune response</h2>



The body reacts stronger and remembers longer. That’s the goal. The mice in the study showed exactly that. Fewer doses still created a lasting response.



Less vaccine, more immunity. That changes everything - fewer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/powerful-ai-algorithm-can-predict-a-persons-attitude-towards-vaccines/">jabs</a>, fewer side effects, less strain on healthcare.



Adam Sander, the study's senior author, is a professor at the University of Copenhagen and scientific director at AdaptVac.



“We believe this discovery represents a significant improvement to current mRNA technology and could play a major role in the development of next-generation vaccines,” said Sander.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-for-future-outbreaks">Preparing for future outbreaks</h2>



Pandemics don’t wait and scientists know this. They’re already racing to beat the next one. Nipah virus, for example, could be a serious threat. It spreads from animals, kills fast, and has no approved vaccine.



At the University of Copenhagen, Sander’s team is using the same technology to build a Nipah vaccine. Human trials could begin in a few years. Timing matters and so does durability.



“mRNA technology is a powerful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-19-vaccine-misconceptions-are-spreading-rapidly/">tool</a> against a wide range of diseases, but its short-lived effect in humans is a major challenge," Sander said.



"If we can use virus-like particles to achieve a stronger and potentially longer-lasting immune response, we’ve made a meaningful improvement to the technology - one that could have a major impact during a pandemic.” 



That stronger punch means one thing: a vaccine that builds stronger and longer immune protection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-mrna-needed-a-boost">Why mRNA needed a boost</h2>



Before 2020, vaccines came slowly. Grow virus, kill it, inject it. When COVID-19 hit, mRNA changed the game. Instead of injecting bits of virus, scientists sent instructions. The body did the building. Fast, flexible, and safer.



But that clever design had a weak spot. The body often forgot. That’s why boosters came so soon.



Here’s where the new method shines. It still uses mRNA, but the added code makes the body build a virus-like shell too. It’s fake, but it looks real. The immune system thinks it’s under attack. And that, surprisingly, makes all the difference.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-immune-boosting-vaccine-on-the-horizon">Immune-boosting vaccine on the horizon</h2>



However, the results so far only come from experiments on mice. That means it’s too early to say whether the same strong immune response will happen in humans. 



Still, the concept is bold and promising. The immune system often needs a strong trigger to react fully. By creating virus-like particles, the vaccine may give the immune system a reason to take notice and respond more powerfully.



If this method works in humans, it could lead to vaccines that not only act fast but also keep the immune system protected for much longer. That could make future vaccines more effective and reduce the need for frequent booster shots.



The study is published in the journal Nature Nanotechnology. It’s a team effort between the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Copenhagen</a> and <a href="https://www.adaptvac.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AdaptVac</a>. Both groups share ownership of the results.



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Scientists trick immune system into stronger vaccine response

The pandemic didn’t just bring masks and lockdowns. It brought...

As climate change continues to reshape the environment, new research reveals that global food systems face serious long-term risks, with global crop yields likely to shrink even if farmers adapt. 



The findings suggest that every additional degree of warming could significantly reduce how much food the world can produce.



A new study estimates that for every 1°C increase in global temperatures, the average person’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/futuristic-food-supply-transforming-co2-into-protein/">food supply</a> could drop by 120 calories per day - roughly 4.4% of daily consumption.



“If the climate warms by three degrees, that’s basically like everyone on the planet giving up breakfast,” said co-author Solomon Hsiang, a professor of environmental social sciences at the <a href="https://sustainability.stanford.edu/">Stanford Doerr School of Sustainability</a>.



With more than 800 million people already suffering from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-insecurity-can-lead-to-heart-problems-later-in-life/">food insecurity</a>. The prospect of widespread food declines due to climate change is raising alarms among policymakers and humanitarian agencies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-corn-belt-in-jeopardy"><a></a>The Corn Belt in jeopardy</h2>



The study points to the United States - particularly the Midwest - as one of the regions that could be hardest hit.



Andrew Hultgren is one of the lead authors of the study and an assistant professor at the <a href="https://illinois.edu/">University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign</a>. 



“Places in the Midwest that are really well-suited for present-day corn and soybean production just get hammered under a high warming future,” he said. "You do start to wonder if the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-u-s-corn-belt-influences-its-own-weather/">Corn Belt</a> is going to be the Corn Belt in the future.”



“This is basically like sending our agricultural profits overseas. We will be sending benefits to producers in Canada, Russia, China. Those are the winners, and we in the U.S. are the losers,” Hsiang added. “The longer we wait to reduce emissions, the more money we lose.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farming-fixes-only-go-so-far">Farming fixes only go so far</h2>



One of the study’s innovations is its realistic approach to adaptation. Rather than assuming farmers will either do nothing or respond perfectly to changes, the research team analyzed actual behavior in 12,000 regions across 55 countries.



They looked at yields and costs for six major staple crops: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-bread-wheat-gave-rise-to-civilization/">wheat</a>, corn, rice, soybeans, barley, and cassava.



In many areas, farmers already adjust practices - like planting dates, crop varieties, or fertilizer use - to cope with climate change. These changes help, but only to a point. “Any level of warming, even when accounting for adaptation, results in global output losses from agriculture,” Hultgren said.



The impacts are likely to be most severe for the world’s agricultural powerhouses and its poorest communities. Yield losses from staple crops could average 41% in the wealthiest regions and 28% in the lowest-income areas by the end of the century.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-picks-food-winners">Climate change picks food winners</h2>



One key finding is that climate change impacts crops differently. The study predicts a 50% chance that rice yields will rise, largely because rice benefits from warmer nights. However, the odds of decline by 2100 range from 70% to 90% for other major staples.



With the Earth already 1.5°C warmer than pre-industrial levels, the effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-roots-could-be-key-to-fighting-climate-change/">climate change</a> are no longer theoretical. Farmers are reporting erratic weather, longer droughts, and extreme heat, even in regions where modern inputs are readily available.



The models suggest that by 2100, global yields could fall 11% even if emissions drop to net zero, and by 24% if emissions continue to climb. The outlook for 2050 is not much better, with an estimated 8% reduction in yields regardless of emissions changes.



“If we ignore those long-run damages, we assign an economic value of zero to them, and that is clearly wrong,” Hultgren said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-farming-needs-support">Future farming needs support</h2>



Hsiang and Hultgren are now turning their focus to helping governments prepare. They’re working with the <a href="https://www.undp.org/">United Nations Development Program</a> to share the findings and identify communities most at risk.



“We’re focusing on how to make it so that this is not actually what our future looks like, even if we can’t get our act together on the emissions side,” Hsiang said.



Helping farmers adapt won’t be easy. In many regions, they lack access to basics like quality fertilizer or accurate weather forecasts. The team is developing tools to prioritize funding and resources where they can make the biggest impact.



For Hsiang, the message is clear: climate change is eroding one of agriculture’s most essential assets - stability.



“Farmers know how to maintain the soil, invest in infrastructure, repair the barn. But if you’re letting the climate depreciate, the rest of it is a waste. The land you leave to your kids will be good for something, but not for farming,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09085-w">Nature</a>.



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Climate change may devastate global food production

As climate change continues to reshape the environment, new research...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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