Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Many war veterans and returning military personnel experience posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after witnessing traumatic and horrifying events. Although this mental condition can be treated with psychotherapy and medications, the symptoms may persist for years. A growing number of sufferers also incorporate complementary interventions to try and alleviate the debilitating symptoms. One such intervention has involved the use of service dogs specially trained to perform tasks to help mitigate specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/women-with-ptsd-and-depression-are-four-times-more-likely-to-die-prematurely/">PTSD</a> symptoms.



Previous qualitative and quantitative research has indeed shown that military veterans with service dogs experience less severe PTSD symptoms and a better quality of life than those who do not have service dogs. However, the mechanisms by which the dogs bring about these changes has not been investigated and is currently not understood. A new observational study led by Clare Jensen of Purdue University has sought to understand what it is about the service dogs, or the bond between dogs and handlers, that brings about the reduction in symptom severity.



Jensen and colleagues studied 82 military members or veterans and their service dogs, which had all been trained to alleviate PTSD symptoms. Some of the tasks that trained PTSD dogs carry out involve applying pressure to the handler during bouts of anxiety, nudging to disrupt flashbacks and waking the handler from nightmares. Dogs are also trained to warn the handler when a person approaches from behind, and handlers may command the dog to initiate a social contact (“make a friend”) with another person, thereby making social interactions easier to initiate.&nbsp;



The 82 veterans and their 82 dogs were selected by K9s for Warriors, a non-profit organization that provides trained PTSD service dogs to post-9/11 military members and veterans across the US at no cost. In the month before meeting with their new dogs, the people completed surveys about their demographics, personalities and mental health issues. The temperament of each dog was also recorded in detail. After pairing the military members and the dogs, a three-week training took place in which handlers were taught how to work with their dogs.&nbsp;



A subsequent survey was completed at the home of each handler, three months after the initial pairing. In addition to answering survey questions, the handlers were also assessed using observations of their interactions with their dogs. The data collected was used to evaluate the dog characteristics that best predicted positive mental health outcomes, to assess dog and human characteristics that best predicted a close handler-dog bond, and to explore potential mechanisms whereby mental health improvements occur.



The results of the study, published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/">PLoS ONE</a>, complement the growing evidence that partnership with a PTSD service dog can be effective for reducing symptoms and improving mental health among veterans with PTSD. Although most of the dog characteristics analyzed were not associated with better or worse veteran mental health outcomes, there was one exception. Dogs with lower levels of excitability were linked to both a decrease in severity of PTSD symptoms in handlers, and a closer partnership between handler and dog. Handlers attributed many of their mental health improvements to the calming effect of their dog.



The factors associated with better mental health outcomes included a close veteran-dog partnership (which was linked to lower dog excitability) and the perception by the handler that the dog’s care was easy. The researchers also found a link between worse depression and handlers that more frequently asked service dogs to initiate a social greeting. In addition, veterans who frequently asked their dogs to alert them to a human approaching from behind were more likely to have greater anxiety but less severe PTSD symptoms.



Further research will be needed to expand on these findings and potentially identify how the most suitable pairings between veterans and dogs can be achieved in future, such that the veterans benefit most from their relationships with their service dogs. In addition, the results may help determine how best to select and train future service dogs, for example by favoring calm individuals and training to reduce excitability.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“This study provides new information about how and why service dogs may improve mental health for some veterans with PTSD," said Jensen. "We are especially grateful to the military veterans who made this possible by sharing their time and experiences with us.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Service dogs reduce symptoms of posttraumatic stress

Many war veterans and returning military personnel experience posttraumatic stress...

Two studies published in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abp8337?adobe_mc=MCMID%3D85670475348227709511999842200155442388%7CMCORGID%3D242B6472541199F70A4C98A6%2540AdobeOrg%7CTS%3D1658884408">Science</a> offer a more complete look at the origins of Covid-19. An international team of researchers has determined that at least two coronavirus variants were transmitted from live animals to humans at the Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market in Wuhan, China.



Dr. Joel O. Wertheim is an associate professor in the Division of Infectious Diseases and Global Public Health at the <a href="https://ucsd.edu/">UC San Diego</a> School of Medicine, and a co-author on both papers.



“It’s vital that we know as much about the origin of Covid-19 as possible because only by understanding how pandemics get started can we hope to prevent them in the future,” said Dr. Wertheim.



“I think there’s been consensus that this virus did in fact come from the Huanan Market, but a strong case for multiple introductions hasn’t been made by anyone else yet."



Based on genetic research, the researchers determined that there were two animal-to-human jumps with two different virus strains. The first jump occurred in late November 2019, while the second lineage jumped within weeks of the first. This means that multiple zoonotic transmission events likely led to the COVID-19 pandemic.



This research is consistent with another recently published study conducted by the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention.



“We felt validated, but what we felt more was immense pressure because they beat our preprint to the punch by about 12 hours, and we could only discuss their findings in light of ours,” said Dr. Wertheim.



The researchers are cautiously confident about their conclusions. “While I’m hesitant to call it proof, what we presented is the most comprehensive explanation for the SARS-CoV-2 genomic diversity at the outset of the pandemic,” said Dr. Wertheim. “There are really no other good explanations for both of these strains being at the market except for multiple jumps into humans.”



Study lead author Jonathan E. Pekar said that the evolution and spread of the virus were inevitable, considering the circumstances.



“Everything complicated happened before that introduction,” explained Pekar. “The last step is just extended contact and transmission from hosts to humans. At that point, it would actually be unusual to only have one introduction. We’ve seen this before with MERS-CoV (a similar zoonotic virus). We’ve seen it with humans giving SARS-CoV-2 to minks on farms and then minks giving it back to humans.”



“This has happened before, and it’s going to keep happening. Nature is a better lab than humans will ever be.”&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Multiple Covid strains jumped to humans at Wuhan market

Two studies published in Science offer a more complete look...

Anxiety, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vitamin-b6-can-reduce-anxiety-and-depression/">depression</a>, or cluster headaches can be highly debilitating. Recent studies have argued that psychedelic compounds which stimulate serotonin receptors in the brain could act as treatments for these conditions. While clinical trials have indeed shown promising results, not everyone seems to benefit from these substances. 



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.unc.edu/">University of North Carolina Chapel Hill</a> (UNC) has found that a reason for this could be common genetic variations in one serotonin receptor. The experts discovered that seven variants uniquely and differentially impacted this receptor’s in vitro response to four psychedelic drugs - LSD, psilocin, 5-methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine (5-MeO-DMT), and mescaline.



Serotonin receptors in the brain bind serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine; 5-HT) and other similar amine-containing molecules, helping regulate people’s moods, emotions, cognitive processes, and even appetite. One of these receptors (5-HT2A) is responsible for mediating the effects of a variety of psychedelic drugs. However, scientists found that there are several naturally occurring, random genetic variations – known as “single nucleotide polymorphisms” (SNPs) – which can significantly alter the 5-HT2A receptor’s structure and function.



The researchers used a series of assays to investigate the effect that seven different SNPs had on in vitro binding and signaling of the 5-HT2A&nbsp;receptor when in the presence of psilocin, LSD, 5-MeO-DMT, and mescaline. The analysis revealed that some genetic variations – even ones at a significant distance from the binding site – fundamentally alter the ways in which this serotonin receptor interacts with the drugs. For instance, the single nucleotide polymorphism Ala230Th was found to have both increased and reduced responses to the psychedelic substances tested compared to the original version of the gene, while the His452Th mutation exhibited only reduced effects.



These findings suggest that patients with different genetic variations would react differently to psychedelic treatments. Thus, physicians should carefully consider the genetics of a patient’s serotonin receptors in order to reliably identify which psychedelic compound is likely to be the most effective treatment.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acschemneuro.1c00815">ACS Chemical Neuroscience</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Genetics influence the brain's response to psychedelics

Anxiety, depression, or cluster headaches can be highly debilitating. Recent...

In a new study from <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a>, experts report that exposure to extreme heat can lead to chronic and acute malnutrition among infants and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/green-spaces-are-beneficial-for-childrens-lung-health/">children</a> in low-income countries. The researchers say that the impacts of heat exposure threaten to reverse decades of progress.&nbsp;



The study was focused on more than 32,000 West African children between the ages of three to 36 months. The researchers found that average heat exposure had increased the prevalence of stunted growth from chronic malnutrition by 12 percent, and of low weight from acute malnutrition by 29 percent.



“We’re talking about children at a very young age that will have changes for the rest of their lives, so this is permanently scarring their potential,” said Professor Ariel Ortiz-Bobea. “What we are doing to reduce global poverty is being eroded by our lack of action on climate.”



If the average global temperature rises by two degrees Celsius – which could occur without significant reductions in carbon emissions – the average effect of heat exposure on stunting would nearly double, erasing gains recorded during the study period (1993 to 2014).



These findings have greatly concerned researchers, as temperatures in West Africa are rising and will continue to for several decades. The effects of acute and chronic malnutrition in early childhood - linked to higher mortality rates and to lower education and incomes in adulthood - are irreversible.



Meanwhile, improved incomes, infrastructure and child care practices during the study period helped reduce stunting across the five West African countries by 5.8 percentage points on average.



“While this progress has been welcomed in West Africa and in other low- and middle-income countries, it’s occurring against the backdrop of rising temperatures and an increased likelihood of extreme weather events,” said Professor John Hoddinott. “Our work suggests these rising temperatures risk wiping out that progress.”



Strategies to reduce child malnutrition must consider the increased need for programs during periods of prolonged heat exposure.



The researchers acknowledge funding support from the African Development Bank through the <a href="http://barrett.dyson.cornell.edu/staars/index.html">Structural Transformation of African Agriculture and Rural Spaces</a> (STAARS) project.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/journal-of-environmental-economics-and-management">Journal of Environmental Economics and Management</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Heat exposure is worsening the issue of malnourished children

In a new study from Cornell University, experts report that...

Many previous studies have shown that exposure to vegetated areas and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/green-spaces-are-a-critical-refuge-for-threatened-species/">green spaces</a> can be beneficial to our physical and mental health. Recent research published by the <a href="https://europeanlung.org/en/">European Lung Foundation</a> has now revealed that children whose proximity to vegetation close to their homes increased in the first ten years of life tended to have better lung health. These findings support the idea that families benefit by moving to greener areas, but also highlight the need to create more green spaces in urban areas.



The study, which was led by Dr. Diogo Queiroz Almeida from the University of Porto, was focused on data from the research project known as Geração 21. This initiative began by recruiting over 8,000 mothers and their newborn infants in public hospitals in the Porto Metropolitan Area in 2005 and 2006.&nbsp;



All of the children were invited to be re-evaluated at the ages of four, seven and ten years. However, since not all of the participants ended up giving complete sets of data, the current study on lung health ultimately included data from 3,278 of the children.



Lung function was gauged at ages four, seven and ten using each child’s forced vital capacity (FVC). This is the maximum amount of air a person can blow out after taking in the deepest possible breath and it is a measure of lung volume and size. FVC can indicate how well the lungs are working and help diagnose lung conditions like asthma.&nbsp;



The team used satellite data and maps to assess the amount of vegetation within 100, 250 and 500m of each child’s residence at the time of his or her birth, as well as at the ages of four, seven and ten. In addition, geographical information systems (technology for comparing the geographical locations of different things) were used to determine the distance between children’s home addresses and their nearest park, public garden or other public green spaces at these same ages.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Analysis of the data showed that children whose home surroundings became greener between the time of their birth and their tenth birthday - due either to moving home or to environmental changes - tended to have better lung function.



“Our research suggests the greener, the better. These improvements are modest at around two percent. However, if we look at the whole population, making our neighborhoods greener could have a considerable impact.” Dr. Almeida explained that factors such as differences in physical activity and levels of air pollution were accounted for, but the link between better lung function and increased exposure to vegetated areas persisted.



“We looked at factors like physical activity and air pollution, but the link between lung function and moving closer to green space remained, even after we took these into account,” said Dr Almeida. “It could also be that getting closer to nature reduces stress, which can improve physical health, or it might have a positive effect on children’s microbiomes – the community of different bacteria that live in our bodies.”



“We found that living in greener neighborhoods as children grow up is more important for their breathing than living in a green area when they were born. This may be because babies spend much less time outdoors than children.”



During this study, the researchers also assessed whether there was a link between children’s lung health and the proximity of their homes to rivers and the sea – so-called ‘blue space’. They made use the Portuguese Water Atlas (from the Portuguese “Atlas da Água”) to assess the distance between each child’s residence and the nearest blue space. The researchers found no link with children’s lung health, although it must be noted that less than one percent of the children in the study lived within 800m of any blue space.&nbsp;



"This research strengthens the evidence supporting the benefits of green spaces on respiratory health. Moving to greener areas may be a possible strategy to improve children’s lung function. However, house prices often dictate where families live, any many cannot afford to live in greener neighborhoods," said Dr. Almeida.



"To reduce health inequalities, we need to make our cities greener, especially in areas where there is little or no green space. In particular, we need to involve children and their carers to make sure our parks and gardens suit their needs.”



The researchers will continue to study the role of green and blue spaces in other areas of children’s health. They are also using focus groups to understand how and why green spaces are used by younger people.



“We know that early childhood is a crucial time for lungs to grow and develop, and that a child’s environment and the air they breathe can have an impact on their lung health for the rest of their life," said Professor Marielle Pijnenburg of the European Respiratory Society, who was not involved in the research.



"This study suggests that making sure our children grow up close to parks, gardens and green spaces could help improve their lung health, although as the authors said the mechanisms for this are unknown and may be complex. This finding contributes to a growing number of studies that show health benefits of making our neighborhoods greener and healthier.”



The research is published in the <a href="https://erj.ersjournals.com/">European Respiratory Journal</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Green spaces are beneficial for children’s lung health

Many previous studies have shown that exposure to vegetated areas...

Reducing sugar consumption could aid in combating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-pushing-lakes-to-their-boiling-point/">climate change</a>, according to new research carried out by the Institute of Environmental Science and Technology of the <a href="https://www.uab.cat/web/universitat-autonoma-de-barcelona-1345467954774.html">Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona</a> (ICTA-UAB).



The study, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-022-00934-4">Nature Sustainability</a>, explores alternative uses for sugar cropland in the European Union (EU). The experts looked into three strategies: reforesting current sugar cropland; switching sugar beet crops for ethanol production; and exporting excess sugar to Brazil, allowing Brazil to swap sugar production for ethanol production.



With the first scenario, the researchers estimate that carbon emissions could be reduced by 20.9–54.3 MtCO2e per year. That number could be doubled for the second scenario and quadrupled for the third scenario.



Based on their findings, the experts encourage an agreement between the EU and Brazil, with the understanding that the EU will produce sugar from beets while Brazil will produce ethanol from sugarcane. They feel that the deal would be equitable for both parties because ethanol production has been shown to be just as profitable as sugar production.&nbsp;



“It provides a clear example of how broad collaboration can help direct society in a more sustainable direction," said Jeroen van den Bergh, an ICREA research professor at ICTA-UAB.



The researchers say that governments should also implement a high sugar tax to encourage less public consumption. They point to the United Kingdom, whose tax has been popular and effective. These policies have also encouraged food producers to use less sugar.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“For sustainability policies to be both efficient and effective, we must consider the full impact across the three – environmental, social, and economic – pillars," said study first author Lewis King.



"Changing how we use sugar crops presents an appealing strategy from this perspective as sugar is arguably the least efficient crop to be used as food, apart even from its negative health impacts; moreover, it is the most efficient crop for biofuel from a net energy perspective."



---



By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sugar taxation could help combat climate change

Reducing sugar consumption could aid in combating climate change, according...

Exotic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/which-types-of-fish-suffer-from-oxygen-starvation/">fish</a> are a threat to the river ecosystems they invade. In a new study from the <a href="https://www.ub.edu/web/portal/en/">University of Barcelona</a>, experts set out to understand what happens when invasive species have been introduced into waters that are not their original territory. The study analyzed how native fish are impacted by these species, called translocated species, compared to the effects of exotic or invasive groups.&nbsp;



The results show that the quality of the habitat is the most important factor for the well-being of native fish. However, translocated species were found to be as problematic as the exotic ones.



These results have implications for river management, especially in the context of climate change - as species translocation is one approach to mitigate the consequences of global warming.&nbsp;



"What our data suggest is that invasions by translocated native species should be taken at least as seriously as those by exotic species in the systems we studied, i.e. the typical medium-sized Mediterranean streams and rivers," explained study first author Alberto Maceda.



The characteristics of fish species were studied in 15 sites in the basins of the northeastern Iberian Peninsula. The focus was on the cyprinid family (Cyprinidae), which has the highest species richness in the world and is the most common in Europe.



Indicators of great ecological relevance were used, such as diversity, abundance and size distribution of native fish when exposed to invasion by exotic or translocated native species.&nbsp;



"Before our study, there were studies that highlighted the problem of mixing populations of Mediterranean and Atlantic trout, and some examples of competition between native and translocated native species, but ours is the first study that has analysed the problem from a broader point of view and has combined different indicators," said Maceda.



The results indicate that habitat quality is essential for conservation of native species. This includes temperature, water depth or velocity, pH or nutrient levels - which all influence characteristics such as the abundance or weight of native species.&nbsp;



The results suggest that translocated species have potentially greater impacts on native fish than the exotic species. The presence of translocated fish was associated with a lower abundance and richness of native fish and smaller native individuals. Meanwhile, exotic fish led to impacts such as higher abundance and richness of native fish and generally larger individuals.



There are still many unanswered questions about translocated species. Further research is needed to fully understand the ecological impact of translocated species.



"It is no good assuming that the impacts of exotic species are worse because they come from outside our borders, as we do not yet have enough information to make such assertions. In fact, we have a great lack of knowledge about the diseases, hybridisation problems, trophic competition, etc. that translocated species can bring," said Maceda.



The findings present a challenge for current river legislation and management. According to Maceda, species are usually declared a problem in a political territory, but we can find that a species is native and has invasive populations in the same political area. "To make things worse, we may even find that a species is in decline in its native basin, but it is expanding in basins where it has been previously introduced."



The researchers emphasize that habitat conservation should be a priority, as the benefits can even make native species better competitors against exotic species. Furthermore, in some cases, intervention against introduced species can also be a solution, as translocated natives can have similar habitat requirements to natives.&nbsp;



"Rivers with poorly conserved habitats also experience the most biological invasions, and it is often difficult to distinguish between the effects of exotic species and habitat," said Maceda. "However, in some cases the main detrimental effect is that of translocated native or exotic species, and therefore acting on them, if a complete eradication is feasible, will certainly be beneficial to the river."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155953.">Science of The Total Environment</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Translocated fish may be more problematic than invasive species

Exotic fish are a threat to the river ecosystems they...

Land plants evolved 470 million years ago from algae and, since then, they fundamentally reshaped our planet. During their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bee-altruism-may-be-key-to-understanding-social-evolution/">evolution</a>, ferns have undergone several changes that helped them survive and thrive on land. Now, a team of researchers led by the <a href="http://en.caf.ac.cn/">Chinese Academy of Forestry</a> in Beijing and the <a href="https://illinois.edu/">University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign</a> has managed for the first time to comprehensively study the genomic arrangement of tree ferns, offering new insights into how ferns evolved.



According to the scientists, a major breakthrough in the evolution of land plants involved the “invention” of their vascular systems, which helped them conduct nutrients and water through their bodies. Such systems consist of two tissues: the xylem and the phloem. While the xylem facilitates the transport of water to the stems and leaves, the phloem helps transporting sugars created through photosynthesis to the rest of the plant. Moreover, xylem cells are lined with lignin, a supportive structural material that provides rigidity to wood and bark.



“Ferns are the earliest vascular plants, and lignified cell walls were a key innovation during the evolution of these plants,” said study senior author Ray Ming, a professor of Plant Biology at the University of Illinois. “This study has improved our understanding of how vascular tissues developed in ferns and other land plant species.”



By sequencing the genome of the flying spider-monkey tree fern Alsophila spinulosa, Professor Ming and his colleagues discovered that two vascular-related Mac-Domain genes were highly expressed in this fern’s xylem compared to other tissues, suggesting that they might be key regulators in the formation of xylem-specific cells. The scientists also measured the levels of lignin and secondary metabolites - compounds that are not required for growth and reproduction, but nevertheless offer some benefits – in ferns, and found that lignin makes up 40 percent of the stem cell wall.&nbsp;



Moreover, they identified a new secondary metabolite primarily made in xylem, which they called alsophilin. “This new compound is abundant in the xylem, likely as one of the compounds filling up the cavity of non-functional tracheid cells. We also identified the genes involved in the biosynthesis of alsophilin in the genome,” Professor Ming reported.



To understand how ferns evolved, the researchers compared the genome of A. spinulosa to other members of the same species spread across China. Surprisingly, they identified six distinct populations, with different genomic sequences. Based on these findings, the experts reconstructed the evolutionary history of ferns and discovered that these species underwent a drastic decline twice (35.6 – 34.5 million years ago and 2.5 – 0.7 million years ago).



“This analysis of genomes and lignin composition from a broader collection of ferns will help us understand the role of lignin in the early lineage of vascular plants. In our future studies, we hope to increase the number of locations and the sample sizes for the genomic analysis,” Professor Ming concluded.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41477-022-01146-6">Nature Plants</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Study sheds light on the evolution of ferns

Land plants evolved 470 million years ago from algae and,...

"Forever chemicals" are everywhere and they are here to stay. Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a class of over 4,700 man-made chemicals that have been around since the 1940s. Manufacturers use PFAS to make products resistant to oil, heat, stains, or water. They are found in everything from electronics and cosmetics to outdoor gear, non-stick pans, heat- and water-resistant clothing and food wrappers. Unfortunately, we probably ingest them when our food contacts wrappings and they are also present in our drinking water and soil. Forever chemicals have been recorded as present in peoples’ blood for decades.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Known by some as the best and worst chemicals, they are very useful in many different contexts, but do not break down under normal environmental conditions. These substances have also been implicated in certain human health problems. They are believed to disrupt the function of hormones, chemical messengers that influence many of our body systems.



New research, led by researchers at <a href="https://med.nyu.edu/our-community/about-us">NYU Grossman School of Medicine</a> has now found that these persistent chemicals, used in the production of many household items, may be linked to the incidence of cancer, thyroid disease, and childhood obesity. Previous research has linked PFAS exposure in mothers to low birth weight in their infants, but the current study considered a much broader range of health consequences for people of all ages.



In fact, the study of roughly 5,000 Americans identified 13 medical conditions that may be linked to PFAS exposure. These include infertility, diabetes, and endometriosis, a painful disorder of the uterus. Together, these health conditions generate significant medical bills and reduce worker productivity across a lifetime to create the costs measured by the study, say the study authors.



“Our findings add to the substantial and still-mounting body of evidence suggesting that exposure to PFAS is harming our health and undermining the economy,” said study co-author Dr. Linda Kahn.



For the investigation, the researchers used blood samples obtained in 2018 from adults and children who took part in the US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. This gave them an idea of how many people were exposed to forever chemicals and the levels of exposure. The researchers then reviewed the data and findings from dozens of studies that have explored diseases connected to PFAS exposure in the past decade.&nbsp;



Using this information and existing models from earlier investigations, the researchers then estimated the total national economic cost of the medical bills and lost worker productivity that resulted from the five medical conditions that had the strongest links to PFAS exposure. These included low birth weight, childhood obesity, kidney and testicular cancers, and hypothyroidism.



It was, in fact, childhood obesity that contributed most to the overall economic toll of exposure to forever chemicals. The estimated cost of medical bills and lost productivity associated with this condition was about $2.7 billion. Hypothyroidism in women, a condition in which the thyroid cannot release enough hormones into the bloodstream, was the next highest contributor at $1.26 billion.



When the investigators expanded the scope of their economic estimates to include eight other conditions with preliminary links to PFAS exposure, including endometriosis, obesity in adults, and pneumonia in children, the total costs reached as high as $63 billion.



“Our results strongly support the recent decision by the Environmental Protection Agency to lower the safe allowable level of these substances in water,” said study senior author Dr. Leonardo Trasande. “Based on our estimates, the cost of eradicating contamination and replacing this class of chemical with safer alternatives is ultimately justified when considering the tremendous economic and medical risks of allowing them to persist in the environment.”



According to Dr. Trasande, few studies have explored the effects of PFAS exposure over time, despite the extensive research on the health risks. With this in mind, the research team next plans to examine the long-term risks of exposure to forever chemicals. In addition, they plan to estimate the economic burden of other endocrine-disrupting contaminants, such as bisphenols, which are substances used in many plastics and can linings, fire retardants, and pesticides.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/environmental-exposure">Environmental Exposure</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Exposure to "forever chemicals" costs billions in the US

"Forever chemicals" are everywhere and they are here to stay....

We all know that plastic waste is a widespread problem, especially in our water systems. Plastic pollution directly threatens aquatic habitats and the plants and animals that live there.&nbsp;



A study led by the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a> has given us another perspective. After studying 29 European lakes, scientists found that naturally occurring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-fed-raw-meat-may-spread-antibiotic-resistant-bacteria/">bacteria</a> in these water bodies grew more quickly and efficiently on a plastic diet than their natural diet, which includes leaves and branches.



"It's almost like the plastic pollution is getting the bacteria's appetite going. The bacteria use the plastic as food first, because it's easy to break down, and then they're more able to break down some of the more difficult food – the natural organic matter in the lake," explained study senior author Dr. Andrew Tanentzap.



"This suggests that plastic pollution is stimulating the whole food web in lakes, because more bacteria means more food for the bigger organisms like ducks and fish."



However, it is essential to note that this process does not affect every lake the same way. The microbial diversity&nbsp; in the lake plays a role, with more bacterial diversity leading to more plastic consumption.&nbsp;



Furthermore, bacteria removed more plastic waste in lakes with fewer natural sources of carbon because there were fewer available food sources. With this knowledge, researchers can prioritize lake remediation using this method. For example, lakes with high plastic pollution but low bacterial diversity and low levels of natural organic compounds will be more susceptible to damage.



"Unfortunately, plastics will pollute our environment for decades. On the positive side, our study helps to identify microbes that could be harnessed to help break down plastic waste and better manage environmental pollution," said Professor David Aldridge.



The researchers emphasize that the research does not imply that plastic is not a problem for our waterways - only that the impact of plastic waste can be unpredictable.&nbsp;



"Our study shows that when carrier bags enter lakes and rivers they can have dramatic and unexpected impacts on the entire ecosystem," said study first author Eleanor Sheridan. "Hopefully our results will encourage people to be even more careful about how they dispose of plastic waste."



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms/">Nature Communications</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Bacteria can remove plastic waste from lakes

We all know that plastic waste is a widespread problem,...

A team of scientists from <a href="https://plus.cnu.ac.kr/html/en/">Chungnam National University</a> (CNU) in South Korea have recently created two beagle dogs from cloned skin cells altered by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grapevine-killer-controlled-through-gene-editing-strategy/">gene-editing</a> technologies. The researchers hope that this technique could be used more broadly in the near future to eliminate disease-causing mutations from pedigree dog breeds.



Because of years of inbreeding, pedigree dogs are frequently susceptible to genetic diseases. For instance, some cocker spaniels are known to have brains too large for their skulls, while boxers are often suffering from epilepsy. By using a gene-editing tool called CRISPR-Cas9, the CNU scientists created the beagles by first editing skin cells to mutate a gene (DJ-1) that is associated with degenerative diseases such as Parkinson’s. They then placed these gene-edited skin cells next to egg cells whose DNA had been removed, and fused them together by using short pulses of electricity. Through this technique, a total of 68 embryos were created and implanted into six surrogate mothers, resulting in two puppies.



The two cloned beagles are now 22 months old and do not show signs of any abnormalities. “DJ-1 KO dogs show partial or complete repression of target gene expression,” the study authors reported.&nbsp;“This technology can be used in further studies to produce pathogenic gene-corrected or disease-modelling dogs.” However, since the diseases linked to the DJ-1 gene are age-related, it is still too early to tell whether the dogs will experience any degenerative diseases as they get older.&nbsp;



Although the first human trials of CRISPR therapies have already been initiated, and scientists hope they are on the brink of reaching the clinics, many researchers remain skeptical about these developments. According to some scholars, gene-editing tools could potentially cause unwanted mutations that may prove dangerous. Others worry that this groundbreaking technology could lead to the creation of “designer babies,” by allowing parents to choose their children’s hair color, height, or even traits such as intelligence. However, regardless of these critical stances, most scientists remain hopeful that these methods could ease the burden of disease in many animals, including humans.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://bmcbiotechnol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12896-022-00749-3#Sec3">BMC Biotechnology</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;

Cloned beagles created for the first time

A team of scientists from Chungnam National University (CNU) in...

Whale sharks are filter feeders that have long been observed eating krill at the Ningaloo Reef in Western Australia. However, when a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.aims.gov.au/">Australian Institute of Marine Science</a> (AIMS) analyzed biopsy samples from these sharks, they were surprised to discover that the animals were in fact eating a significant amount of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-shed-their-flowers-quickly-for-protection-from-microbes/">plant</a> material too. This makes whale sharks – which can be up to 18 meters long – the world’s largest omnivores.



“This causes us to rethink everything we thought we knew about what whale sharks eat,” said study lead author Mark Meekan, a fish biologist at AIMS. “On land, all the biggest animals have always been herbivores. In the sea we always thought the animals that have gotten really big, like whales and whale sharks, were feeding one step up the food chain on shrimp-like animals and small fishes. Turns out that maybe the system of evolution on land and in the water isn’t that different after all.”



In order to find out what the sharks eat, Dr. Meekan and his colleagues collected a variety of samples of possible food sources at the reef, from small plankton to large seaweed. Then they compared the amino acids and fatty acids in the plankton and plant material to those sampled from sharks, and found that the whale shark tissue contained compounds found in Sargassum, a species of brown seaweed common at Ningaloo, which breaks off the reef and floats to the surface of the water.



“We think that over evolutionary time, whale sharks have evolved the ability to digest some of this Sargassum that’s going into their guts,” Dr. Meekan said. “So, the vision we have of whale sharks coming to Ningaloo just to feast on these little krill is only half the story. They’re actually out there eating a fair amount of algae too.”



According to study senior author Andy Revill, a biogeochemist at the <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/about/people/business-units/oceans-and-atmosphere">Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization, Oceans and Atmosphere</a>, studying shark tissue using compound-specific stable isotope analysis allows scientists to clarify what animals are using for energy and growth, instead of just what they are eating.



“Something like a whale shark, which swims through the water with its mouth open, is going to ingest a lot of different things,” he explained. “But you don’t know how much of that has been used by the animal and how much just goes straight out the other end. Whereas stable isotopes, because they’re actually incorporated into the body, are a much better reflection of what the animals are actually utilizing to grow.”



In the case of whale sharks, such analysis revealed that plant material is essential for providing them energy and helping them grow - perhaps even more so than krill. Further research is needed to better understand the evolution and behavior of these fascinating creatures.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ecy.3818">Ecology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;

Whale sharks are the world’s largest omnivores

Whale sharks are filter feeders that have long been observed...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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