Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Watching babies babble, play, or interact with others may offer surprising insights into how their thinking skills will develop and function decades later.



That’s the central finding of a study showing that even at 7 months old, some of a baby's cognitive behaviors can hint at their thinking skills as 30-year-old adults. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-infancy-shapes-thinking-skills-for-life">Infancy shapes thinking skills for life</h2>



Scientists at the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/">University of Colorado Boulder</a> studied more than 1,000 twins over the span of 30 years. Their research shows that early-life assessments of cognitive function can help predict performance on cognitive tests at age 30. 



The findings also suggest that an infant’s environment plays a more important role in shaping life-long thinking ability than previously believed. According to the researchers, it could even affect a person’s risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/risk-of-dementia-is-much-higher-than-previously-thought/">dementia</a> later in life.



“Our findings highlight the enduring consequences of the very early childhood environment on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lifestyle-choices-in-young-adulthood-impact-cognitive-ability-in-midlife/">cognitive ability</a> and suggest that early life is a critical developmental period that we should be paying attention to,” said Daniel Gustavson, assistant research professor at the Institute for Behavioral Genetics (IBG).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-few-studies-of-infant-thinking-skills">Few studies of infant thinking skills</h2>



General cognitive ability, or GCA, is a broad measure of a person’s ability to learn, reason, understand, and solve problems. It’s similar to the more familiar term <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stress-hormones-during-pregnancy-may-affect-child-iq/">IQ</a>, though GCA is a composite of several cognitive factors.



Previous research has shown that a large portion of GCA is already set during childhood. For instance, if you test an 8-year-old’s cognitive skills, the result will likely resemble their score at age 30. 



In fact, intelligence scores at age 20 are highly correlated with scores at age 62. IQ doesn’t change much between ages 11 and 90.



But until now, very few studies have explored whether signals from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/caregiver-speech-shapes-infant-language-development/">infancy</a> - long before school starts - can tell us anything meaningful about future thinking ability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-assessments-of-thinking-skills-began-early">Assessments of thinking skills began early</h2>



To answer this question, Gustavson and senior author Chandra Reynolds analyzed data from 1,098 individuals enrolled in the Colorado Longitudinal Twin Study. 



The IBG began the project in 1985 by enrolling baby twins from Colorado’s Front Range to study how genetic and environmental factors influence development over time.



Since then, researchers have collected large amounts of data through lab samples, home visits, interviews, surveys, and behavioral testing.



“We have co-authors on this paper who have been involved since the start and watched these twins grow up,” said Gustavson.



At 7 months old, each infant completed assessments of seven cognitive skills. These included vocalization, task persistence, and what researchers called “novelty preference” - whether the baby chose a new toy over a familiar one.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-twin-studies-continue-for-decades">Twin studies continue for decades</h2>



So far, participants have completed cognitive testing at five different ages throughout their lives.



The study found that early thinking skills could explain about 13% of the variation in cognitive performance at age 30. Two infant traits, namely task orientation and novelty preference, were especially strong predictors. Though modest, the researchers found this link notable.



“We certainly do not want to imply that cognition is somehow fixed by seven months old,” Gustavson said. “But the idea that a very simple test in infancy can help predict the results of a very complicated cognitive test taken 30 years later is exciting.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-thinking-skills-affected-by-nature-and-nurture">Thinking skills affected by nature and nurture</h2>



To understand the extent to which <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lifespan-is-influenced-more-by-lifestyle-than-genetics/">genetics</a> (nature) and environment (nurture) each contribute to cognition, the researchers looked at differences in GCA scores between identical twins, who share all of their genes, and fraternal twins, who share about half. 



When identical twins show more similar outcomes than fraternal twins, this points to a stronger genetic influence. The team also examined DNA samples collected from blood or saliva.



As expected, genetics played a significant role. By age 7, inherited traits accounted for roughly half of the variation in cognitive scores measured at age 30. Still, environmental factors in early life also left a meaningful and lasting mark.



"One of the most exciting findings was that 10% of the variability in adult cognitive ability was explained by environmental influences before year one or two,” elaborated Gustavson. “This suggests that even the pre-preschool environment matters," he added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-baby-years-matter-for-cognitive-ability">Baby years matter for cognitive ability</h2>



Chandra Reynolds, a co-author of the research paper who studies dementia risk, sees a bigger picture.



“Cognitive aging is a life-long process, not just something that begins in mid-life,” said Reynolds. 



“It could be that certain interventions, like strong educational foundations in early life could help maximize what people are capable of and help them keep that cognitive gas in the tank for as long as possible.”



Good childcare, stimulating play, and stable living conditions might help preserve brain power into old age.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-genes-impact-thinking-skills">Many genes impact thinking skills</h2>



The study also showed that polygenic scores are a valuable tool for estimating cognitive ability.



These scores combine the effects of many individual genetic variants into a single number, offering an estimate of a person’s genetic likelihood for a trait - such as intelligence.



“There are thousands of genes that influence intelligence, so you are never going to find an ‘intelligence gene,' but we have found many with tiny effects that, when put together, can have an impact,” Gustavson said.



“Studies like ours show us that both family-based and genomic-based datasets are valuable in answering questions about how genetic and environmental influences change across the lifespan"



Together, these findings reinforce the idea that what happens in babyhood doesn’t just fade - it shapes thinking for a lifetime.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2426531122">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Adult thinking skills may be forged during our early infancy

Watching babies babble, play, or interact with others may offer...

The pandemic didn’t just bring masks and lockdowns. It brought science into living rooms. One term stood out - mRNA vaccines. These shots rolled out fast and saved lives. But the excitement faded when vaccine-driven immune protection wore off too soon.



A few months after the jab, people lined up again for boosters. The world wanted immunity that stuck around. Scientists started asking: Can we make mRNA <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-vaccine-strategy-paid-off-and-its-still-saving-lives/">vaccines</a> last longer without piling on more doses?



Turns out, maybe we can. A group of researchers may have figured out how.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-vaccine-looks-like-a-virus">The vaccine looks like a virus</h2>



Researchers from the University of Copenhagen and biotech firm AdaptVac gave the mRNA <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-failure-patients-may-live-longer-with-covid-19-vaccination/">vaccine</a> a new outfit. They disguised it as a virus.



“Our study combines two technologies: mRNA vaccines and what we call virus-like particles," said lead author Cyrielle Fougeroux, senior scientist at AdaptVac. 



"By engineering the mRNA vaccine to produce virus-like particles, we trick the immune system into thinking it’s encountering a real virus."



"This triggers a much stronger and more durable immune response in mice, which is exactly what we want."



So what does this actually mean? They added a second piece of genetic code. One part builds the usual spike protein. 



The new part builds a virus-like shell. Together, these parts form something that looks like a threat. The immune system doesn’t hesitate - it charges in.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-less-vaccine-stronger-immune-response">Less vaccine, stronger immune response</h2>



The body reacts stronger and remembers longer. That’s the goal. The mice in the study showed exactly that. Fewer doses still created a lasting response.



Less vaccine, more immunity. That changes everything - fewer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/powerful-ai-algorithm-can-predict-a-persons-attitude-towards-vaccines/">jabs</a>, fewer side effects, less strain on healthcare.



Adam Sander, the study's senior author, is a professor at the University of Copenhagen and scientific director at AdaptVac.



“We believe this discovery represents a significant improvement to current mRNA technology and could play a major role in the development of next-generation vaccines,” said Sander.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preparing-for-future-outbreaks">Preparing for future outbreaks</h2>



Pandemics don’t wait and scientists know this. They’re already racing to beat the next one. Nipah virus, for example, could be a serious threat. It spreads from animals, kills fast, and has no approved vaccine.



At the University of Copenhagen, Sander’s team is using the same technology to build a Nipah vaccine. Human trials could begin in a few years. Timing matters and so does durability.



“mRNA technology is a powerful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-19-vaccine-misconceptions-are-spreading-rapidly/">tool</a> against a wide range of diseases, but its short-lived effect in humans is a major challenge," Sander said.



"If we can use virus-like particles to achieve a stronger and potentially longer-lasting immune response, we’ve made a meaningful improvement to the technology - one that could have a major impact during a pandemic.” 



That stronger punch means one thing: a vaccine that builds stronger and longer immune protection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-mrna-needed-a-boost">Why mRNA needed a boost</h2>



Before 2020, vaccines came slowly. Grow virus, kill it, inject it. When COVID-19 hit, mRNA changed the game. Instead of injecting bits of virus, scientists sent instructions. The body did the building. Fast, flexible, and safer.



But that clever design had a weak spot. The body often forgot. That’s why boosters came so soon.



Here’s where the new method shines. It still uses mRNA, but the added code makes the body build a virus-like shell too. It’s fake, but it looks real. The immune system thinks it’s under attack. And that, surprisingly, makes all the difference.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-immune-boosting-vaccine-on-the-horizon">Immune-boosting vaccine on the horizon</h2>



However, the results so far only come from experiments on mice. That means it’s too early to say whether the same strong immune response will happen in humans. 



Still, the concept is bold and promising. The immune system often needs a strong trigger to react fully. By creating virus-like particles, the vaccine may give the immune system a reason to take notice and respond more powerfully.



If this method works in humans, it could lead to vaccines that not only act fast but also keep the immune system protected for much longer. That could make future vaccines more effective and reduce the need for frequent booster shots.



The study is published in the journal Nature Nanotechnology. It’s a team effort between the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Copenhagen</a> and <a href="https://www.adaptvac.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AdaptVac</a>. Both groups share ownership of the results.



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Scientists trick immune system into stronger vaccine response

The pandemic didn’t just bring masks and lockdowns. It brought...

As climate change continues to reshape the environment, new research reveals that global food systems face serious long-term risks, with global crop yields likely to shrink even if farmers adapt. 



The findings suggest that every additional degree of warming could significantly reduce how much food the world can produce.



A new study estimates that for every 1°C increase in global temperatures, the average person’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/futuristic-food-supply-transforming-co2-into-protein/">food supply</a> could drop by 120 calories per day - roughly 4.4% of daily consumption.



“If the climate warms by three degrees, that’s basically like everyone on the planet giving up breakfast,” said co-author Solomon Hsiang, a professor of environmental social sciences at the <a href="https://sustainability.stanford.edu/">Stanford Doerr School of Sustainability</a>.



With more than 800 million people already suffering from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-insecurity-can-lead-to-heart-problems-later-in-life/">food insecurity</a>. The prospect of widespread food declines due to climate change is raising alarms among policymakers and humanitarian agencies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-corn-belt-in-jeopardy"><a></a>The Corn Belt in jeopardy</h2>



The study points to the United States - particularly the Midwest - as one of the regions that could be hardest hit.



Andrew Hultgren is one of the lead authors of the study and an assistant professor at the <a href="https://illinois.edu/">University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign</a>. 



“Places in the Midwest that are really well-suited for present-day corn and soybean production just get hammered under a high warming future,” he said. "You do start to wonder if the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-u-s-corn-belt-influences-its-own-weather/">Corn Belt</a> is going to be the Corn Belt in the future.”



“This is basically like sending our agricultural profits overseas. We will be sending benefits to producers in Canada, Russia, China. Those are the winners, and we in the U.S. are the losers,” Hsiang added. “The longer we wait to reduce emissions, the more money we lose.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farming-fixes-only-go-so-far">Farming fixes only go so far</h2>



One of the study’s innovations is its realistic approach to adaptation. Rather than assuming farmers will either do nothing or respond perfectly to changes, the research team analyzed actual behavior in 12,000 regions across 55 countries.



They looked at yields and costs for six major staple crops: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-bread-wheat-gave-rise-to-civilization/">wheat</a>, corn, rice, soybeans, barley, and cassava.



In many areas, farmers already adjust practices - like planting dates, crop varieties, or fertilizer use - to cope with climate change. These changes help, but only to a point. “Any level of warming, even when accounting for adaptation, results in global output losses from agriculture,” Hultgren said.



The impacts are likely to be most severe for the world’s agricultural powerhouses and its poorest communities. Yield losses from staple crops could average 41% in the wealthiest regions and 28% in the lowest-income areas by the end of the century.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-picks-food-winners">Climate change picks food winners</h2>



One key finding is that climate change impacts crops differently. The study predicts a 50% chance that rice yields will rise, largely because rice benefits from warmer nights. However, the odds of decline by 2100 range from 70% to 90% for other major staples.



With the Earth already 1.5°C warmer than pre-industrial levels, the effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-roots-could-be-key-to-fighting-climate-change/">climate change</a> are no longer theoretical. Farmers are reporting erratic weather, longer droughts, and extreme heat, even in regions where modern inputs are readily available.



The models suggest that by 2100, global yields could fall 11% even if emissions drop to net zero, and by 24% if emissions continue to climb. The outlook for 2050 is not much better, with an estimated 8% reduction in yields regardless of emissions changes.



“If we ignore those long-run damages, we assign an economic value of zero to them, and that is clearly wrong,” Hultgren said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-farming-needs-support">Future farming needs support</h2>



Hsiang and Hultgren are now turning their focus to helping governments prepare. They’re working with the <a href="https://www.undp.org/">United Nations Development Program</a> to share the findings and identify communities most at risk.



“We’re focusing on how to make it so that this is not actually what our future looks like, even if we can’t get our act together on the emissions side,” Hsiang said.



Helping farmers adapt won’t be easy. In many regions, they lack access to basics like quality fertilizer or accurate weather forecasts. The team is developing tools to prioritize funding and resources where they can make the biggest impact.



For Hsiang, the message is clear: climate change is eroding one of agriculture’s most essential assets - stability.



“Farmers know how to maintain the soil, invest in infrastructure, repair the barn. But if you’re letting the climate depreciate, the rest of it is a waste. The land you leave to your kids will be good for something, but not for farming,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09085-w">Nature</a>.



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Climate change may devastate global food production

As climate change continues to reshape the environment, new research...

For years, thin plastic bags have been one of the most visible symbols of pollution - blowing through streets, choking marine wildlife, and breaking down into microplastics that contaminate ecosystems.



Now, a new study led by researchers at the <a href="https://www.udel.edu/">University of Delaware</a> and <a href="https://www.columbia.edu/">Columbia University</a> offers the clearest evidence yet that bag bans and fees do make a difference.



By analyzing data from tens of thousands of beach cleanups across the United States, the researchers found that jurisdictions with plastic bag laws saw a significant drop - between 25% and 47% - in plastic bags as a share of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-bag-bans-have-drastically-reduced-ocean-pollution/">shoreline litter</a>.



The study is the first large-scale analysis to connect local policy with direct environmental outcomes, rather than relying on consumer checkout data alone.



“A lot of the previous economics literature on plastic bag policies has used checkout data at the store level,” said lead author Anna Papp, an environmental economist at Columbia. “We were excited to add to that a direct measurement of plastic litter on these shorelines.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-plastic-bag-problem">Understanding the plastic bag problem</h2>



Americans use billions of plastic bags each year - often for just minutes - yet these bags can take hundreds of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/environmental-policies-like-plastic-bag-bans-can-often-backfire/">years to break down</a>. 



Most end up in landfills, where they occupy space without decomposing, or escape into the environment, littering streets, waterways, and natural areas. 



Because they’re lightweight, they easily blow out of trash bins and landfills, creating widespread pollution that’s difficult and costly to clean up.



Once in the environment, plastic bags wreak havoc on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/filter-feeders-transform-microplastics-into-a-bigger-threat/">wildlife and ecosystems</a>. Animals, particularly marine life, often mistake them for food or become entangled in them, leading to injury or death. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/simple-way-to-remove-microplastics-from-tap-water-home-faucet/">Microplastics</a> from degrading bags enter the food chain, raising concerns about long-term health effects in both wildlife and humans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-volunteers-help-map-plastic-waste">Volunteers help map plastic waste</h2>



The idea for the study began when co-author Kimberly Oremus, a marine policy expert at the University of Delaware, noticed that volunteers at Delaware beach cleanups were using an app called Clean Swell to track the litter they picked up.



The app feeds into the <a href="https://www.coastalcleanupdata.org/about">Ocean Conservancy’s TIDES database</a>, which collects crowdsourced data from thousands of cleanups around the world.



“When we found the database that had information on different shoreline cleanups, we realized we could look at the composition of litter before and after a policy to see what effect it had,” Oremus said. “And then we could compare that to places that never got a plastic bag policy.”



With no federal ban on plastic bags in the United States, the researchers had a rich dataset of hundreds of local and state-level laws to compare. 



Between 2007 and 2023, they compiled over 600 distinct policies, allowing them to assess a wide range of regulations and their impacts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bans-and-fees-differ-greatly">Bans and fees differ greatly</h2>



While it might seem obvious that banning or taxing plastic bags would reduce litter, the magnitude of the effect surprised the team.



“There are so many pathways a bag can take from the checkout line at the store,” Oremus said. “It’s great to see a policy that works in such a clearly measurable way.”



Interestingly, the research also showed that some types of policies work better than others. 



State-level laws tended to have a stronger impact than city or county ordinances, and fees - perhaps counterintuitively - were more effective at reducing litter than outright bans.



Papp noted that this could be because fees encourage people to bring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-retailers-are-replacing-plastic-bags-with-eco-friendly-paper-bags/">reusable bags</a>, while bans may be more easily circumvented with loopholes or substitutions.



The researchers also observed that the policies had the biggest impact in areas that started with higher levels of plastic bag pollution, suggesting that public buy-in and visible local problems may help drive compliance and effectiveness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plastic-decline-slows-not-stops">Plastic decline slows, not stops</h2>



Despite the success of bag policies in reducing local litter, the overall share of plastic bags among shoreline trash is still increasing - just not as quickly in areas with bans or fees.



“We’re still getting more plastic bags on shorelines as a percentage of all the cleanup items over time,” noted Oremus. “It’s not eliminating the problem, it’s just making it grow more slowly.”



This sobering trend highlights the limitations of local policies when facing a global problem. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-production-increases-create-identical-plastic-pollution-increase/">Plastic production</a> and consumption continue to rise, and single-use items remain deeply embedded in supply chains and consumer habits.



“Ours is the first large-scale study to use hundreds of policies and tens of thousands of cleanups to look at their effects,” Papp said. “But it is important to keep in mind that this is a relative decrease in affected areas compared to areas without policies.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bags-are-just-the-start">Bags are just the start</h2>



With the <a href="https://www.unep.org/">United Nations Environment Program</a> preparing for its next round of negotiations on an international <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-treaty-is-a-historic-opportunity-to-stop-a-human-health-crisis/">plastic treaty</a> in August 2025, the study offers timely evidence that policy can make a tangible difference.



“Overall, our findings do show that plastic bag policies are broadly effective in limiting litter along shorelines,” Papp said. Yet, plastic bags remain just one piece of the puzzle.



The researchers hope their work will help policymakers think beyond local or single-product solutions and push for more comprehensive strategies. 



Plastic bag <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/environmental-policies-like-plastic-bag-bans-can-often-backfire/">bans</a> aren’t a silver bullet, but they’re one of the tools that clearly work - and that gives scientists something to build on.



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Plastic bag bans help, but they aren't enough to stop pollution

For years, thin plastic bags have been one of the...

Preschool can change more than just how kids learn to read. A long-term study shows that a focused preschool program can help students better handle emotional and behavioral challenges even in high school.



The REDI program, short for Research-based, Developmentally Informed, was designed to improve social-emotional skills and language abilities in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/todays-children-will-face-more-climate-extremes-than-ever-before/">children</a> from low-income families. This intervention has now shown benefits that span over a decade.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preschool-program-taught-emotions">Preschool program taught emotions</h2>



REDI was integrated into 22 Head Start classrooms across three counties in Pennsylvania. Teachers received weekly support and training.



The curriculum was based on Preschool PATHS, which targeted emotion understanding, impulse control, and social interaction.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/children-have-the-brainpower-to-navigate-maps-at-a-very-young-age/">Lessons</a> were reinforced through interactive reading, sound games, and print activities. Parents also got handouts and DVDs to continue the learning at home.



“We wanted to work with Head Start and look at whether there were ways to strengthen the programming by incorporating more up-to-date research on what we knew about social-emotional development,” said Karen Bierman, the lead researcher from <a href="https://www.psu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Pennsylvania State University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preschool-kids-behaved-better">Preschool kids behaved better</h2>



In preschool, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mobile-addiction-harms-kids-mental-health-more-than-screen-time/">children</a> who received REDI showed higher emotion knowledge and social competence. These early gains prepared them to navigate relationships and school challenges more effectively in later years.



Teachers noted better cooperation and emotional regulation by the time students reached elementary school.



REDI students showed fewer behavior problems in high school with an effect size of 0.27 and fewer emotional symptoms with an effect size of 0.41, based on teacher, parent, and self-reports. These effects appeared more than ten years after the intervention ended.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-lasting-emotional-skills">Building lasting emotional skills</h2>



Academic skills acquired in preschool often fade if not supported. But social-emotional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-heat-is-now-the-reality-for-nearly-half-a-billion-children/">skills</a> can persist. They help children form strong relationships, manage feelings, and stay focused. This improves school experiences year after year.



“The preschool intervention had built a protective capacity for kids to better manage the social pressures and emotional demands of adolescence,” Bierman said.



The REDI study followed participants from age 4 to 18. It showed how early emotional learning helped children stay steady through the transitions of school and adolescence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-emotional-gains-linked-to-school-success">Emotional gains linked to school success</h2>



The preschool program did not directly raise grades or on-time graduation rates. But it helped in indirect ways. Students with better emotional control did well in school and graduated on time. These gains began with behavior and adjustment in grade school.



The study revealed six clear paths that linked REDI to better GPA and another six to graduation on time. These involved improvements in emotion knowledge, social competence, parent involvement, and behavior management.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-role-of-parents-and-teachers">Role of parents and teachers</h2>



Parent involvement played a central role. One major path to fewer emotional symptoms in teens began with parents engaging more with school. REDI supported this through weekly take-home tools and DVDs for families.



Teachers observed that REDI children adjusted better and built stronger classroom relationships. These qualities helped them avoid negative peer influence and handle stress throughout school.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-preschool-programs-after-the-pandemic">Preschool programs after the pandemic</h2>



After the pandemic, many children face wider gaps in education and emotional well-being. Programs like REDI offer a model for support that starts early and continues to matter later. The program cost only $191 per child, making it a cost-effective approach.



These results suggest that early efforts in emotional development have lasting impact. They shape school behavior and support success in life.



“Our findings suggest that when you boost early social-emotional skills, the big payoff is going to be sustained improvements in social-emotional and behavioral adjustment,” said Bierman.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-follows-kids-into-adulthood">Study follows kids into adulthood</h2>



Researchers continue to follow students from the preschool program into their twenties. They are studying how early learning affects college, work, and personal life. 



The goal is to see how the preschool program shapes success in adulthood. Many families have remained in the study for over 14 years. 



"They’ve been really willing to hang in there with us,” said Bierman. The commitment of these families could help build stronger programs for future generations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://srcd.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cdev.14235" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Child Development</a>.



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Early preschool program helps teens behave better in high school

Preschool can change more than just how kids learn to...

Cancer doesn’t just attack the body - it can erode joy, purpose, and the will to keep going. But a new study offers a powerful glimmer of hope.



Researchers have found that a one-time 25‑milligram capsule of psilocybin, when paired with <a href="https://www.nhs.uk/mental-health/talking-therapies-medicine-treatments/talking-therapies-and-counselling/types-of-talking-therapies/">talk therapy</a>, can significantly ease the emotional burden that often accompanies cancer.



This finding comes from a <a href="https://acsjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cncr.35889">phase 2</a> study led by Dr. Manish Agrawal of <a href="https://www.sunstonetherapies.com/">Sunstone Therapies</a>, which indicates the benefits may last for years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cancer-depression-needs-better-treatment">Cancer depression needs better treatment</h2>



Roughly one in four U.S. adults with cancer meets the criteria for clinical depression. That rate is several times higher than what's seen in the general public, according to a 2024 <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11000226/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">meta‑analysis</a> of 24 studies.



Depression amplifies pain, erodes treatment adherence, and shortens survival; tackling it is therefore as critical as shrinking tumors.



<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK559078/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Major depressive disorder</a>, or MDD, is diagnosed when low mood, loss of pleasure, sleep disruption, and other symptoms persist most days for at least two weeks and cause clear <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/walking-each-day-at-any-speed-lowers-the-risk-of-cancer/">distress</a>. 



Standard antidepressants can take six weeks to work, interact with chemotherapy, and help only about one‑third of patients.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psilocybin-eased-cancer-depression">Psilocybin eased cancer depression </h2>



The new trial enrolled 28 adults who had both cancer and major depressive disorder (MDD). Each participant completed several preparatory therapy sessions before receiving a single 25-milligram psilocybin capsule in a closely monitored room.



Interviewers who were blind to baseline scores found that 15 participants - 53.6 percent - still showed a clinically meaningful reduction in depression two years later. Half of all participants had achieved full remission by that time.



“One dose of psilocybin with psychological support to treat depression has a long‑term positive impact on relieving depression for as much as 2 years for a substantial portion of patients,” said Agrawal at the end of the follow‑up visit. 



Anxiety also eased for 12 people, or 42.9 percent, suggesting overlapping benefits for cancer‑related worry.



Animal imaging <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7830000/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> hints that the psychedelic increases synaptic‑vesicle protein 2A, a proxy for new neural connections, within hours. 



The drug activates the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK1853/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">serotonin 5‑HT2A receptor</a>, temporarily loosening rigid thought loops and allowing therapy to reshape outlook.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-giving-cancer-patients-peace-and-clarity">Giving cancer patients peace and clarity</h2>



Participants often described their psilocybin sessions as emotionally intense, but many said it helped them reframe their diagnosis and feel more connected to loved ones and life itself. 



Some reported a sense of peace or release that persisted long after the psychedelic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-is-the-next-frontier-in-cancer-treatment/">effects</a> wore off.



These effects weren’t just passive. Guided therapy helped patients process their experience and integrate insights into daily life. 



Researchers emphasize that the medicine and the therapeutic environment work together to produce change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-path-for-emotional-care">A new path for emotional care</h2>



Many clinicians are cautiously optimistic. Some oncologists say it could transform end-of-life mental health care without adding a new daily medication.



Therapists report that the emotional clarity some patients experience can accelerate grief processing, spiritual reflection, and personal growth. These areas are often underserved in traditional cancer treatment plans.



A 2024 systematic <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/00048674241289024" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">review</a> of 25 trials found that serious adverse events were rare when psilocybin was given with trained guides and preparatory counseling. 



Participants lay on a couch with eyeshades and music, supported by two therapists - an approach now considered best practice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-bigger-research-picture">The bigger research picture</h2>



“The most interesting finding is that a single dose of psilocybin, which lasts four to six hours, produced enduring decreases in depression and anxiety symptoms,” said Dr. Roland Griffiths, professor of behavioral biology at Johns Hopkins.



Back in 2016 Johns Hopkins scientists <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0269881116675513" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reported</a> that about 80 percent of 51 cancer patients kept mood gains six months after a single dose.&nbsp;



A 2023 umbrella <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10811389/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">review</a> covering 23 clinical studies concluded that psilocybin consistently outperformed placebo for depressive symptoms with few side effects. 



Together these data sets are shifting expert opinion on how aggressively psychedelic‑assisted therapy should be pursued for hard‑to‑treat mood disorders.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-psilocybin-different">What makes psilocybin different</h2>



Unlike daily antidepressants, psilocybin works in a single session and doesn’t require long-term use or ongoing dose adjustments. 



That appeals to many patients already managing complex cancer regimens with multiple medications.



Its effects also seem to emerge quickly. In earlier studies, mood improvement began within one day of dosing, far faster than typical selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (<a href="https://www.nhs.uk/mental-health/talking-therapies-medicine-treatments/medicines-and-psychiatry/ssri-antidepressants/overview/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SSRIs</a>), which can take weeks to build up in the body.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ongoing-psilocybin-and-cancer-trials">Ongoing psilocybin and cancer trials </h2>



Agrawal’s team is now running a double-blind study testing up to two active doses versus placebo to improve remission rates.



Separately, the <a href="https://med.uth.edu/psychiatry/2024/06/03/fda-grants-breakthrough-therapy-designation-to-cyb003-a-deuterated-psilocybin-analog-being-investigated-as-an-adjunctive-treatment-for-major-depressive-disorder-mdd/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Food and Drug Administration</a> granted Breakthrough Therapy status in 2024 to CYB003, a deuterated psilocybin analogue, accelerating regulatory review for major depression.



If positive findings continue, cancer centers may eventually offer a brief psilocybin session instead of months of pills, saving both time and side‑effect burden. 



Insurance coverage and legal scheduling remain major hurdles. Still, advocates argue that with proper screening, skilled guides, and careful follow-up, the treatment may usher in a new era of mental health care for people facing life-threatening illness.



The study is <a href="https://acsjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cncr.35889">published</a> in the journal Cancer.



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Single psilocybin dose helps cancer patients beat depression

Cancer doesn’t just attack the body - it can erode...

The summer solstice isn't just a date on the calendar - it's an event that marks a turning point in our planet's journey around the sun.&nbsp;



For those of us in the Northern Hemisphere,&nbsp;it signifies the official start of summer,&nbsp;the longest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-inner-core-rotation-is-slowing-down-making/">day</a> of the year,&nbsp;and a time steeped in tradition and celebration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-the-summer-solstice">What is the summer solstice?</h2>



During the summer solstice, the Northern Hemisphere is tilted towards the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sun-blasts-biggest-x-class-solar-flare-nineteen-years/">sun</a> at its maximum angle. This direct sunlight leads to the longest day and the shortest night of the year. 



"The Northern Hemisphere's tilt toward the Sun is greatest on this day. This means the Sun travels its longest, highest arc across the sky all year for those north of the equator," noted <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/solar-system/skywatching/whats-up-june-2025-skywatching-tips-from-nasa/">NASA</a>.



The exact date of the solstice can vary between June 20th,&nbsp;21st,&nbsp;or 22nd,&nbsp;depending on the year and your time zone.&nbsp;



The solstice marks the astronomical start of summer - not to be confused with the meteorological start - which is always June 1st for convenience in weather tracking.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-moment-frozen-in-time">A moment frozen in time</h2>



During the summer solstice,&nbsp;the sun reaches its highest point in the sky in the Northern Hemisphere.&nbsp;



For a brief period,&nbsp;the sun seems to pause at this peak before it gradually begins its descent, signifying the days will start to get shorter.&nbsp;



This apparent pause is where the term "solstice" comes from,&nbsp;derived from the Latin words "sol" (sun) and "sistere" (to stand still).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-celebrating-the-summer-solstice">Celebrating the summer solstice </h2>



For thousands of years, cultures around the world have celebrated the summer solstice as a time of joy, abundance, and new beginnings. 



Ancient civilizations recognized the significance of this celestial event, incorporating it into their spiritual practices and even their architecture.



The Egyptians,&nbsp;for instance, constructed their pyramids so that the sun would align perfectly with specific chambers and passages during the solstices.&nbsp;



The Mayans,&nbsp;known for their advanced astronomical knowledge,&nbsp;built observatories to track the sun's movements,&nbsp;and their temples were often aligned to the rising or setting sun on the solstices.



Stonehenge,&nbsp;the prehistoric monument in England,&nbsp;stands as a testament to humanity's enduring fascination with the solstice.&nbsp;On the morning of the summer solstice,&nbsp;the sun rises precisely over the Heel Stone,&nbsp;a marker outside the main circle of standing stones.&nbsp;



This alignment is thought to have held profound meaning for the people who built Stonehenge, possibly connected to fertility rites or agricultural cycles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-festivities-to-mark-the-solstice">Festivities to mark the solstice</h2>



Different cultures have their own ways of celebrating the summer solstice. In Scandinavian countries, Midsummer is one of the most important holidays, marked by joyful festivities, time-honored traditions, and community gatherings that honor the height of summer.



Bonfires are a central element of Midsummer celebrations. They symbolize the sun and its life-giving energy. Communities gather around these fires, enjoying their warmth and light. 



Wearing flower crowns is a beloved Midsummer tradition. Children and young adults make crowns from fresh flowers and greenery. These crowns represent the beauty and abundance of nature at its peak. 



Dancing is a key part of Midsummer festivities. Traditional dances, often performed around a decorated maypole, bring people together in joyous movement. 



Feasting is another important aspect, with families and friends sharing meals that include seasonal foods like new potatoes, pickled herring, and strawberries. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sunrise-at-stonehenge">Sunrise at Stonehenge </h2>



Each year, thousands of people gather at <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-lunar-standstill-will-illuminate-stonehenge-this-week/">Stonehenge</a> to witness the sun rising on the summer solstice. This ancient stone circle in England is aligned with the solstice sunrise, making it a significant site for this event.



For many, the gathering at Stonehenge is a spiritual experience. The solstice sunrise, framed by the ancient stones, creates a profound sense of connection to the past and the rhythms of the earth. 



Stonehenge’s connection to the solstice has captivated people for generations. Built thousands of years ago, the monument reflects its creators’ remarkable grasp of astronomy. 



Today’s solstice gatherings offer a powerful link to that ancient wisdom and the people who once gathered there under the same sky.



The gathering at Stonehenge is more than a chance to watch the sunrise - it’s a powerful communal experience. People of all backgrounds and beliefs come together to honor the occasion. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-science-behind-the-summer-solstice">Science behind the summer solstice</h2>



While the summer solstice is a time of celebration,&nbsp;it's also a captivating display of our planet's celestial mechanics.&nbsp;



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mars-gravity-pulls-earth-closer-to-the-sun-warming-our-climate-scientists-say/">Earth</a> doesn't spin upright like a top; it's tilted on its axis at approximately 23.5 degrees.&nbsp;This tilt,&nbsp;combined with Earth's year-long journey around the sun,&nbsp;is the driving force behind our changing seasons.



During the summer solstice in the Northern Hemisphere,&nbsp;this tilt positions us to receive the most direct sunlight,&nbsp;leading to longer days and warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



However,&nbsp;Earth's orbit is a continuous cycle.&nbsp;As we move past the solstice,&nbsp;our planet's tilt gradually starts to shift the Northern Hemisphere away from the sun's direct rays.



This shift causes the days to gradually shorten and the nights to lengthen.&nbsp;The sun's path across the sky appears lower,&nbsp;and its energy becomes less intense,&nbsp;ushering in the cooler temperatures of autumn.&nbsp;



This progression eventually leads us to the autumn equinox,&nbsp;where day and night are of equal length,&nbsp;and ultimately to the winter solstice,&nbsp;the shortest day of the year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-starting-point-for-new-beginnings">A starting point for new beginnings </h2>



Witnessing the sun at its highest point in the sky can be a truly awe-inspiring experience. Find a comfortable spot with a clear view of the horizon to watch the sunrise or sunset. 



The solstice can be a symbolic starting point for new beginnings. Use this time to start a new project or set personal goals. 



Whether it's a creative endeavor, a fitness routine, or a professional objective, the solstice can mark the beginning of your journey. Embracing new challenges and aspirations can bring a sense of purpose and direction.



The summer solstice is more than just a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysteries-of-the-summer-solstice-the-longest-day-of-the-year/">scientific event</a>; it's a reminder of our connection to the natural world and the cycles of the Earth. It's a time to celebrate light, life, and the endless possibilities that each new day brings.



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Summer solstice 2025: A celebration of light and life

The summer solstice isn't just a date on the calendar...

For countless generations, every spring night in Australia has carried the faint whisper of wings. Billions of Bogong moths rise from the dry inland plains. Their destination is a handful of icy caves high in the Snowy Mountains, up to 600 miles away.



How these brief-lived insects - each one making the journey only once - find their way across such vast, feature-poor landscapes has long been one of biology’s quiet mysteries.



Now, an international research team has discovered the key: Bogong moths navigate by reading the constellations and the Milky Way, switching to Earth’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-magnetic-field-has-a-dent-and-nasa-is-watching-closely/">magnetic field</a> when clouds blot out the stars.



The findings make the species the first known invertebrate to use a stellar compass for long-distance migration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unseen-nightly-moth-migration">An unseen nightly moth migration</h2>



Bogong moths (Agrotis infusa) hatch on parched farmland and grasslands across southeastern Australia. Triggered by spring warmth, each insect embarks on a marathon flight toward cool alpine refuges.



When they arrive - sometimes only weeks after leaving birth sites - they wedge themselves into narrow rock cracks. There, they lower their body temperature and remain torpid through the scorching summer months.



Come autumn, they reverse course, return to the lowlands, breed once and die, leaving offspring to repeat the cycle.



Although the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-behaviors-are-shaped-by-experience/">migrat</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-behaviors-are-shaped-by-experience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">i</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/migratory-behaviors-are-shaped-by-experience/">on</a> is centuries old, its navigational underpinning has been elusive. Earlier work hinted that moths might sense Earth’s magnetic field. But that alone seemed too crude to guide them to specific caves occupying only a few square miles in the vast Australian Alps.



The new study shows the insects wield a two-part navigation toolkit every bit as sophisticated as that of migratory birds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moths-use-celestial-landmarks">Moths use celestial landmarks </h2>



Led by Professor Eric Warrant of <a href="https://www.lunduniversity.lu.se/">Lund University</a>, the research team built a custom flight simulator: a circular arena whose inner surface could project a perfectly realistic night sky, complete with Zodiac constellations and the luminous smear of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-way-like-galaxies-were-present-in-the-early-universe/">Milky Way</a>.



By rotating or scrambling the projection, the team could test what cues the moths use. They also enclosed the device in coils that canceled Earth’s magnetic field, allowing independent manipulation of magnetic and visual information.



When moths collected during spring migrations were placed in the simulator under a natural star map, they reliably flew south-southeast - the direction to the Snowy Mountains from their capture location.



Autumn migrants, tested months later, flew north-northwest toward their breeding grounds. Rotating the star map 180 degrees caused the insects instantly to flip their direction of flight. 



Scrambling the star pattern left them disoriented, proving they were not just chasing the brightest point but reading specific celestial landmarks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moths-have-a-backup-migration-plan">Moths have a backup migration plan</h2>



Night skies are not always clear. The researchers next obscured the stars while reintroducing a controlled magnetic field.



Deprived of visual cues, the moths still flew along the correct migratory bearing, guided only by magnetism. When both stars and magnetic information were eliminated, the moths lost orientation entirely.



The results reveal a dual-compass strategy: starlight when available, magnetism when not. Such redundancy ensures reliability amid Australia’s famously changeable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pollen-alters-cloud-formation-and-changes-weather-patterns/">spring weather</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brains-tuned-to-stars">Brains tuned to stars</h2>



The team also ventured inside the moth’s brain. Using microelectrodes thinner than a human hair, they recorded from neurons in the central complex - an insect brain hub for spatial processing.



Certain neurons fired maximally when the simulated starry sky aligned with the migratory heading. Rotating the sky shifted each cell’s peak activity by an equivalent angle, confirming that these neurons encode celestial direction.



That sophisticated computation, packed into a brain weighing a fraction of a gram, rivals the navigational circuitry found in far larger animals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-moths-to-machines">From moths to machines</h2>



The discovery joins earlier breakthroughs revealing that South African <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dung-beetles-share-their-workload-with-their-mates/">dung beetles</a> use the Milky Way to roll dung balls in straight lines.



Study co-author Javaan Chahl, a remote-sensing engineer at the University of South Australia, has already translated beetle astronomy into an AI sensor that allows robots to orient in low light.



He believes Bogong moths could inspire next-generation <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drones-reveal-hidden-biodiversity-in-rainforest-canopies/">drones</a> capable of navigating long distances at night without GPS.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moth-migration-needs-dark-skies">Moth migration needs dark skies</h2>



Bogong moth numbers have crashed due to drought, pesticides, land use changes, and climate-driven shifts in vegetation. The species is now listed as vulnerable.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/light-pollution-skyglow-fuels-toxic-algae-and-alters-carbon-cycle-in-lakes/">Light pollution</a> compounds the threat by washing out the night-sky cues the moths rely on. Losing dark skies could push the migratory system past a point of no return. 



This would trigger ripple effects across alpine ecosystems that rely on the moths as a seasonal food bonanza for birds and mammals.



“This is not just about a moth,” said Warrant, who also holds appointments at the <a href="https://www.anu.edu.au/">Australian National University</a> and the <a href="https://online.unisa.edu.au/">University of South Australia</a>.



The findings help recognize that the night sky is a public commons, critical for countless species - humans included - that have used it to orient, to tell time, to wonder.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-navigation-by-starlight">Navigation by starlight</h2>



For millennia, Polynesian navigators steered canoes by starlight, and mariners followed the Southern Cross across oceans. 



Now we know that a creature no larger than a paper clip can do the same, threading a path across an entire continent by reading the celestial vault.



Safeguarding the Bogong moth’s migration means protecting the dark, starlit corridors overhead - an essential step if we are to keep both the insect’s ancient journey and our shared cosmic heritage alive.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09135-3">Nature</a>.



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Moths read the stars to complete an epic migration

For countless generations, every spring night in Australia has carried...

What makes us human? Most would say our minds. The ability to think, empathize, and build complex societies sets us apart from every other species on Earth. But where did this begin? 



A new hypothesis from researchers at Cambridge and Oxford suggests a surprising factor in human brain evolution: the placenta. 



This temporary organ that nurtures unborn babies may have driven the development of our large, social human <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-brains-solve-complex-problems-with-simple-tricks/">brains</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-placenta-the-basics">Understanding the placenta - the basics</h2>



The placenta is a dynamic, intelligent system that nurtures and safeguards new life from conception to delivery. It attaches to the lining of the uterus and connects to the fetus through the umbilical cord, acting as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pregnancy-stress-may-have-lasting-effects-on-fetal-development/">a vital lifeline</a>. 



Through this connection, the placenta delivers oxygen and nutrients from the mother’s bloodstream to the fetus while removing carbon dioxide and waste products. 



It also produces hormones - such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sperm-have-a-heat-activated-switch-that-may-be-key-to-fertility/">progesterone</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/germ-cells-play-a-crucial-role-in-aging-and-lifespan/">estrogen</a>, and human chorionic gonadotropin - that help maintain the pregnancy and support fetal development.



Beyond its physiological functions, the placenta serves as a protective barrier, filtering out many harmful substances, though not all. 



Certain viruses, bacteria, and drugs can still cross into fetal circulation, which underscores the importance of maternal health and prenatal care. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hormones-and-social-traits">Hormones and social traits</h2>



Dr. Alex Tsompanidis, senior researcher at Cambridge’s <a href="https://www.autismresearchcentre.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Autism Research Centre</a>, is the study's lead author.



“Small variations in the prenatal levels of steroid hormones, like testosterone and oestrogen, can predict the rate of social and cognitive learning in infants and even the likelihood of conditions such as autism. This prompted us to consider their relevance for human evolution,” noted Dr. Tsompanidis. 



He and his co-authors argue that these hormones influenced not just individuals but helped shape human social traits across millennia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-brain-and-its-origins">Human brain and its origins</h2>



“We’ve known for a long time that living in larger, more complex social groups is associated with increases in the size of the brain. But we still don’t know what mechanisms may link these behavioral and physical adaptations in humans," said Professor Robin Dunbar.



This study suggests the missing piece may be sex steroid hormones like testosterone and oestrogens. These affect brain structure and connectivity even before birth.



To explore this, the researchers used “mini-brains” grown from stem cells in petri dishes. These clusters allowed them to observe how hormones shape developing neurons. 



The team found that testosterone increases brain volume, while oestrogens enhance <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-brain-literally-changes-based-on-daily-activities-and-lifestyle/">neural</a> connectivity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-brain-size-and-the-placenta">Human brain size and the placenta</h2>



Humans and great apes share a powerful hormonal connection between mother and fetus via the placenta. But humans seem to have a unique advantage. 



“The placenta regulates the duration of the pregnancy and the supply of nutrients to the fetus, both of which are crucial for the development of our species’ characteristically large brains. But the advantage of human placentas over those of other primates has been less clear,” noted Professor Graham Burton.



That advantage may lie in hormone levels. Studies show that oestrogen levels in pregnant humans are higher than in other primates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hormones-supported-social-living">Hormones supported social living </h2>



One human hallmark is our ability to maintain very large, stable groups. To manage this, our ancestors had to evolve both high fertility and reduced male competition. Sex steroid hormones may have supported both changes.



Hormones like testosterone drive male-like traits such as strength and competitiveness. In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-brain-has-a-meal-memory-that-controls-hunger/">humans</a>, these traits exist but appear less extreme than in our close relatives or extinct cousins like Neanderthals. 



In contrast, traits linked to oestrogens, like reduced body hair and certain finger ratios, became more common.



Why? Possibly because the placenta helps convert testosterone into oestrogens using an enzyme called aromatase. Humans have more of this enzyme than other primates, and interestingly, males may have slightly more than females.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-placenta-influenced-human-brain-evolution">Placenta influenced human brain evolution</h2>



By combining all these pieces, the researchers argue that stronger placental function and elevated prenatal hormone levels together expanded brain size and connectivity. 



A lower ratio of testosterone to oestrogen could have reduced male aggression and boosted fertility in females. This allowed humans to live together in larger, more cooperative groups.



“We have been studying the effects of prenatal sex steroids on neurodevelopment for the past 20 years. This has led to the discovery that prenatal sex steroids are important for neurodiversity in human populations," said Professor Simon Baron-Cohen.



"This new hypothesis takes this further in arguing that these hormones may have also shaped the evolution of the human brain."



According to Dr. Tsompanidis, the team's hypothesis puts pregnancy at the heart of our story as a species. "The human brain is remarkable and unique, but it does not develop in a vacuum."



"Adaptations in the placenta and the way it produces sex steroid hormones may have been crucial for our brain’s evolution, and for the emergence of the cognitive and social traits that make us human,” Dr. Tsompanidis concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/evan.70003" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Evolutionary Anthropology Issues News and Reviews</a>.



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Hormones produced in the placenta may have driven human brain evolution

What makes us human? Most would say our minds. The...

The brown bear, Ursus arctos, is often described as adaptable, and its European range has never stayed still for long. 



New research shows that the bear’s wanderings are tied less to temperature than to where its food grows or grazes - an important detail with big conservation consequences.



Pablo M. Lucas and colleagues at the <a href="https://ics-seville.org/university-of-seville/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Seville</a> analyzed more than three million <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-brown-bears-have-a-genetic-weak-spot/">bear</a> locations and the energy yield of 276 food species to find the pattern.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bears-follow-food-with-most-energy">Bears follow food with most energy</h2>



“We detected 276 species in their diet. Bears occupy those places where the most energy from the species in their diet is available,” explained Lucas. 



Brown bears consume anything from acorns to red deer, shifting diet with local supply. Lucas’s team confirms that bears settle where the most calories are packed into the landscape, a principle ecologists call <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2073-445X/12/10/1928" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic energy optimization</a>.&nbsp;



Europe holds about 17,000 free‑ranging brown <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/untangling-the-history-of-polar-bears-and-brown-bears/">bears</a> spread over 22 countries, yet the population is fragmented into 14 sub‑populations, from the Cantabrian Mountains to Karelia. 



The <a href="http://www.bearconservation.org.uk/eurasian-brown-bear/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN</a> classifies the species as “Least Concern” globally, but several regional groups remain vulnerable. Fragmentation matters because food landscapes vary sharply across short distances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-shifts-food-sources-for-bears">Climate shifts food sources for bears </h2>



Climate change is already nudging thousands of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-brown-bears-are-digging-up-japans-artificial-forests/">species</a> poleward and uphill, some three times faster than biologists once estimated. As fruiting plants, insects and ungulates relocate, bears face a moving target.&nbsp;



In warmer regions such as Greece and Türkiye, the study found bears behaving almost like herbivores, with nuts and berries dominating the diet. 



Farther north in Scandinavia and Finland, meat from wild boar or moose supplies over half of a bear’s annual calories.



American grizzlies offer a parallel: on Alaska’s Kodiak Island, warmer summers now ripen elderberries during salmon runs, and many bears abandon fish for fruit. 



The European analysis suggests similar switches are likely whenever plant and animal phenology collide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mapping-the-energy-landscape">Mapping the energy landscape</h2>



To quantify edible energy, the team combined scat and stomach studies with remote‑sensing models of plant and prey habitat. 



A key variable was <a href="https://pubs.usgs.gov/ds/691/ds691.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">isothermality</a>, the ratio of day‑to‑night temperature range to annual range, which influences plant productivity.



Areas rich in reproductive plants such as oak and beech mast scored high for bears in Spain, while regions with dense roe‑deer populations pulled bears east of the Carpathians.



The researchers then layered these food maps onto climate and land‑use projections for 2050. Where forests shrink or heat stress pushes oaks uphill, the calories disappear and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grizzly-bears-help-huckleberries-thrive-in-a-changing-climate/">bear</a>’s probability of presence drops with them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bear-food-zones-may-shrink">Bear food zones may shrink</h2>



Under a mid‑range emissions pathway, suitable bear habitat could contract by one‑third if both abiotic (climate, land use) and biotic (food availability) changes unfold as <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.70252" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forecast</a>. 



Losses are steepest in the East Balkan and Türkiye groups, where warming outpaces plant adaptation. In contrast, the Scandinavian and Karelian sub‑populations may gain ground as forests march north, provided prey species keep pace.



A separate Swedish <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/296319593_Seasonal_and_annual_variation_in_the_diet_of_brown_bears_Ursus_arctos_in_the_boreal_forest_of_southcentral_Sweden" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analysis</a> of 527 bear scats showed similar north-south dietary splits and underlines that bears quickly alter foraging tactics when new options arise. 



Such flexibility could buffer northern bears but offers little help to isolated southern populations hemmed in by farmland and roads.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-people-and-policy">Implications for people and policy</h2>



Europe’s large carnivores have rebounded over the past two decades, sparking new debates about coexistence. Where wild prey declines, bears turn to orchards, beehives and livestock carcasses, raising conflict costs. 



Predicting hotspots of future food scarcity can guide compensation schemes and habitat corridors before tensions flare.



Forest managers also gain a roadmap: protecting seed‑producing trees in southern Europe may retain critical autumn fattening grounds, while maintaining continuous ungulate habitat in the north ensures carnivorous diets stay wild. 



The study argues that conservation targets should shift from static range maps to dynamic “energy maps” that track how calories, not just climate, flow across the continent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-all-species-adapt-like-bears">Not all species adapt like bears</h2>



Brown bears are generalists, able to switch food sources as the landscape changes. But many species aren’t so lucky. 



Animals with a <a href="https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/generalist-and-specialist-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">specialist diet</a>, such as the Iberian lynx or alpine butterflies, may not adapt as quickly if their primary food vanishes or migrates beyond reach.



Species with limited mobility or narrow climate tolerance face a double threat: they can’t chase food, and even if they could, suitable shelter might not be there. 



Conservation strategies that work for flexible foragers like bears won’t always translate to more fragile species caught in tight ecological niches.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-step-is-testing-other-predators">Next step is testing other predators</h2>



Lucas and co‑authors hope to expand the model to wolves and lynx, testing whether prey‑driven range forecasts improve planning for multiple predators at once. 



The researchers are also calling for finer‑scale monitoring of plant phenology so managers can spot mismatches early.



For now, the brown bear reminds us that protecting a species means protecting its pantry. Where acorns fall and deer graze today will shape where cubs are born tomorrow.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.70252" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Change Biology</a>.



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Brown bears move where their food grows

The brown bear, Ursus arctos, is often described as adaptable,...

Nanoparticles - microscopic specks released by cars, factories, forest fires, and volcanoes - float through every ecosystem on Earth.



Scientists are also designing these particles to precisely deliver <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fertilizer-reduces-plant-damage-caused-by-droughts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fertilizers</a> to crop roots, target pests with pesticides, or serve as tiny sensors that detect plant stress. 



But new research, led by the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Riverside,</a> shows that once those particles enter a plant cell, they can change in unexpected ways and interfere with the plant’s ability to photosynthesize.



The researchers uncovered a chain reaction: inside the cell, nanoparticles pick up a greasy coating and then cling to RuBisCO, the enzyme that jump-starts <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-foundation-of-life-is-at-risk-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">photosynthesis</a>. The result is a dramatic slowdown in the plant’s carbon-dioxide intake.



The discovery does not condemn the promise of agricultural nanotechnology, but it does force scientists to rethink how particles are designed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unintended-consequences-of-nanoparticles">Unintended consequences of nanoparticles</h2>



While many agricultural scientists see nanotechnology as a key to feeding a growing global population, even its strongest proponents admit that today’s fertilizers and pesticides are wildly inefficient.



Juan Pablo Giraldo is the senior author and an associate professor of plant biology at UC Riverside.



“Half of all fertilizer applied on farms is lost in the environment and pollutes groundwater," he said. "With the most commonly used <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pesticides-attack-bees-in-multiple-ways-throughout-the-body/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pesticides</a>, it’s even worse -&nbsp;only five percent may reach their intended targets. There’s a lot of room for improvement.” 



Nanoparticles can, in theory, deliver cargo directly to a leaf’s interior and then break down safely. Scientists suspected the traits helping particles enter plants might also cause harmful collisions with sensitive proteins.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nanoparticles-enter-plant-cells">Nanoparticles enter plant cells</h2>



To test that idea, the researchers exposed Arabidopsis plants - widely used as a model species - to positively charged nanoparticles. 



Using super-resolution imaging and spectroscopy, they watched the particles move through cell walls and membranes. Eventually, the particles reached the chloroplasts, where photosynthesis occurs.



“Nanoparticles, both natural and anthropogenic, are prevalent in many of Earth’s ecosystems, but scientists are only recently starting to understand how they interact with different parts of the environment,” said Lin He of the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Science Foundation</a>. 



Inside the plant’s watery interior, the particles experienced a lower pH and quickly attracted lipids from nearby membranes. This new greasy shell altered their surface chemistry and made them stick tightly to RuBisCO.



“The lipid coatings of positively charged nanoparticles enhance their binding to RuBisCO, and don’t allow it to do its job very well,” Giraldo explained.



RuBisCO is responsible for capturing carbon dioxide and turning it into sugar. Blocking even a fraction of its activity can leave a plant starved for energy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cost-to-photosynthesis">The cost to photosynthesis</h2>



To quantify that effect, the team measured <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-absorb-31-more-co2-than-previously-estimated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CO2</a> uptake in living leaves. Outside the cell, nanoparticles had little impact on RuBisCO activity. Inside the cell - after the particles had acquired lipid coats - RuBisCO’s efficiency fell to roughly one-third of normal.



“This is the first time we’ve been able to compare the effect of a nanoparticle on a protein both outside and inside a living <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-plants-build-their-cell-walls-is-seen-by-scientists-for-the-first-time-ever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant cell</a>” Giraldo said.



At first, the scientists assumed the particle’s electrical charge might be responsible. Deeper analysis showed otherwise.



“Now we know that it’s not the charge necessarily, but the transformation they undergo as they enter plants, and potentially, other organisms as well,” Giraldo added.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-greasy-molecular-puzzle">A greasy molecular puzzle</h2>



The team collaborated with chemists at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins University</a> to run molecular simulations of the interaction.



“We each bring in complementary techniques that enable deeper insights into a complex system such as a plant cell,” said co-author Rigoberto Hernandez, a scientist at Johns Hopkins.



His lab’s models showed lipid molecules flocking to the nanoparticle surface and forming a sticky layer that fits RuBisCO almost like Velcro.



“Using computer simulations providing a view of the structure and motion at microscopic scales, we resolved how lipids are acquired by nanoparticles in the presence of RuBisCO,” Hernandez said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nanoparticles-for-a-greener-future">Nanoparticles for a greener future</h2>



The researchers emphasize that nanoparticles still hold enormous promise, especially if they can be redesigned to avoid hijacking RuBisCO.



Through the NSF Center for Sustainable Nanotechnology, researchers from various fields of chemistry and environmental science have collaborated closely. Together, they uncovered how nanoparticles transform and interact with a protein involved in plant photosynthesis.



“In so doing, they have laid the groundwork for the safer and more effective use of nanoparticles for agricultural and biotechnology applications," said Lin He.



Catherine Murphy, a chemistry professor at the <a href="https://illinois.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Illinois</a> and study co-author, put the challenge bluntly: “This landmark study tells us that we have a long way to go to make nanoparticles that are truly beneficial in the environment,” she said.



“But now that we know the mechanism of action, we can retune our methods to solve these problems.”



Next steps include designing coatings that stay inert in cells or steering particles away from RuBisCO-binding areas. With that knowledge, future nanoparticles could nourish crops, fight <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pests-are-moving-to-cooler-regions-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pests</a>, and measure plant health - without dimming the green engine that feeds the planet.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41565-025-01944-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Nanotechnology</a>.



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Nanoparticles are threatening the stability of plant cells

Nanoparticles - microscopic specks released by cars, factories, forest fires,...

At the current pace of carbon pollution, the world will blow through its last sliver of the 1.5° Celsius (2.7° Fahrenheit) carbon budget by early 2028. That sobering deadline comes from the latest “Indicators of Global Climate Change” report, a yearly assessment of the planet’s vital signs.



Scientists from more than sixty research groups pulled together everything we know about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-is-on-pace-to-surpass-1-5c-global-temperature-increase-for-second-year-in-a-row/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rising temperatures</a>, sea levels, greenhouse-gas concentrations and more.



The experts calculated that, starting in January 2025, humanity can emit only about 130 billion tons of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-carbon-dioxide-travels-in-the-atmosphere/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon dioxide</a> before we lock in 1.5°C of long-term warming. We’re coughing up roughly 36 billion tons every year. Do the math, and the cushion evaporates in just over three years.



The 1.5°C threshold isn’t an arbitrary line in the sand. The best science suggests that beyond it, heatwaves, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flood-fatalities-experts-reveal-the-hidden-health-impacts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">floods</a>, and ecosystem losses become far more severe - and far harder to manage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-warming-breaks-climate-records">Warming breaks climate records</h2>



The report’s findings are striking. Over the past decade, Earth’s surface averaged 1.24°C (2.23°F) warmer than it was in the late 1800s, and 1.22°C (2.19°F) of that spike is firmly pinned on us - our cars, furnaces, power plants, and razed forests.



“Warming levels and the rate of warming are both unprecedented,” said lead author Piers Forster, a climatologist at the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Leeds</a>. “Emissions are still at record highs, and that means more of us are feeling unsafe levels of climate impacts.”



In 2024 alone, the planet warmed to roughly 1.52°C (2.73°F) above pre-industrial times. That doesn’t “break” the Paris Agreement, which is measured over decades, but it shows just how close we are to the red line.



On land, the story is even hotter. Average daily high temperatures over the past decade have run almost 2°C (3.6°F) above the nineteenth-century baseline. Those are the blistering numbers that translate into parched soils, raging <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfires-are-changing-the-quality-of-our-air/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildfires</a>, and stressed crops.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oceans-soaking-up-the-heat">Oceans soaking up the heat</h2>



Most of the extra energy trapped by climate-warming greenhouse gases - roughly 90 percent - has been sinking into the oceans.



In 2024, global sea-surface temperatures hit record highs yet again. Warm water expands, so <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-heat-of-2024-triggered-a-surge-in-sea-level-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea levels rise</a>. Add melting ice from Greenland and Antarctica, and the mean sea level has climbed about 26 millimeters in just five years. 



Since 1900, the total rise has been roughly 228 millimeters, or nine inches. That may not sound like much, but for low-lying coasts it’s the difference between a nuisance flood and a disaster. 



Every extra inch of water makes storm surges more damaging and chews away more coastline.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cleaner-air-warmer-planet"><a></a>Cleaner air, warmer planet</h2>



There is an ironic twist in the data. Efforts to cut <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-extinction-of-dinosaurs-was-not-caused-by-volcanic-eruptions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sulphur</a> pollution from ships and smokestacks have reduced the hazy aerosol particles that once reflected sunlight back into space.



The upside is cleaner air and fewer premature deaths. The downside is a small but important loss of planetary shade, leaving greenhouse gases to heat the planet even faster.



That’s why researchers say we must tackle methane, nitrous oxide, and other short-lived gases alongside carbon dioxide to protect Earth’s climate. Fast cuts to those pollutants could offset some of the extra warming triggered by cleaner skies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-emissions-have-rebounded">Global emissions have rebounded</h2>



Global emissions plunged briefly during pandemic lockdowns, but 2023 and 2024 erased that dip. Even international aviation, the sector hit hardest by travel restrictions, is back to its pre-COVID flight path of CO2 release.



Professor Joeri Rogelj at <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Imperial College London</a>, one of the report’s co-authors, warned that every fraction of a degree matters.



The difference between 1.5°C and 1.6°C is not abstract; it’s thousands more heat-related deaths and a much higher risk of irreversible ice-sheet loss.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-carbon-deadline-is-approaching">Earth carbon deadline is approaching </h2>



Next year’s UN climate summit, COP 30, will meet in Belém at the edge of the Amazon rainforest. That gathering now has a crystal-clear mandate: bend the emissions curve hard, and do it immediately.



The takeaway from the new indicators is simple, if daunting. We cannot negotiate with the physics of accumulating CO2.



Every ton avoided buys time; every delay speeds us toward thresholds nobody wants to cross. The carbon clock is ticking for Earth, and politics is running out of time.



The report is published in the journal <a href="https://essd.copernicus.org/articles/17/2641/2025/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth System Science Data</a>.



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Earth is just three years away from a dangerous carbon milestone

At the current pace of carbon pollution, the world will...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



-----



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



-----



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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