Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

New research led by the <a href="https://www.univr.it/en/home">University of Verona</a> and presented at the European Alliance of Associations for Rheumatology (<a href="https://congress.eular.org/">EULAR</a>) Congress 2022 has investigated the association between long-term exposure to air <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/severity-of-covid-symptoms-linked-to-air-pollution/">pollution</a> and immune-mediated diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis (RA) or inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). The experts found that people exposed to high levels of air pollution for long periods of time are at a significantly higher risk of developing autoimmune diseases.  



Particulate matter (PM) is a mixture of solid and liquid particles in the air, consisting of a variety of chemicals and materials, some of which are highly toxic (particularly the so-called <a href="https://ww2.arb.ca.gov/resources/inhalable-particulate-matter-and-health">PM10 and PM2.5</a>). By analyzing data from over 80,000 people in Italy, the scientists found a positive association between PM levels measured at local air-quality stations and the risk of developing autoimmune diseases.&nbsp;



The results revealed that exposure to PM10 above 30 µg/ m³ and PM2.5 above 20 µg/ m³ was associated with 12 percent and 13 percent higher risks of autoimmune disease. While exposure to PM10 was linked to an increased risk of RA but no other autoimmune disease, exposure to high levels of PM2.5 led to higher risk of both RA and IBD. Overall, chronic exposure to particulate matter was associated with a 10 percent higher risk of developing immune-mediated diseases.



The same research team has also investigated the link between long-term exposure to PM and osteoporosis - which although is not an autoimmune disease, it seems to be caused by a malfunctioning immune system - in a cohort of 60,000 women at high risk of fracture. They found that chronic exposure above 25 μg/m³ for PM2.5 and 30 μg/m³ for PM10 was associated with a 16 percent and 15 percent higher risk of having osteoporotic bone mass scores at any site.



A related study has discovered that a leading cause for the development of RA is exposure to crystalline silica, a substance released during cleaning activities that include the handling of dusty clothes or talcum powder. Such findings suggest that cleaning activities are underestimated sources of silica exposure that are overrepresented in women with RA compared to the general population, and may significantly contribute to the pathogenesis of the disease.



Further research is needed to clarify the connections between air pollution and immune-mediated diseases, and to properly map the intricate relationships between environmental factors, gender, occupation, and disease risks.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Air pollution increases the risk of autoimmune disease

New research led by the University of Verona and presented...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.tum.de/">Technical University of Munich</a> (TUM) has investigated how climate change is impacting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/farming-and-climate-warming-have-cut-insect-populations-in-half/">insect populations</a> across Europe. The experts found that species adapted to cooler temperatures, such as Thor’s fritillary, the green mountain grasshopper, or the white-faced darter, are declining. Meanwhile, warm-adapted species like the scarlet dragonfly, the European tree cricket, or the baton blue butterfly are in fact thriving as global temperatures rise. These findings highlight the complex relationships between climate change and various animal species, suggesting that, for some animals, global warming could actually turn out to be beneficial.



By using data on current population trends of more than 200 species of insects in Bavaria, including 120 butterflies, 50 orthoptera, and 60 dragonflies, the researchers found that across all these insect groups, there was an increase in the populations of warm-adapted species and a decline of species adapted to cooler environments.



“We determined the temperature preferences of each species using data on their distribution within Europe and the mean temperature in that area. In other words, species with a primarily northern distribution are cold-adapted species, and species with a primarily southern European distribution are warm-adapted species,”&nbsp;explained study lead author Eva Engelhardt, an expert in Terrestrial Ecology at TUM.



“Our comparisons of the various groups of insects revealed significant differences. Whilst there was more decline than increase in butterfly and Orthoptera species, the trends for dragonflies were largely positive,” she added.



According to the researchers, a possible reason for this is improvements in water quality during the previous decades, a change that has particularly benefited dragonflies, which thrive in a variety of aquatic habitats. On the other hand, species adapted to very specific ecosystems (the so-called “habitat specialists”), including butterflies such as the large heath or the cranberry blue, experienced a marked decline due to climate change.



“Our study highlights the complex effect of climate change on our insect fauna,” said co-author Diana Bowler, a postdoctoral fellow in Ecosystem Services at the <a href="https://www.idiv.de/en/index.html">German Center for Integrative Biodiversity</a> (iDiv). “Our work is also an example of how modern approaches to data analysis can be used to obtain fascinating results from existing data sets. Volunteer and agency conservation work often does generate the data, but they are rarely evaluated systematically. This should happen much more often through collaborations like ours,” she concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.16200">Global Change Biology</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Warm-adapted insects benefit from climate change

A new study led by the Technical University of Munich...

Elasmosaurus,,Group,Of,Long-necked,Plesiosaurs,From,The,Late,Cretaceous,Period,

A recent study published in the journal <a href="https://peerj.com/articles/13342/">PeerJ</a> has found that plesiosaurs – a group of saurians that lived about 210 million years ago in the late Triassic and became extinct at the end of the Cretaceous – adapted to life <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-humans-hear-as-well-as-seals-underwater/">underwater</a> in a unique way: their front and hind limbs evolved to form four uniform, wing-like flippers which they twisted in order to swim efficiently.



Plesiosaurs belonged to group of saurians called Sauropterygia (“paddle lizards”) that, over the course of evolution, re-adapted to living in the oceans. While most of them had extremely long necks and small heads, evidence of some predatory specimens with short necks and huge skulls has also emerged. However, what made plesiosaurs so unusual were their four uniform wing-like flippers.



“Having the front legs transformed into wing-like flippers is relatively common in evolution, for instance in sea turtles. Never again, however, did the hind legs evolve into an almost identical-looking airfoil-like wing,” said study lead author Anna Krahl, a paleontologist at the <a href="https://uni-tuebingen.de/">University of Tübingen</a>.



For over 120 years, experts in vertebrate paleontology have wondered how plesiosaurs might have swum with these four flippers. While some scientists argued that they rowed like freshwater turtles or ducks, and others that they flew underwater like sea turtles or penguins, some researchers believed that they actually combined underwater flight and rowing as modern-day sea lions or pig-nosed turtles do.



By analyzing the body structure of several plesiosaur fossils, Dr. Krahl has found that these creatures had stiffened elbows, knees, hands, and ankle joints, but functioning hip, shoulder, and finger joints. “Analysis comparing them to modern-day sea turtles, and based on what is known about their swimming process, indicated that plesiosaurs were probably not able to rotate their flippers as much as would be necessary for rowing,” she explained.&nbsp;



However, plesiosaurs could ultimately twist their flippers to place them in a hydrodynamically favorable position and produce lift without rotating their upper arms and thighs. “This could work by means of twisting the flippers around their long axis,” Dr. Krahl said. “Other vertebrates, such as the leatherback turtle, have also been shown to use this movement to generate propulsion through lift.”&nbsp;Twisting most probably involved bending their first finger far downward and their last finger far upward, with the remaining fingers bridging these extreme positions, so that the flipper tip was almost vertical without requiring any real rotation in the shoulders or wrists.



By calculating the forces for the individual muscles that generated the upstroke and downstroke, Dr. Krahl and her colleagues discovered that the downstroke of both pairs of flippers was more powerful than the upstroke – similarly with today’s sea turtles, and differently from other aquatic creatures such as penguins or whales.



“Plesiosaurs adapted to life in water in a very different way than whales, for example. This unique path of evolution exemplifies the importance of paleontological research because it’s the only way we can appreciate the full range of what evolution can bring about,” Dr. Krahl concluded.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How did the plesiosaurs swim?

A recent study published in the journal PeerJ has found...

Nocturnal tobacco hawkmoths (Manduca sexta) use their keen sense of smell to find nectar rich flowers or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-adapt-to-altitude-by-sensing-oxygen-levels/">plants</a> on which to lay their eggs. Now, researchers at the&nbsp; <a href="https://www.ice.mpg.de/">Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology</a> are looking to answer the question of how the moths distinguish between different smells.&nbsp;



With so many smells in the world, how can moths pick out those that are essential for their lives from those unnecessary whiffs?&nbsp;&nbsp;



"Our question is based on the fact that the plants that are vital for the tobacco hawkmoth, that is nectar sources and suitable host plants for their offspring, are very sparse in their natural habitat. Apparently, however, these plants are nevertheless found by the moths. We wanted to know whether the olfactory system can also filter out weak odor signals if they provide the moths with clues that lead them to food sources or oviposition sites," said Sonja Bisch-Knaden, lead author of the study.



To carry out the research, the scientists collected scents from 17 different plants in Arizona. These plants were reported to be important to the moths and the scents were carefully collected at night, when the hawkmoths are active.&nbsp;



As the moths were exposed to different scents, the researchers observed their antennae and brain activity. The researchers compared virgin female moths and mated female hawkmoths to see if there was a difference in scent sensitivity. Calcium imaging was used to visualize the neuron activity as moths were exposed to smells.&nbsp;



“The most important nectar sources, such as agave and datura flowers, give off a strong odor to which the antennae and brain of a female tobacco hawkmoth also respond more strongly than to any other odor. Here, identification of the floral scent appears to be straightforward. This applies to both virgin and mated females, as the few host plants of the larvae are widely scattered throughout the habitat, and the egg-laying female must therefore travel long distances and refill her energy reserves constantly," said Bisch-Knaden.



"In contrast, host plants as oviposition sites have only a very weak odor, but individual odor components are nevertheless recognized by the antennae. The activity patterns that these odors evoke in the brain are very different from the activity patterns of other plant odors."&nbsp;



"This difference becomes even greater after mating, as the female is then virtually unaware of the odor of the other plants that are not candidates for egg-laying. It is still difficult to explain how the moths find these plants in nature on the basis of their odor alone, since the plant odors cannot be perceived individually, as in our study, but always in a mixture."



The research published in the journal <a href="https://elifesciences.org/">eLife</a>, is just the beginning. The scientists hope to next compare their results to those with related species of moths.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tobacco hawkmoths are incredibly sensitive to important smells

Nocturnal tobacco hawkmoths (Manduca sexta) use their keen sense of...

Mosquito <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cuttlefish-camouflage-more-than-meets-the-eye/">fish</a> and guppies are sometimes cannibalistic when held in captivity, but a new study shows that this is not common behavior in the wild.&nbsp;According to the study authors, rare instances of cannibalism among fish are likely due to intense competition for food. The research has implications not only for aquarists but also for our understanding of evolution.



To investigate how common cannibalism is, Professor Brian Langerhans at <a href="https://www.ncsu.edu/">North Carolina State University</a> analyzed years of data covering almost 12,000 fish from 17 species in the wild.



“These are data accumulated from several different projects over the years,” said Professor Langerhans, the study’s senior author. “To identify the mechanisms responsible for this sort of phenomenon in the wild, we needed really large sample sizes. So, we accumulated the data for this work while also doing other projects.”



The scientists looked at the stomach contents of 11,946 fishes, either by x-ray or dissection. Of all the examinations, they found only 35 cannibalism cases, accounting for less than 0.3 percent. Furthermore, the cases of cannibalism were found in only three species of mosquito fish.   



Study co-author Rüdiger Riesch of the Royal Holloway University of London began the project while a postdoctoral researcher in Langerhans’ lab between 2010 and 2012.



“In captivity, mosquitofish and guppies will practice cannibalism commonly enough that there are protocols in place in research labs and aquaculture to quickly separate offspring from the larger fish,” said Riesch. “But when you look at the diets of fish in the wild, you really don’t find much evidence of it. We wanted to find out whether and why cannibalism occurs in nature.”



The scientists found that the rare cases of cannibalism were not just opportunistic but caused by extreme food competition. Cannibalism only happened in cases where there were few predators on the fish, which caused their populations to grow too high.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Resource competition seems to be the main predictor of cannibalism,” said Professor Langerhans. “We also saw that a lack of predation has an indirect effect on cannibalism: Release from predation allows population density to skyrocket, which decreases resources. This same driving factor may be responsible for many cases of cannibalism across the animal kingdom in natural settings.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/20457758">Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Cannibalism is rare among wild fish

Mosquito fish and guppies are sometimes cannibalistic when held in...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/links-between-climate-and-heart-disease-must-be-addressed/">Climate change</a> can lead to the introduction and spread of invasive species, a serious ecological concern in many parts of the world. Experts have theorized that climate change will further increase the negative impact of non-native species.



In a new study led by the <a href="https://www.umass.edu/">University of Massachusetts Amherst</a>, researchers have found that the ecological impacts of non-native species alone are similar to those associated with the combination of invasives, warming temperatures, drought, and artificial fertilizers.&nbsp;



The study shows that climate change will not amplify the negative effects of non-native species as much as previously estimated. "The good news is that the bad news isn't quite as bad as we thought," said study senior author Bethany Bradley.



The research team reviewed and analyzed 95 previously published studies and found 458 cases that documented the combined effects of non-native species with drought, nitrogen, or global warming. The results were unexpected.&nbsp;



"What we found surprised us. There were a number of cases where the interactions made everything worse at the local scale, which is what we expected to see, but only about 25 percent of the time. The majority of the time, invasions and environmental change together didn't make each other worse. Instead, the combined effects weren't all that much more than the impact of invasive species alone," explained study lead author Bianca Lopez.



The researchers noted that it is essential to be vigilant when considering the impacts of non-native species. "Our work shows that dealing with invasive species now will make our ecosystems more climate resilient," said Bradley.&nbsp;



Study co-author Jenica Allen emphasized that the research can help inform invasive species management. "What is so important about our findings is that they highlight the critical importance of managing invasive species at the local scale."&nbsp;



The researchers mentioned that controlling invasive species can be done relatively cheaply. Also, considering that we now have the necessary technological tools available, we don't have to wait. We can take action now. In fact, some of us already have.&nbsp;



"Organizations like the <a href="https://www.risccnetwork.org/">Northeast Regional Invasive Species and Climate Change (RISCC) Network</a>, which is a consortium of scientists and natural resource managers dedicated to sharing information and best practices about dealing with invasives, are already implementing a whole range of proactive practices to deal with invasive species," said Allen.&nbsp;



“Our work shows that dealing with invasive species now will make our ecosystems more climate resilient,” said Bradley.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Managing invasive species can improve climate resilience

Climate change can lead to the introduction and spread of...

Mosquitoes need <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-deprivation-may-become-a-side-effect-of-climate-change/">sleep</a> in order to function well, just like we do. In fact, mosquitoes in the lab sleep between 16 and 19 hours a day, depending on the species and the levels of activity going on around them.&nbsp;



Sleep in humans is important in maintaining the immune system and in restorative functions such as tissue repair and protein synthesis. It has also been demonstrated that sleep is vital for peak memory and brain function. Sleep deprivation, on the other hand, can blur cognitive function and is associated with the development of numerous ill health conditions.



In a recent study from the <a href="https://www.uc.edu/">University of Cincinnati</a>, researchers demonstrated the importance of sleep to mosquitoes. The study revealed that mosquitoes whose slumber was disturbed the night before were more likely to spend the next day catching up on rest rather than seeking out a host on which to feed. The research highlights how vital this biological function is, even in insects.



“It was a bit surprising. Sleep deprived or not, a blood meal should appeal to them,” said UC doctoral student and study lead author Oluwaseun Ajayi.



Sleep is an evolutionarily conserved process that has been observed and described in different animal systems, including insects. But sleep in mosquitoes, which are important vectors of disease-causing pathogens, has not been directly examined. This is surprising as circadian rhythms, which have been well studied in mosquitoes, influence sleep in other systems. In addition, the phenomenon of catching up on missed sleep, called sleep rebound, has been observed in other insects such as honeybees and fruit flies, and is also well known in humans.



The researchers from UC’s College of Arts and Sciences and Virginia Tech’s Department of Biochemistry, found it challenging to study sleep patterns in mosquitoes. They spent more than a year developing protocols to study the phenomenon effectively – mosquitoes are easily disturbed by the presence of an observer, whom they detect as a potential host. This means that any experiments on mosquito sleep are likely to be confounded by the presence of the observer – a phenomenon called the observer effect – according to UC biologist Joshua Benoit.



“It’s really hard to quantify sleep in mosquitoes when, as soon as you walk in the room, you’re considered their Thanksgiving dinner,” Benoit said.



Mosquitoes detect the presence of potential hosts through their body heat, odors, movement, vibrations and the carbon dioxide they exhale from their lungs and emit from their skin. Because of this sensitivity, the researchers had to install the mosquitoes in rooms isolated within other rooms, and make use of cameras and infrared sensors that could record when the mosquitoes were moving around, without disturbing them. Virginia Tech researcher and study co-author Clément Vinauger used these video observations to document mosquito behavior.



In this way, the researchers studied the sleeping and feeding behavior of three species of mosquitoes for about a week, once they were acclimatized to their laboratory homes. Mosquitoes spend a lot of time perching between activities, in order to conserve energy, and it is not easy to detect when they are actually sleeping. However, the scientists identified a subtle postural change that occurs when a mosquito falls asleep.&nbsp;



“When mosquitoes enter a sleep-like state, their hind legs droop and their body comes closer to the surface,” Ajayi said.



Using this knowledge, the researchers were able to establish from the video footage how much time mosquitoes spent asleep.&nbsp;The three species under investigation slept at different times of the 24 hour cycle – Aedes aegypti, a “day biter,” slept mostly at night while Anopheles stephensi, which is most active at night, slept during the daytime. Culex pipiens, which seeks a meal at dusk, could be found sleeping during the daytime and the night.



In a second experiment, researchers subjected the mosquitoes to sleep deprivation during their normal sleep time by vibrating their enclosures at regular intervals during.&nbsp;



The results of the experiments, published in the <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb">Journal of Experimental Biology</a>, showed that, while more than 75 percent of mosquitoes fly around actively seeking a blood meal when they are not subjected to sleep deprivation, less than one-quarter of them had any interest in food after a sleepless night. This represented a 54 percent decrease in the propensity to feed among sleep-deprived mosquitoes.



“What’s surprising to me is that as much as mosquitoes need blood to produce eggs, they will give it up to recover the sleep they lost,” Benoit said. “They might not be aroused as much because of the need to catch up on sleep.”



The overtired mosquitoes were also less likely to land on a host in both laboratory and field settings, suggesting that the same behaviors would occur in natural settings like your back yard. Tiredness also impaired blood feeding on a human host at times when mosquitoes would normally be active.&nbsp;



Lucas&nbsp;Gleitz&nbsp;participated in the research project as a&nbsp;UC&nbsp;undergraduate biology student. In his opinion, the study’s findings are&nbsp;relatable&nbsp;to the lives of college students, given the sleepless nights most of them endure.



Mosquitoes cause more human suffering than any other animal, according to the World Health Organization. Malaria alone kills more than 400,000 people annually. And mosquitoes carry pathogens for other deadly diseases such as dengue and yellow fever. By understanding the mosquitoes’ circadian rhythms, researchers hope to find better ways to prevent infection.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Sleep-deprived mosquitoes are less interested in feeding

Mosquitoes need sleep in order to function well, just like...

Bumblebee,Insect,On,White,Blooming,Cherry,Blossom.,Bumblebee,Insect.,The

The decline of pollinators is threatening ecosystems and economies around the world. According to a new study, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drones-can-assist-efforts-to-save-bees-and-other-pollinators/">pollinator</a> decline is likely the result of increased pesticide use in agriculture. The world's most widely used herbicide, glyphosate, may contribute more to this development than was previously known.



The study was led by Dr. Anja Weidenmüller, an expert in the Centre for the Advanced Study of Collective Behaviour at the <a href="https://www.uni-konstanz.de/en/">University of Konstanz</a>. The researchers set out to investigate how bumblebee colonies regulate the temperature of their brood.



Bumblebee colonies use nectar as "fuel" to keep their broods at a temperature of about 32 degrees. "Just as we humans keep our body temperature constant, the animals in a colony collectively show homeostasis in the temperature regulation of their brood," said Dr. Weidenmüller.&nbsp;



This thermoregulation is important for colony development. The study clearly showed that glyphosate impacts the collective thermoregulatory capacity of bumblebee colonies.



Broods require high temperatures to develop from egg to bumblebee, and to develop a colony from a single queen to several hundred individuals. When these colonies are exposed to glyphosate, resources become limited and the collective thermal behavior is affected. Unfortunately, the impacts don’t stop there.&nbsp;



"Bumblebee colonies are under really high pressure to grow as quickly as possible within a short period of time," explained Dr. Weidenmüller. If the colony cannot maintain the necessary brood temperature, the brood will develop slowly or not at all. This limits the growth of the colony. "Only when they reach a certain colony size during the relatively short growth period are they able to produce the sexually reproductive individuals of a colony, i.e. queens and drones."



Bumblebee colonies contaminated by glyphosate are less able to keep their brood warm. In Germany’s agricultural landscape, fewer wild flowers are available to insects, resulting in resource scarcity. "The combination of resource scarcity in cleared agricultural landscapes and pesticides can therefore pose a massive problem for colony reproduction."&nbsp;



According to Dr. Weidenmüller, rethinking the approval process for pesticides is critical to bumblebee survival. Current approvals only test how many animals die after coming into contact with a substance after 24 or 48 hours.&nbsp;



"Sublethal effects, i.e. effects on organisms that are not lethal but can be seen, for example, in the animals' physiology or behaviour, can have a significant negative impact and should be taken into account when pesticides are approved in future," noted Dr. Weidenmüller.&nbsp;



The study revealed that bumblebees exposed to glyphosate also lived an average of 32 days, thus reaching an average bumblebee age. This research approach can be applied to many of the commonly used pesticides, such as other herbicides and fungicides. Currently, information is lacking on the effects of pesticides on wild bees and other pollinators.&nbsp;



Glyphosate is currently approved for use in the EU until 15 December 2022. The Glyphosate Renewal Group (GRG) applied for renewal in 2019.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Glyphosate disrupts brood care in bumblebees

The decline of pollinators is threatening ecosystems and economies around...

A new study led by <a href="https://www.princeton.edu/">Princeton University</a> has found that, as greenhouse gas emissions continue to warm the world’s oceans, marine biodiversity could plummet within the next few centuries to levels not seen since the extinction of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-of-the-dinosaurs-were-warm-blooded/">dinosaurs</a>. According to the experts, tropical waters would experience the greatest loss of biodiversity, while polar animal species will be at the highest risk of extinction. However, reversing greenhouse gas emissions could reduce these risks by up to 70 percent.



The scientists combined existing physiological data on marine species with models of climate change in order to predict how environmental changes will affect the survival of sea animals over the next few centuries.&nbsp;



The experts compared their models to past mass extinctions captured in the fossil record, such as the end-Permian extinction about 250 million years ago (the Earth’s deadliest extinction event, in which 81 percent of marine species was wiped out). This analysis revealed that, as in the case of previous extinctions, factors such as increased water temperatures and low oxygen availability will make large swaths of the ocean uninhabitable, leading to massive losses of marine life.



Although marine animals have physiological mechanisms flexible enough to allow them to cope with many environmental changes, the massive upheaval caused by unmitigated emissions would probably lead most polar species to extinction. While tropical marine animals may likely fare better because they have traits allowing them to adapt to warmer, low-oxygen conditions – and, in addition, they might have the possibility to migrate to newly suitable habitats – tropical biodiversity would nevertheless be severely affected.&nbsp;



Fortunately, if urgent actions are taken to curb emissions, the risks of extinction and biodiversity loss could be reduced by 70 percent. “Aggressive and rapid reductions in greenhouse gas emissions are critical for avoiding a major mass extinction of ocean species,” said study senior author&nbsp;Curtis Deutsch, a professor of Geosciences&nbsp;at Princeton.



“The silver lining is that the future isn’t written in stone,” added study first author&nbsp;Justin Penn, a postdoctoral research associate working together with Professor Deutsch. “The extinction magnitude that we found depends strongly on how much carbon dioxide [CO2] we emit moving forward. There’s still enough time to change the trajectory of CO2&nbsp;emissions and prevent the magnitude of warming that would cause this mass extinction,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abe9039">Science</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Unchecked emissions may lead to marine mass extinction

A new study led by Princeton University has found that,...

A new species of dinosaur has been described by scientists from Japan and the USA. First found in 2008 in the Osoushinai Formation, a fossil-rich geological feature in Nakagawa, Hokkaido, the fossil remains include a partial vertebra, a partial wrist and a front foot with some large claws.&nbsp;At the time of discovery, the specimen was thought to be from a maniraptoran theropod <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-of-the-dinosaurs-were-warm-blooded/">dinosaur</a>, possibly therizinosaur, but not enough evidence existed to confirm this and so its taxonomic status remained unresolved.&nbsp;&nbsp;



In the current study, led by Professor Yoshitsugu Kobayashi at the <a href="https://www.museum.hokudai.ac.jp/english/">Hokkaido University Museum</a> and Anthony R. Fiorillo at Southern Methodist University (SMU), the fossil remains have been revisited and analyzed in the light of more recent evidence and knowledge of the therizinosaurid family of dinosaurs. The findings are published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-022-11063-5">Scientific Reports</a>.



The therizinosauridae (a name meaning ‘scythe lizards’) is a family of theropod dinosaurs characterized by having long necks, thick hind limbs with four-toed feet, large, keratinous beaks and forelimbs with unusually long, curved claws or unguals. It is this last feature that gives the group its name. Their fossils have been found in deposits dated from the Early to the Late Cretaceous Period, distributed widely in Asia and North America. This group of therapods is considered to be herbivorous and closely related to birds.



Asian therizinosaurs have been found mainly from the Cretaceous deposits in Mongolia and China. Japan, which was located at the eastern edge of the Asian continent during the Cretaceous, before the opening of the Japan Sea during the Miocene, has produced two therizinosaur specimens from the Lower and Upper Cretaceous deposits, but neither one has been named because of the difficulty in identifying the fragmentary specimens.&nbsp;The new fossil analyzed in this study is the third, and youngest specimen discovered in Japan.



Asian therizinosaurs had enormous claws on their hands and, based on the morphology of these claws (their length, width at the base, and strength), they are divided into basal therizinosaurs and derived (advanced) therizinosaurs. The basal species have claws that are shorter, stronger and more generalized, implying that they were all-purpose structures not specialized for any particular use. Derived species, in contrast, have some of the longest claws ever recorded in any animals (some measuring 50 cm in length) and these are thought to have specialized functions such as raking taller vegetation towards the mouth as the animal browsed.



The fossil under investigation showed a unique combination of traits in the metacarpal I bone, as well as in the claws, which led the researchers to identify it as a new species of therizinosaur. They named it Paralitherizinosaurus japonicas, which means reaper reptile by the sea from Japan, as its fossilized remains were found in sediments of marine origin. The morphology of its strongly curved claws was compared with that of many other therizinosaur species and the results placed it among the derived therizinosaurs, based on four shared, derived characteristics.&nbsp;



Paralitherizinosaurus japonicus&nbsp;represents the youngest occurrence of therizinosaur remains in Japan. Its discovery indicates that therizinosaurs in Asia existed over a much longer time period, and a much larger geographical area, than previously known. It is also the first therizinosaur record from marine sediments in Asia. Along with a fossil from Utah, USA, this suggests that some of the derived therizinosaurs were adapted to life in coastal environments.&nbsp;



“This study also tells us how much more we still have to learn about the incredible history of life on Earth,” said Fiorillo, a research professor in&nbsp;<a href="https://www.smu.edu/Dedman/Academics/Departments/Earth-Sciences">SMU’s Roy M. Huffington Department of Earth Sciences</a>.



Co-authors of the study include Ryuji Takasaki of Okayama University of Science, Tsogtbaatar Chinzorig of North Carolina State University and Mongolian Academy of Sciences, and Yoshinori Hikida of Nakagawa Museum of Natural History.&nbsp;



Image Credit: Masato Hattori



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New dinosaur species distinguished by its fearsome claws

A new species of dinosaur has been described by scientists...

Many studies have shown that tiny plastic particles are now spread everywhere on Earth – in the water, food, and air, and even inside the human body, in our blood, lung tissue, and stool. According to a recent cover story published in <a href="https://cen.acs.org/">Chemical &amp; Engineering News</a>, an independent news outlet of the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS), scientists are just beginning to investigate the health and environmental risks of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-confirms-microplastics-have-entered-our-food-chain/">microplastics</a> and nanoplastics, by using lessons learned from nanotoxicology.&nbsp;



Microplastics (plastic particles smaller than five millimeters in diameter) and nanoplastics (particles smaller than one µm) can be made of a variety of materials, and are of different sizes and shapes. Due to their diversity, a proper investigation of their health and environmental effects is a complicated matter.&nbsp;



So far, scientists have mostly used polystyrene beads in their experiments since they are easily accessible. However, these beads are far from being representative of the diversity of microplastics found in the environment: most of these particles are irregular fragments rather than spheres, and environmental factors such as ultraviolet light can change their properties after they are released in the environment. Moreover, polystyrene is not the only polymer found in the environment; fragments of polyethylene, polypropylene, and polyamide are also abundant in our surroundings.



Since there is limited data regarding the effects of exposure to microplastics, making regulatory decisions is challenging. This is a problem that the toxicology community has also faced over the past decade when trying to assess the risks of nanoparticles, so scientists hope that lessons from nanotoxicology could be applied to our understanding and assessment of micro- and nanoplastics.&nbsp;



Currently, researchers are beginning to standardize the various microplastics used in studies, in order to be able to reproduce results and better replicate real-world situations. Moreover, laboratory systems simulating bodily functions are increasingly used to investigate how ingested or inhaled plastic particles could affect human gut and lung cells.



“We really need to launch a micro- and nanoplastic safety consortium similar to what we did with nanomaterials and bring a lot of groups and scientists together to address these fundamental questions,” said Philip Demokritou, an expert in Nanoscience and Environmental Bioengineering at <a href="https://www.rutgers.edu/">Rutgers University</a>. “Because right now, with a little bit of funding here and a little bit there, we won’t be able to generate the data that risk assessors need.”&nbsp;



The full cover story - written by senior correspondent Britt Erikson - can be accessed <a href="https://cen.acs.org/biological-chemistry/toxicology/Microplastics-health-risk-toxicology-particle-characterization-nanomaterials/100/i19">here</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nanotoxicology could help assess the risks of microplastics

Many studies have shown that tiny plastic particles are now...

To discern evolutionary relationships and family trees, biologists focus on physical characteristics (morphology), but this can be tricky. For example, the wings of birds, bats and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/light-pollution-disorients-monarch-butterflies/">butterflies</a> may look superficially similar, yet it is not a sign of close relatedness.  



Now, scientists at the <a href="https://www.bath.ac.uk/">University of Bath</a> have managed to use molecular data to reconstruct family trees and to examine the relatedness of organisms. The study, published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/commsbio/">Communications Biology</a>, compares the older method with the molecular method for building family trees.&nbsp;



Interestingly, the research shows that family trees of organisms built by molecular methods are more closely grouped together geographically than those in evolutionary trees based on morphology.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“It turns out that we’ve got lots of our evolutionary trees wrong," said Matthew Wills, professor of Evolutionary Paleobiology at the <a href="https://www.bath.ac.uk/research-centres/milner-centre-for-evolution/">Milner Centre for Evolution</a>. “For over a hundred years, we’ve been classifying organisms according to how they look and are put together anatomically, but molecular data often tells us a rather different story."



“Our study proves statistically that if you build an evolutionary tree of animals based on their molecular data, it often fits much better with their geographical distribution."



“Where things live – their biogeography – is an important source of evolutionary evidence that was familiar to Darwin and his contemporaries. For example, tiny elephant shrews, aardvarks, elephants, golden moles and swimming manatees have all come from the same big branch of mammal evolution - despite the fact that they look completely different from one another (and live in very different ways)."



“Molecular trees have put them all together in a group called Afrotheria, so-called because they all come from the African continent, so the group matches the biogeography.”



It makes sense that biogeography might be more important than morphology as something pointing towards relatedness. Similar body parts might develop independently, something called convergent evolution, and a huge red herring in the search for a tree of life.



“We already have lots of famous examples of convergent evolution, such as flight evolving separately in birds, bats and insects, or complex camera eyes evolving separately in squid and humans," explained Professor Wills.



"But now with molecular data, we can see that convergent evolution happens all the time – things we thought were closely related often turn out to be far apart on the tree of life."



"People who make a living as lookalikes aren’t usually related to the celebrity they’re impersonating, and individuals within a family don’t always look similar - it’s the same with evolutionary trees too."



"It proves that evolution just keeps on re-inventing things, coming up with a similar solution each time the problem is encountered in a different branch of the evolutionary tree. It means that convergent evolution has been fooling us - even the cleverest evolutionary biologists and anatomists - for over 100 years!”



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

We may have family trees all wrong

To discern evolutionary relationships and family trees, biologists focus on...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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