Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

While millions of years ago, all mammals lived on land, at one point, some species such as seals and whales left land and evolved to live in the sea. Since underwater, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-device-identifies-mosquitoes-using-only-sound/">sound</a> is a more reliable sensory cue than vision, it is not surprising that aquatic species have developed auditory organs that are more efficient in processing underwater sounds than the hearing apparatuses of terrestrial mammals, including humans.&nbsp;Surprisingly though, a new study led by the <a href="https://www.sdu.dk/en">University of Southern Denmark</a> has found that, in some cases, humans can hear as well as seals underwater.&nbsp;



Since the 1950s, scientists have made various attempts to measure human hearing underwater. The U.S. Military, for instance, had an interest in understanding how divers are affected by underwater explosions, so they directed a significant amount of funding to clarify this issue. However, subjects were generally tested with diving equipment on, including neoprene caps or air-filled diving masks, which can affect their hearing.&nbsp;



“Common to all these scientific studies is that they all find hearing thresholds [the sound levels below which the auditory system is unable to detect any sound] that are higher than the thresholds we have found in our new study,” said study co-author Jakob Christensen-Dalsgaard, an expert in animal hearing at SDU.



By measuring the underwater hearing thresholds of seven participants, the experts found that the average threshold was 71 dB at a frequency of 500 Hz.&nbsp;



“It is 26 dB lower than hypothesized in previous studies, so we must conclude that humans hear significantly better underwater than previously reported by science. In fact, the threshold at 500 Hz is in line with how well animals such as cormorants and seals hear underwater,” said&nbsp; Dr. Christensen-Dalsgaard.



While previous studies hypothesized that human hearing underwater is mediated by bone conduction, with sound waves causing vibrations in the skull, this new study argues that resonance in the enclosed air in the middle ear actually amplifies the sound and makes the ear more sensitive – a phenomenon common to cormorants, turtles, and frogs too.



However, the sense of hearing is not only about being able to pick up sounds, but also about determining the direction of the sound – which, for humans, remains very difficult underwater.&nbsp;



“In air we can determine the sound direction within a few degrees, but in water there is an up to 90 degrees error margin. This is not so strange, because we are trained to react to the small time differences between the ears, which are due to the speed of sound in air. In water, the speed of sound is four times greater, and the time differences are much smaller,” explained Dr. Christensen-Dalsgaard.&nbsp;



“The results tell us that humans have a reduced ability to determine the direction of sounds underwater, thus confirming that human hearing is not adapted to work well underwater,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.heares.2022.108484">Hearing Research</a>.&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Can humans hear as well as seals underwater?

While millions of years ago, all mammals lived on land,...

The effects of global warming can be seen across a multitude of measures, usually as gradual, incremental changes, such as more frequent extreme weather events, heatwaves, wildfires, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-world-is-at-a-crossroads-in-managing-severe-droughts/">droughts</a>. However, the cumulative impact of such changes can lead to the emergence of “tipping points,” or thresholds where tiny changes can push an entire system into a radically new state.&nbsp;



At this year’s <a href="https://lps22.esa.int/frontend/index.php">Living Planet Symposium</a> – an international event organized by the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> (ESA) in Bonn, Germany – researchers from a variety of institutions gathered to present the latest scientific evidence for climate tipping points. The experts also set out to identify the opportunities and challenges of using remote sensing data provided by state-of-the-art satellites to understand these phenomena.



“Successive IPCC Assessment Reports have revised upwards the risks posed by climate tipping points,” said Tim Lenton, a professor of Climate Change and Earth System Science at the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>.



“Tipping points have already informed climate mitigation targets, including the Paris Agreement’s goal to limit warming to well below two degrees Celsius. If the risk of tipping is still underestimated, it would provide a reason to strengthen such pledges and action to meet them. That’s why it’s so important to understand the proximity of tipping points and their impact on society.”



As <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/assessment-report/ar6/">IPCC’s sixth climate Assessment Report</a> warns, the risk of high impact climate tipping points at regional scales has already increased substantially and is set to rise even more in the near future. For instance, human activities such as deforestation - together with rising temperatures - are making more likely that the Amazon rainforest will tip into a savannah state before the end of the century.



“Researchers have been making progress on resilience indicators in conceptual models as well as models of Arctic sea ice, ice sheets, the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation, and other potential Tipping Elements,” explained keynote speaker Sebastian Bathiany, a climate expert at the <a href="https://www.tum.de/">Technical University of Munich</a>. However, such models are insufficient to identify how and when abrupt changes can occur. “In order to understand what is going on in the real world, we need to work toward a meaningful interpretation of resilience indicators in Earth observation records. This is why discussions across scientific communities and disciplines are so important.”



Thus, to better understand climate dynamics and make more reliable predictions of any potential rapid changes, conceptual and computational models should be coupled to Earth observation datasets provided by satellites, and further interpreted by interdisciplinary teams of experts. Methodological and disciplinary diversity are absolutely necessary to advance our climate knowledge and build a more sustainable future.



Image Credit: European Space Agency 



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellite data needed to identify climate tipping points

The effects of global warming can be seen across a...

As global warming brings higher temperatures to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-extreme-weather-impact-marine-ecosystems/">ecosystems</a> around the world, it is likely that some animal species will need to move to cooler areas in order to remain functional. This could mean moving towards higher latitudes or towards higher altitudes. The problem with moving up a mountain side, however, is that it brings a decrease in oxygen availability along with the cooler temperatures. For animals with high metabolic rates, such as hummingbirds, this combination of factors may make life at high altitudes impossible.



To find out what the impact of higher altitude living is on Anna’s hummingbirds (Calypte anna), Austin Spence from the University of Connecticut, USA, and Morgan Tingley from the University of California, Los Angeles, USA, transported some of these birds to sites at various heights up mountainsides. The birds occur naturally over a range of altitudes, from sea level to around 2,800 meters, so the researchers predicted that the birds would show a range of adaptations to living at altitude, and that those already comfortable at 2,400 meters would cope better when transported to 3,800 meters.



Using net traps, the researchers trapped hummingbirds from sites of different altitudes ranging from 10 metersabove sea level (Sacramento, CA) up to 2,400 meters (Mammoth Lakes, CA).&nbsp; Spence and team member Hannah LeWinter of Humboldt State University then transported the birds to an aviary in western California at an altitude of 1,215 meters. The birds were given a few days to acclimatize in these new conditions.



The scientists then measured their oxygen consumption by enticing each bird to insert its head into a tiny funnel to sip a sugary solution. The consumption of O2 indicates metabolic rate since oxygen is used to produce the energy that is used during metabolism. Spence and LeWinter also measured each hummingbird’s carbon dioxide (CO2)&nbsp;production overnight, which is also a measure of metabolic rate.&nbsp;



After collecting this data, the birds were moved again, this time to aviaries at a nearby research station close to the peak of Mount Barcroft, CA, which is at an altitude of 3,800 meters. At this site there is around 39 percent less oxygen in the air and the ambient temperatures are around 5°C lower. After acclimatizing for four days, the birds’ metabolic rates were again measured while they hovered and while they slept.&nbsp;



Their results, published today in the <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/225/10/jeb243294/275376/Anna-s-hummingbird-Calypte-anna-physiological">Journal of Experimental Biology</a>, show that the hummingbirds exhibit a 37 percent decrease in metabolic rate at an altitude of 3,800 meters. Instead of working harder to hover in the thin air, 1,000 meters above their natural range, the birds suffered a large drop in their metabolic rates. And the energy used by birds that had originated at higher altitudes was no different from the energy used by those that had lived close to sea level – they all struggled equally on the mountain top.&nbsp;



“Overall, these results suggest low air pressure and oxygen availability may reduce hovering performance in hummingbirds, when exposed to the acute challenge of high-elevation conditions,” explained Spence.&nbsp;&nbsp;



In addition, the birds fell into a state of deep torpor each night, when they slept. This is a form of overnight hibernation, where the metabolic rate is lowered significantly in order to conserve energy. Although the birds showed this behavior at the lower experimental altitude (1,215 meters), it was more extreme in the colder conditions at 3,800 meters. Here they were torpid for more than 87.5 percent of the chilly, high-altitude night.



“It means that even if they’re from a warm or cool spot, they use torpor when its super-cold, which is cool,” said Spence.&nbsp;



The researchers hypothesized that hummingbirds originally from higher altitude habitats may have larger lungs to compensate for the lower oxygen availability in the air at those sites, but this was not so. However, these birds did have larger hearts, which would help to circulate oxygen more rapidly around their bodies.&nbsp;



Unfortunately, the results from this experimental research indicate that hummingbirds will probably not be able to relocate up mountainsides to find more suitable environments as climate change makes conditions uncomfortable for them.&nbsp;



“Our results suggest lower oxygen availability and low air pressure may be difficult challenges to overcome for hummingbirds,” said Spence, meaning that the birds will instead have to shift northward or southward in search of cooler climes.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Hummingbirds cannot maintain an energetic lifestyle at high altitudes

As global warming brings higher temperatures to ecosystems around the...

Offshore wind farms generate much-needed renewable energy that is environmentally friendly and cost-efficient. In the early stages of construction, there is usually noise and disturbance as the turbines are erected, but this is well regulated and of short duration. After completion, the only disturbance that remains is due to the low-level sound emissions of the turbines. But this constant noise pollution may have an impact on marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greater-risk-of-extinction-for-large-bodied-mammals-in-the-past/">mammals</a> that produce their own sounds in order to communicate with one another.



At the 182nd Meeting of the <a href="https://acousticalsociety.org/">Acoustical Society of America</a>, to be held at the Sheraton Denver Downtown Hotel this week, Frank Thomsen of DHI will discuss how this constant noise may impact marine wildlife. His presentation is titled “Operational underwater sound from future offshore wind turbines can affect the behavior of marine mammals,” and it will take place on May 26.



He will report on research that he and his colleagues did by reviewing published studies on the sound levels emanating from operational wind farms. They were interested in the effects of turbine size on noise emissions and found that, in general, larger turbines produced higher levels of noise. The long-term consequences of this noise on marine wildlife are largely unknown, but it is hypothesized that constant background noise can interfere with the communication patterns and behavior of mammals at sea.&nbsp;



However, turbine size is not the only important factor to consider. The disruptive impact may also be influenced by the number of turbines and the ways in which their sound patterns overlap. In addition, the gearbox technology used in older turbines produces disruptive nose for a distance of up to 6.3 kilometers while newer, direct-drive turbines may only affect animal behavior within a 1.4-kilometer radius.&nbsp;



“It is very unlikely that operational noise will lead to any injury or even hearing impairment, but behavioral changes could be a concern, as our study shows,” Thomsen said. “It's possible that impact zones of individual turbines overlap, but that still does not mean that the wind farm is a no-go area for marine life. We see harbor porpoises frequently swimming in the vicinity of turbines.”



In theory, the underwater sound could lead to behavior changes in marine mammals and mask calls from whales, but harbor porpoises are frequently seen swimming in the vicinity of wind farms in Europe, so it may not be as simple as it seems.



“Since offshore wind farms have a relatively long lifespan, and there will be many of them, the potential impacts should not be overlooked,” said Thomsen. “The point of our work is to raise awareness.”



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Noise from wind farms could affect marine mammal behavior

Offshore wind farms generate much-needed renewable energy that is environmentally...

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) compiles the Red List of Threatened Species, the most comprehensive assessment of the extinction risk of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-than-500-animal-species-are-lost-but-are-they-extinct/">species</a>. This list informs conservation policy around the world. 



The process for categorizing species however, is laborious and dependent on human experts which often leads to bias. Because of this, many species have never been evaluated, which has caused gaps in protective measures for potential species at risk.&nbsp;



A new study presents a machine learning tool to resolve this challenge by assessing extinction risk. The tool was used to identify the unlisted reptile species that are more likely to be threatened than assessed species.&nbsp;



There are 4,369 reptile species that were previously unable to be prioritized for conservation. Using the machine learning model, the study assigned IUCN extinction risk categories to the 40 percent of the world’s reptiles that lacked assessments or were classified as data deficient (DD).



The researchers found that the number of threatened reptile species is much higher than what is represented on the IUCN Red List. Surprisingly, unassessed and data deficient reptiles were more likely to be threatened than species that had been assessed. 



According to the researchers, the findings show that reptile conservation is much worse than estimated. Immediate action is critical to support reptile biodiversity. The study identifies specific regions and taxa that are most likely to be threatened. The experts argue that these areas should be prioritized for conservation planning. The study's methodology can also be used to help bridge the gap of other, lesser known species.&nbsp;



“Importantly, the additional reptile species identified as threatened by our models are not distributed randomly across the globe or the reptilian evolutionary tree," said study co-author Shai Meiri. "Our added information highlights that there are more reptile species in peril – especially in Australia, Madagascar, and the Amazon basin – all of which have a high diversity of reptiles and should be targeted for extra conservation effort."



"Moreover, species rich groups, such as geckos and elapids (cobras, mambas, coral snakes, and others), are probably more threatened than the Global Reptile Assessment currently highlights, these groups should also be the focus of more conservation attention.”



Study co-author Uri Roll said the research could be very important in helping the global efforts to prioritize the conservation of species at risk.



"Our world is facing a biodiversity crisis, and severe man-made changes to ecosystems and species, yet funds allocated for conservation are very limited," said Roll.



"Consequently, it is key that we use these limited funds where they could provide the most benefits. Advanced tools- such as those we have employed here, together with accumulating data, could greatly cut the time and cost needed to assess extinction risk, and thus pave the way for more informed conservation decision making.”



To better understand the factors that are contributing to reptile extinction risk, further studies are needed to ensure that conservation plans include newly identified threatened species.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosbiology/">PLOS Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Number of endangered reptiles is much greater than estimated

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) compiles the...

According to Charles Darwin, evolution is the process by which natural selection promotes genetic changes in various traits that favor the survival and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reducing-boat-noise-boosts-reproduction-among-reef-fish/">reproduction</a> of individual organisms. How fast this process happens depends on the abundance of its “fuel:” how much genetic difference there is in the capacity to survive and reproduce.&nbsp;



While Darwin believed that evolution is a very slow process, visible only over geological time, an international team of scientists has now discovered that the raw material for evolution is much more abundant in wild animals than previously thought, thus often leading to cases of rapid evolution in response to dramatic environmental changes. For instance, scientists were surprised to find that British populations of the peppered moth changed their coloring in just a few decades as a result of evolution by natural selection favoring different color morphs depending on the level of air pollution.&nbsp;



By combining 2.6 million hours of field data collection and genetic analyses over decades from 19 populations of 15 species from around the globe, the researchers found that many other populations of birds and mammals can evolve surprisingly fast, their “fuel of evolution” being two to four times higher than previously thought.



This new study revealed not only higher “fuel of evolution” than expected, but also noticeable differences between species. For instance, spotted hyenas from Tanzania turned out to have the most “fuel” of all the 15 species the scientists focused on.&nbsp;



“Spotted hyenas can live in all kinds of habitats and are the most widespread large carnivore in Africa. This suggests that they can adapt well to new environments, but we didn’t expect them to be among the best-equipped of all species studied”, said study co-author Oliver Höner, a senior scientist at the <a href="https://www.izw-berlin.de/en/home.html">Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research</a>.



These findings have major implications for predicting various species’ adaptability to environmental change. “This research has shown us that evolution cannot be discounted as a process which allows species to survive in response to rapid environmental change,” said study lead author Timothée Bonnet, an evolutionary biologist at the <a href="https://www.anu.edu.au/">Australian National University</a>.&nbsp;



“With the habitat of many species changing at an increasing rate, there is no guarantee at all that these populations will be able to keep up. But what we can say is that evolution is a much more significant driver than previously thought in the adaptability of populations to the environmental changes we are currently seeing,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.abk0853">Science</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Wild animals can evolve faster than previously thought

According to Charles Darwin, evolution is the process by which...

There are thousands of Pleistocene sites across Australia where the fragments of giant egg shells have been found. These shells often have characteristic burn marks, indicating that they have been cooked, rather than scorched in bush <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfires-will-release-massive-amounts-of-carbon-by-mid-century/">fires</a>. They date to around 50,000 years ago and are thought to represent a source of food for the first Australians. However, scientists have not yet been able to identify the species of bird to which the eggs belonged because the shells have spent thousands of years out in the Australian heat and the DNA has degraded beyond recognition.



There were always two contenders for the bird species responsible. The first, and most likely, was Genyornis, an extinct flightless bird that&nbsp;stood over two meters tall, weighed 220–240 kg, and laid melon-sized eggs of around 1.5 kg in mass. But some scientists argued that, because of the shell shape, size and thickness, the eggs may have been laid by the giant malleefowl, Progura, instead. This extinct bird was far smaller, being similar in size to a large turkey and only weighing in at around 5–7 kg.



The distinction is important because Genyornis is thought to have become extinct only a few thousand years after the arrival of the first Australians, some 65,000 years ago. Although there is no fossil evidence of kill sites where the birds were butchered, the thousands of sites where eggs have been cooked (and presumably eaten) lend support to the idea that humans were involved in the demise of this mega-faunal species.&nbsp;



If, on the other hand, the eggs belonged to Progura, which is a flying bird that laid its eggs in mounds on the ground, then humans would in no way be implicated in the extinction of the giant Genyornis. In fact, there would be no direct proof of human–Genyornis&nbsp;interaction at all, and it may even be possible that this species had already gone extinct by the time humans arrived in Australia.&nbsp;



An international team led by the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a> has now undertaken a multipronged analysis in order to identify the mystery egg-layer. The experts have used the very fragmented ancient DNA, but have also extracted ancient proteins from the powdered eggshells and compared the protein sequences to those of living bird species using a vast new database of biological material, known as the Bird 10,000 Genomes (B10K) project.&nbsp;



The results indicate that the eggs were indeed laid by the extinct giant bird, Genyornis. Also known as mihirung – or “Thunder Bird,” this huge bird with tiny wings and massive legs roamed prehistoric Australia, possibly in flocks.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“There is no evidence of&nbsp;Genyornis&nbsp;butchery in the archaeological record. However, eggshell fragments with unique burn patterns consistent with human activity have been found at different places across the continent,” said senior co-author Professor Gifford Miller from the University of Colorado.



“This implies that the first humans did not necessarily hunt these enormous birds, but did routinely raid nests and steal their giant eggs for food. Overexploitation of the eggs by humans may well have contributed to&nbsp;Genyornis&nbsp;extinction.”



The analysis and comparison of protein sequences enabled the researchers to conclude definitively that the eggshells did not belong to a species of the Magapodiidae, such as Progura. The researchers were also able to draw up an evolutionary tree using the protein sequences of other extinct and extant birds in closely related groups, and identify the position of the egg-layer in relation to other bird taxa.&nbsp;



“The&nbsp;Progura&nbsp;was related to today’s megapodes, a group of birds in the galliform lineage, which also contains ground-feeders such as chickens and turkeys,” said study first author Professor Beatrice Demarchi from the University of Turin.



“We found that the bird responsible for the mystery eggs emerged prior to the galliform lineage, enabling us to rule out the&nbsp;Progura&nbsp;hypothesis. This supports the implication that the eggs eaten by early Australians were laid by&nbsp;Genyornis.”



The study confirms that using the sequences of ancient proteins is a powerful tool for reconstructing the evolutionary history of ancient organisms and clarifying their phylogenetic positions. Proteins from the ancient eggshells provided a reliable source of information in a situation where DNA analysis gave inconclusive results.&nbsp;



“Time, temperature and the chemistry of a fossil all dictate how much information we can glean,” said study co-author Professor Matthew Collins from the University of Cambridge’s Department of Archaeology.&nbsp;“Eggshells are made of mineral crystals that can tightly trap some proteins, preserving this biological data in the harshest of environments - potentially for millions of years.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



The researchers point out that the&nbsp;Genyornis&nbsp;egg exploitation behavior of the first Australians likely mirrors that of early humans with ostrich eggs, the shells of which have been unearthed at archaeological sites across Africa dating back at least 100,000 years.&nbsp;



“While ostriches and humans have co-existed throughout prehistory, the levels of exploitation of&nbsp;Genyornis&nbsp;eggs by early Australians may have ultimately proved more than the reproductive strategies of these extraordinary birds could bear," said Professor Collins. &nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



Image Credit: Peter Trusler



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Eggs eaten by early Australians were from huge flightless birds

There are thousands of Pleistocene sites across Australia where the...

Recently, the western United States has witnessed a dramatic increase in wildfires due to climate change and past <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-supercharge-forest-disturbances/">forest</a> and fire management practices. Policymakers are currently weighing options for distributing the costs of wildfire suppression and mitigation across households in both low- and high-hazard areas.&nbsp;



According to a new study led by <a href="https://www.rff.org/">Resources for the Future</a> (RFF), an independent, nonprofit research institution from Washington, DC, while other anthropogenic hazards such as pollution and waste facilities overwhelmingly affect economically vulnerable communities, wildfire hazard is disproportionally borne by high-income, white, and elderly communities, and by owners of high-value properties.



“In spite of increased attention to the distribution of environmental and climate-related risks across socioeconomic groups, and its relevance to current wildfire-related policy debates, the distribution of wildfire hazard was previously not well understood,” said study lead author Matthew Wibbenmeyer, an environmental and natural resources economist at RFF.&nbsp;



By using granular spatial data to study residential properties in the western United States and their relative risk for wildfire exposure, Dr. Wibbenmeyer and his colleagues have found that the top ten percent most valuable homes in this region are 70 percent more likely to be in high hazard areas than median-value properties. According to the researchers, this is due to the fact that wildfire hazard often goes hand-in-hand with access to benefits such as proximity to nature, scenic views, and recreational opportunities.



However, the experts warn that their findings also reveal disproportionate exposure to wildfire hazards among the lowest-value properties in the western United States, and among Native American communities.&nbsp;



“Wildfire mitigation policies that deliver financial assistance to high-hazard areas could be subsidizing wealthy households. However, high wildfire hazard areas are quite heterogeneous, so addressing concerns associated with costs of increasing wildfire hazard may call for a geographically targeted approach focused on reducing the burden for the most vulnerable communities,” concluded study co-author Molly Robertson, a research associate at RFF.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ac60d7">Environmental Research Letters</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Wildfire hazard disproportionately affects wealthy homeowners

Recently, the western United States has witnessed a dramatic increase...

Although fever is a crucial response that helps organisms combat infections, it has a rather high cost in terms of energy expenditure. For this reason, through a process called “regulated hypothermia,” mammals and birds sometimes lower their temperature instead of raising it when conditions are unfavorable for the production of a fever, postponing the fight against <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pigs-are-highly-resistant-to-sars-cov-2-infection/">infection</a> until energy is once more abundant. A new study led by the <a href="https://www.international.unesp.br/">São Paulo State University</a> (UNESP) in Brazil has described how regulated hypothermia can help chicks tolerate infection and save energy.



In a previous <a href="https://physoc.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1113/JP281385">study</a>, the UNESP scientists have already shown that regulated hypothermia – a process initially described in mammals – also existed in birds. This suggests that the strategy may have been inherited from a distant ancestor common to both mammals and birds, or that it developed independently in the two groups. In the present study, scientists shed more light on how this process functions in broiler chicks.



“This time we infected broiler chicks with a large dose of a lipopolysaccharide from the cell walls of a bacteria to simulate infection without actually causing disease. We then measured how they coped with infection in four different scenarios: when they were warm and well-fed, cold and well-fed, warm and hungry, or cold and hungry,” said&nbsp;study lead author Lara do Amaral Silva, a postdoctoral fellow at the <a href="https://www.uncg.edu/">University of North Carolina at Greensboro</a>.



While a fever appeared in the warm and well-fed chicks about three hours after they were infected, the body temperature of cold and hungry chicks fell 2°C in the first hour after infection and then rose gradually. However, even six hours after the infection, their temperature was still 0.5°C lower than normal. For the other two groups of chicks, the results lay between these two extremes.



“When the cold fasting chicks were infected, they directed more blood to the skin and panted to let more heat leave their bodies. They were clearly keeping themselves cool, very probably in order to save energy while prioritizing maintenance of vital functions over fighting the infection,” said study senior author&nbsp;Kênia Cardoso Bícego, an expert in Comparative Physiology at UNESP.



In order to clarify whether the cold and hungry chicks were still able to raise their metabolic rates and produce fever, the scientists injected them with a drug that increases metabolism, which would theoretically provide them with enough energy to raise their temperatures. However, the chicks continued to actively seek to lose heat, showing that inhibition of fever was regulated by their organism instead of being a failure of their immune systems.



“The results underscore the conclusion that a drop in temperature during severe infection isn’t a collapse of the organism, as has been argued. On the contrary, it’s an energy-saving response, given that raising the body’s temperature requires a great deal of energy. In addition, lowering body temperature was prioritized when the chicks had to cope with other challenges, such as cold and hunger,” Professor Bícego concluded.



The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1242/jeb.243115">Journal of Experimental Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Regulated hypothermia helps chicks overcome infection

Although fever is a crucial response that helps organisms combat...

During their lifespans, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/toxic-plants-can-be-easily-confused-with-edible-ones/">plants</a> release through their stems and leaves a wide range of biological particles, including fungal spores, pollen, bacteria, viruses, algae, and cell debris. When reaching the atmosphere, these particles can act as the nuclei for ice crystals or cloud droplets, thus having a significant environmental and climatic impact.&nbsp;



Although scientists have long been familiar with this process, little has been known about how the composition of this microbiome changes throughout a plant’s life cycle. Now, a team of researchers led by the <a href="https://www.pnnl.gov/">Pacific Northwest National Laboratory</a> has investigated the biological particles produced during the life cycle of&nbsp;Brachypodium distachyon, a wild but commonly used model grass.



“Airborne biological aerosols are an integral part of the atmosphere–biosphere interface and significantly impact the environment and Earth’s climate,” wrote the study authors. “Primary biological particles such as fungal spores, bacteria, and fragments of plant debris are emitted directly from the biosphere into the atmosphere. The phyllosphere (aboveground plant surfaces) is one of the major habitats for different microbes.”



In order to understand the dynamics of this process over the life cycle of&nbsp;B. distachyon, the scientists collected particles at eight different developmental stages – from the emergence of leaves to the last season of plant life – and analyzed particle morphology, elemental composition, and abundance of functional groups through various types of microspectroscopy platforms.&nbsp;



The researchers found a variety of spores, bacteria, plant fragments, and other types of biological particles in the plants’ phyllosphere. While fungal spores were most abundant during the stage just before flowering, bacteria took the lead during the flowering and fruit development stages.



Better understanding the differences in the composition and morphology of biological particles during plants’ life cycles provides new, more reliable insights on the structural, functional, and biochemical properties of plant systems, as well as on their complex interactions with microbial communities. Further research is needed to clarify all the environmental and climatic implications of these processes.&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1021/acsearthspacechem.0c00144">ACS Earth and Space Chemistry</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plants release a variety of biological particles into the air

During their lifespans, plants release through their stems and leaves...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/showing-signs-of-stress-could-make-you-more-likeable/">Stress</a> is a widespread phenomenon among humans, usually occurring when we feel threatened or overwhelmed. Humans often communicate to others that they are stressed through their behavior or physiological changes. Thus, stress can also convey information, and even be useful in certain situations. 



However, since stress can be easily transmitted from one person to another, it frequently leads to dangerous situations, such as mass panics. Now, a research team led by the <a href="https://www.uni-konstanz.de/en/">University of Konstanz</a> has found that the transmission of stress can also be observed across various animal species.&nbsp;



“It has been repeatedly shown that stress can be transmitted from one human to another,” said study lead author Hanja Brandl, a behavioral ecologist at the Center for the Advanced Study of Collective Behavior at the University of Konstanz. “Often a similarly strong physiological response is triggered, even though you have never experienced the stress yourself.”



As most animals spend at least parts of their lives associating socially with their conspecifics, stress is also transmitted among them. “Other animals in the group can be just as stressed as the friend who experienced something bad. Stress is evolutionarily deeply rooted and the process is similar in all vertebrates,” Dr. Brandl explained.



According to the researchers, wild animals are primarily stressed by naturally occurring threats, such as predators. However, human influences can also raise animals’ level of stress. “Increasing changes in the habitat or noise and light pollution also have an impact, as these massively affect the environment of the animals,” said Dr. Brandl.&nbsp;



While animals are usually flexible and can adapt to changing circumstances, when both natural and anthropogenic stressful factors accumulate, stress is exacerbated and is often transmitted through animal collectives, becoming unhealthy for both individual animals and the groups in which they live. “At some point, the stress response – the adaptations that otherwise help animals better escape stressors like predators – no longer gives them a survival advantage.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



Clarifying how the underlying mechanisms of stress work at both the individual and collective level can help scientists find better ways to protect animals. Moreover, understanding the evolutionary roots of stress responses could also shed more light on how humans experience such phenomena, and open ways for mitigating the negative impact stress often has on health.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2021.2158#d1e853">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Stress gives animals a survival advantage, but only to a point

Stress is a widespread phenomenon among humans, usually occurring when...

Engineers at <a href="https://www.northwestern.edu/">Northwestern University</a> have created a tiny robotic crab that walk, bend, twist, turn, and jump. Smaller than a flea and just half-millimeter wide, it is the tiniest walking robot ever invented.



The experts have also developed millimeter-sized robots that resemble inchworms, crickets and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/beetle-glands-help-explain-how-complex-organs-evolved/">beetles</a>. The research is just exploratory at this point, but the researchers believe their technology may bring the field closer to realizing micro-sized robots that can perform practical tasks inside tightly confined spaces.



Last year, the Northwestern team introduced a winged microchip that was the smallest-ever flying structure made by humans.&nbsp;



“Robotics is an exciting field of research, and the development of microscale robots is a fun topic for academic exploration,” said John A. Rogers, who led the experimental work. “You might imagine micro-robots as agents to repair or assemble small structures or machines in industry or as surgical assistants to clear clogged arteries, to stop internal bleeding or to eliminate cancerous tumors - all in minimally invasive procedures.”



According to Yonggang Huang, who led the theoretical side of the study, the technology enables a variety of controlled motion modalities and can walk with an average speed of half its body length per second. “This is very challenging to achieve at such small scales for terrestrial robots.”



The researchers constructed the robot using a shape-memory alloy material that transforms to its “remembered” shape when heated. As the robot transitions between deformed and remembered shape and back again, this creates locomotion.&nbsp;



A laser is used to activate and remotely control the robot. In addition, the laser scanning direction also determines the direction that the bot will walk in.&nbsp;



“Because these structures are so tiny, the rate of cooling is very fast,” explained Rogers. “In fact, reducing the sizes of these robots allows them to run faster.”



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/journal/scirobotics">Science Robotics</a>.&nbsp;



Image Credit: Northwestern University



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tiny crab robot is smaller than a flea

Engineers at Northwestern University have created a tiny robotic crab...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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