Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Antarctic krill - the shrimp-like crustaceans that feed whales, seals, and penguins - sit at the heart of the Southern Ocean food web. Yet these tiny animals are also the target of a fast-growing commercial fishery.



A new study led by the <a href="https://www.awi.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alfred Wegener Institute</a> (AWI) and the <a href="https://www.hi.no/hi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Norwegian Institute of Marine Research</a> used more than 30,000 hours of sonar recordings from krill-trawling vessels. 



The analysis pinpointed when and where fishing fleets overlap with natural krill predators. The results highlight seasonal hotspots of competition that managers can no longer afford to ignore.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-using-sonar-for-krill-clues">Using sonar for krill clues</h2>



Fishing vessels routinely run powerful echo sounders to locate krill swarms. By repurposing those same acoustic logs, scientists gained an unprecedented view of the submarine “traffic” beneath the ships.



The team analyzed over 30,000 hours of sonar data from three krill fishing vessels, gathered over six years in the Southern Ocean. Machine learning algorithms filtered the files for the distinctive signatures produced when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whales-blow-bubble-smoke-rings-near-humans-to-communicate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">whales</a>, penguins, or seals dive under a vessel.



“During such encounters, ships and krill predators pursue the same krill swarms," said lead author Dominik Bahlburg, a scientist at AWI. 



"This allowed us to analyze the spatial and temporal dynamics of this competition in order to identify locations and time periods where the interaction between the two groups is particularly intensive."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-penguins-seals-and-trawlers-converge"><a></a>Where penguins, seals, and trawlers converge</h2>



Patterns emerged once the detections were mapped. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/penguins-are-threatened-by-mercury-contamination/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penguins</a> and fur seals appeared alongside fishing gear in both summer and winter, especially around the South Orkney Islands and South Georgia. 



Whales appeared most near the Antarctic Peninsula in autumn, when they fatten for their long migration north.



“The South Orkney Islands seem to be a real hotspot for encounters with penguins,” Bahlburg said. “Compared to the Antarctic Peninsula, they have received far less attention in the debate on the impact of krill fishing and many of the colonies affected there are currently not regularly monitored.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-direct-competition-with-penguins">Direct competition with penguins</h2>



The overlap is worrisome as trawlers fish near breeding colonies when adult birds must feed their chicks. Voluntary buffer zones aimed to ease this conflict, but sonar evidence reveals an unintended side effect.



This also suggests that fishing vessels continue to encounter penguins despite the voluntary restriction zones around the Antarctic Peninsula. 



The vessels also continue to compete directly with penguins for krill during the breeding season. Instead, the pressure appears to have shifted to the South Orkney Islands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fishing-overlaps-persist-in-winter">Fishing overlaps persist in winter</h2>



One assumption had been that moving effort into winter - when breeding pressures ease - would spare <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-noise-is-disrupting-wildlife-in-antarctica/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildlife</a>. The new data challenge that view.



“We were able to show that fisheries and penguins as well as fur seals encounter each other just as frequently in the winter as in the summer season,” Bahlburg said.



Since animals roam farther from colonies in winter, the persistence of close encounters surprised the authors and may require a reassessment.



While penguins and seals were encountered less often near the Peninsula, autumn fishing there overlapped heavily with whales. These whales depend on krill to build blubber reserves before migrating to equatorial calving grounds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-krill-fleet-data-goes-public">Krill fleet data goes public</h2>



The team found little year-to-year fluctuation in their maps. “Remarkably, these patterns were quite stable for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephant-seals-provide-a-window-into-the-oceans-twilight-zone/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seals</a>, penguins and whales over a six-year period,” noted study co-author Sebastian Menze, a scientist at the Norwegian Institute.



Such consistency implies the method can deliver rapid, reliable diagnostics as fishing tactics or quotas change.



“Consequently, our results show that acoustic data from fishing vessels and machine learning can act as a reliable foundation for rapid and convenient assessments of fisheries' interaction with the ecosystem,” Menze added.



Collecting those data costs almost nothing extra; crews already archive echo-sounder files as part of normal operations. The largest krill harvester, <a href="https://www.akerbiomarine.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aker Biomarine</a>, even makes its records public through the <a href="https://www.hubocean.earth/platform" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HUBOcean platform</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-positive-changes-in-krill-management">Positive changes in krill management </h2>



Until now, scientists mainly used fishery sonar to estimate krill biomass. The study’s broader ecological application opens fresh possibilities.



Bettina Meyer of AWI represents Germany on the <a href="https://www.ccamlr.org/en/organisation/home-page" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources</a> (CCAMLR).



“We are expanding the potential uses for ecological questions and demonstrating new, cost-effective ways in which fishing vessels can contribute to krill fishery management,” said Meyer, who's also a senior author of the study. 



“Acoustic data make it possible to quickly draw an initial picture of how changes in fishery management or fleet behavior impact on the Antarctic ecosystem.”



Supported by Germany’s <a href="https://www.bmel.de/EN/Home/home_node.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture</a>, the project feeds directly into CCAMLR deliberations on updated catch limits and dynamic closure zones.



By revealing when and where krill fishing most conflicts with wildlife, the acoustic approach offers a blueprint for fine-tuned regulations. This could help ensure that the Southern Ocean’s keystone crustacean can sustain both its natural predators and the fishery that now depends on it.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2417203122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Sonar reveals how krill fishing is hurting Antarctic wildlife

Antarctic krill - the shrimp-like crustaceans that feed whales, seals,...

Rising nighttime temperatures could quietly aggravate one of the world’s most widespread sleep disorders: obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). This could bring steep costs to public health and the global economy.



This warning comes from a new study by sleep researchers at <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flinders University</a>. The experts analyzed more than 58 million nights of sleep data and found a strong link between ambient temperature and breathing interruptions.



The results of the analysis suggest that, unless climate change is slowed, the worldwide burden of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/obstructive-sleep-apnea-speeds-up-aging-on-a-cellular-level/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">OSA</a> may double before today’s newborns reach old age.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-billion-people-and-counting">A billion people and counting</h2>



OSA already affects nearly a billion adults. People with the disorder repeatedly stop breathing during sleep as throat tissues collapse. This leads to drops in blood oxygen, loud snoring, and dozens or even hundreds of brief awakenings each night.



Untreated OSA is tied to hypertension, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-disease-remains-the-leading-cause-of-death-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heart disease</a>, cognitive decline, accidents, and depression. In Australia, the combined medical and productivity losses linked to poor sleep are estimated at roughly $66 billion per year.



Researchers knew little about how outdoor climate might influence the severity of the condition, despite its prevalence.



Bastien Lechat of the <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/fhmri/research/sleep-health" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Flinders Health and Medical Research Institute (FHMRI) Sleep Health group</a> is lead author of the study.



“This helps us to understand how environmental factors like climate might affect health by investigating whether ambient temperatures influence the severity of OSA,” said Lechat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-linking-sleep-apnea-to-high-temperatures">Linking sleep apnea to high temperatures </h2>



Lechat’s team partnered with a digital health company that provides a thin, FDA-cleared sensor placed under the mattress. The device measures subtle pressure changes to track breathing and body movement.



The researchers collected an average of 500 consecutive nights of raw data for each of 116,000 anonymous users in 29 mainly high-income countries. Altogether, this added up to more than 30,000 user-years of continuous monitoring.



The team then merged those sensor records with hourly surface-air temperatures generated by high-resolution climate models.



By comparing night-to-night shifts in breathing disruptions with local temperature fluctuations, the team could isolate the effect of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-heat-impacts-our-daily-routines-and-transportation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heat</a> from other confounding factors such as age, weight, or chronic illness.



“Overall, we were surprised by the magnitude of the association between ambient temperature and OSA severity,” Lechat said. When the overnight temperature rose, apnea severity followed.



“Higher temperatures were associated with a 45 percent increased likelihood of a sleeper experiencing OSA on a given night.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cooling-technology-may-buffer-heat-stress">Cooling technology may buffer heat stress</h2>



“These findings varied by region, with people in European countries seeing higher rates of OSA when temperatures rise than those in Australia and the United States, perhaps due to different rates of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-buildings-used-passive-cooling-methods-to-reduce-heat-with-out-air-conditioning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">air conditioning</a> usage,” Lechat said.



In other words, cooling technology - and the affluence that underwrites it - can buffer heat-related sleep stress, while people in older buildings or lower-income areas remain vulnerable.


The researchers translated these nightly risks into long-term stakes by running a health-economics model. They based it on disability-adjusted life years (DALYs), the same yardstick the <a href="https://www.who.int/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">World Health Organization</a> uses to compare illnesses.


“Using our modeling, we can estimate how burdensome the increase in OSA prevalence due to rising temperature is to society in terms of well-being and economic loss,” Lechat noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-price-of-lost-sleep">The price of lost sleep</h2>



“The increase in OSA prevalence in 2023 due to global warming was associated with a loss of approximately 800,000 healthy life years across the 29 countries studied,” Lechat said.



“This number is similar to other medical conditions, such as bipolar disorder, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pesticide-exposure-increases-the-risk-of-parkinsons-disease/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Parkinson’s disease</a>, or chronic kidney diseases.”



The team also attached a price tag. “Similarly, the estimated total economic cost associated was $98 billion, including $68 billion from well-being loss and $30 billion from workplace productivity loss,” Lechat said.



Those figures reflect only the added harm from climate change, not the baseline burden of OSA from other causes. Looking ahead, the numbers get starker. 



According to Lechat, the findings highlight that without greater policy action to slow global warming, OSA burden may double by 2100 due to rising temperatures.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sleep-study-misses-hot-regions">Sleep study misses hot regions</h2>



Senior author Danny Eckert, a sleep scientist at Flinders, points out important caveats. Wealthier nations and individuals who can afford a modern sleep tracker dominate the data set.



“This may have biased our estimates and led to an underestimation of the true health and economic cost,” he said.



Many of the hottest, least air-conditioned regions - South Asia, Africa, parts of Latin America - are underrepresented, yet stand to experience the strongest warming trends.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adapting-sleep-to-hotter-nights">Adapting sleep to hotter nights</h2>



Even as climate policy lags, the clinical community can act. “Higher rates of diagnosis and treatment will help us to manage and reduce the adverse health and productivity issues caused by climate-related OSA,” Eckert said.



Doctors still consider continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) machines the gold-standard therapy. But alternative approaches - oral appliances, weight loss, and positional training - can also reduce breathing disturbances.



The next step for the researchers is to test protective strategies directly. “Going forward, we want to design intervention studies that explore strategies to reduce the impact of ambient temperatures on sleep apnea severity,” Eckert added.



For now, their message is clear: hotter nights are more than a comfort issue. They may be quietly robbing millions of restorative sleep, healthy years, and economic productivity - making <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-mitigation-strategies-may-be-endangering-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate mitigation</a>, bedroom cooling, and sleep-health screening part of the same urgent conversation.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-60218-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Rising temperatures are driving a surge in sleep apnea cases

Rising nighttime temperatures could quietly aggravate one of the world’s...

Ocean water is turning ever so slightly more acidic, and that small shift has now pushed the chemistry of the sea past a point that scientists once marked as the global “do not cross” line.



A new assessment shows that by 2020 the average concentration of calcium carbonate, a building block for shells and reefs, had fallen more than 20 percent from pre‑industrial levels in many regions. 



This results in a thinning of nature’s protective shield for corals, oysters, other mollusks, and countless plankton.



“<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-oceans-day-2025-sustaining-what-sustains-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ocean</a> acidification isn’t just an environmental crisis, it’s a ticking timebomb for marine ecosystems and coastal economies,” said Professor Steve Widdicombe of Plymouth Marine Laboratory, after reviewing the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-carbon-drives-ocean-acidity">How carbon drives ocean acidity</h2>



One extra molecule of carbon dioxide in the air means another will slip into the sea, combine with water, and release a hydrogen ion. 



Over the industrial era, that reaction has raised the average hydrogen ion concentration of the ocean about <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/figures/chapter-5/figure-5-21/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">30 percent</a> and knocked seawater pH down by roughly 0.1 units, which is a large jump on the logarithmic pH scale.



Many <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.1097329" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">calcifying </a>species depend on carbonate ions to form shells and skeletons; when ions grow scarce these organisms must divert energy from growth and reproduction toward basic survival. 



Laboratory work has shown that carbon‑rich water can dissolve the paper‑thin shells of the tiny sea butterfly <a href="https://hakaimagazine.com/news/the-shells-of-wild-sea-butterflies-are-already-dissolving/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Limacina helicina</a> within days.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-acidity-crossed-the-safety-limit">Ocean acidity crossed the safety limit</h2>



The <a href="https://www.stockholmresilience.org/research/planetary-boundaries.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planetary boundaries framework</a> was introduced to define the safe operating limits for Earth’s major life-supporting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-climate-fixes-could-worsen-the-oxygen-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">systems</a>. These boundaries act like guardrails; once crossed, the risk of large-scale environmental disruptions increases sharply. 



Out of nine total boundaries, including climate change and biodiversity loss, <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/acidification.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean acidification</a> was once thought to be safely within limits.



That assumption no longer holds. The latest study shows that the planet has already moved beyond the threshold meant to safeguard <a href="https://www.pmel.noaa.gov/co2/files/dickson_thecarbondioxidesysteminseawater_equilibriumchemistryandmeasurementspp17-40.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine carbonate chemistry</a>. What was once a buffer zone has become an active hazard. 



The proposed new limit is a 10 percent decline in carbonate levels from pre-industrial norms and that is now decades behind us.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-acidity-now-affects-deep-waters">Ocean acidity now affects deep waters</h2>



The report, led by Dr. Helen Findlay and colleagues, stitched together 150 years of measurements and modeling to map acidity down to 660 feet (180 meters). 



Sixty percent of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/darkening-oceans-are-shrinking-vital-marine-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">waters</a> at that depth now sit beyond the old safety line, meaning the problem is not confined to sun‑lit shallows but reaches the heart of many food webs.



“Since these deeper waters are changing so much, the impacts of ocean acidification could be far worse than we thought,” noted Dr. Findlay, an ocean biogeochemist at <a href="https://pml.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plymouth Marine Laboratory</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reefs-and-jobs-are-at-risk">Reefs and jobs are at risk</h2>



Reefs cover <a href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/aa-updates/international-year-of-the-reef-022218.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">less than 1 percent</a> of the ocean floor yet shelter about a quarter of all marine species and buffer shorelines that more than 275 million people call home. 



The ongoing decline of coral reefs threatens food security, recreation, and an ocean tourism industry worth billions.



Shellfish growers have already felt the sting. Around 2010 hatcheries in the U.S. Pacific Northwest lost entire crops of oyster larvae when acidic upwelling water flooded their intake pipes, forcing emergency buffering and multi‑million‑dollar retrofits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-ocean-acidity-crossed-the-danger-line">When ocean acidity crossed the danger line</h2>



To confirm the timing of the threshold breach, the team combined surface records, ice‑core carbon dioxide data, and the <a href="https://oceanacidification.noaa.gov/ocean-acidification-data/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Ocean Acidification Observing Network</a>’s sensor archive. 



The models converged on the late 2010s as the moment the global average slipped past the 20 percent mark.



Importantly, that average hides stark regional contrasts. Polar seas, already low in carbonate, crossed the line earlier, while warm tropical basins hovered just above it until the past decade.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shrinking-safety-margin">Shrinking safety margin</h2>



The authors propose tightening the planetary boundary to a 10 percent decline, arguing that the original 20 percent buffer fails to protect deep <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-oceans-are-rapidly-changing-colors-matching-climate-predictions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reefs</a> and sensitive plankton. 



Under the looser standard, forty percent of the ocean surface is already in the danger zone; under the stricter one, almost the entire surface passed the limit by the early 2000s.



Moving the goalpost highlights how little headroom remains. Every additional ton of fossil‑fuel emissions steals more carbonate from seawater, and only aggressive cuts in carbon dioxide, along with emerging drawdown technologies, can reverse the chemical slide.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-acidity-needs-more-than-local-fixes">Ocean acidity needs more than local fixes</h2>



Local fixes still matter. Seagrass beds that absorb CO₂, limits on coastal nutrient runoff, and refuges that protect genetic diversity can buy time for vulnerable species. 



However, Professor Widdicombe cautions that such measures “cannot solve acidification at the planetary scale.”



International agreements now recognize ocean acidification alongside warming, but policies lag behind science. 



The new findings give negotiators a clear metric - keep average carbonate depletion below 10 percent - to guide emission targets and monitor progress.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.70238" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Change Biology</a>.



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Ocean acidity crosses dangerous threshold, threatening marine life

Ocean water is turning ever so slightly more acidic, and...

Coffee is more than just a wake-up call. For many, it's a daily ritual that brings comfort and energy. But new research suggests that drinking coffee might also offer something unexpected - a longer life. That is, if you drink it right.



Scientists at <a href="https://www.tufts.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tufts University</a> have found that coffee can be linked to a lower risk of dying - but there’s a catch. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-this-amount-of-coffee-helps-prevent-heart-disease-and-diabetes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">benefits</a> depend on how much sugar and saturated fat you add. A splash of cream and a spoonful of sugar could cancel out the good stuff.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-black-coffee-for-a-longer-life">Black coffee for a longer life</h2>



The research team at the Gerald J. and Dorothy R. Friedman School of Nutrition Science and Policy took a closer look at what people actually put in their coffee. The study reveals something simple but important: less is more when it comes to additives.



The experts found that drinking one to two cups of caffeinated coffee a day was associated with a lower risk of death from all causes, including heart disease. 



Those who drank black coffee, or coffee with just a little sugar and fat, had a 14% lower risk of dying compared to non-coffee <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-brains-solve-complex-problems-with-simple-tricks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drinkers</a>. But when sugar and saturated fat increased, the benefit disappeared.



“Coffee is among the most-consumed beverages in the world, and with nearly half of American adults reporting drinking at least one cup per day, it’s important for us to know what it might mean for health,” said Professor Fang Fang Zhang, senior author of the study.



“The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-this-amount-of-coffee-helps-prevent-heart-disease-and-diabetes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health benefits</a> of coffee might be attributable to its bioactive compounds, but our results suggest that the addition of sugar and saturated fat may reduce the mortality benefits.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coffee-habits-of-46-000-american-adults">Coffee habits of 46,000 American adults</h2>



The study didn’t just look at coffee drinkers in general. The researchers analyzed nearly 20 years of data from 46,000 adults who participated in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (<a href="https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NHANES</a>) between 1999 and 2018.



Participants shared details about what they ate and drank in a 24-hour period. Their coffee habits were tracked alongside information from the <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/ndi/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Death Index</a>, which listed causes of death including cancer, heart disease, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/y-chromosome-is-disappearing-may-already-be-causing-problems-for-men/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">others</a>.



The researchers classified coffee types by caffeine level and how much sugar and saturated fat they contained. 



For context, low sugar meant less than 2.5 grams per cup - about half a teaspoon. Low saturated fat meant no more than 1 gram, which is what you'd get from one tablespoon of light cream or half-and-half.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-coffee-doesn-t-mean-more-benefit">More coffee doesn’t mean more benefit</h2>



One cup a day? A 16% drop in overall mortality risk. Two to three cups? Slightly better, at 17%. But drink more than that, and the benefits didn’t keep rising. 



In fact, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-coffee-may-reduce-frailty-in-aging-adults/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drinking</a> more than three cups a day didn’t seem to offer any extra protection - especially when it came to heart-related deaths.



Also, coffee didn’t show any meaningful connection to cancer-related mortality. The positive effects were mostly linked to cardiovascular health and general longevity.



Study first author Bingjie Zhou is a recent Ph.D. graduate from the nutrition epidemiology and data science program at the <a href="https://nutrition.tufts.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Friedman School</a>.



“Few studies have examined how coffee additives could impact the link between coffee consumption and mortality risk, and our study is among the first to quantify how much sweetener and saturated fat are being added,” said Zhou.



“Our results align with the Dietary Guidelines for Americans which recommend limiting added sugar and saturated fat.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cream-and-sugar-dilemma">Cream and sugar dilemma</h2>



A spoonful of sugar might make your coffee taste better, but it could also reduce the health benefits. The study offers a clear takeaway: coffee itself isn’t the problem. What you put in it matters.



Coffee contains bioactive compounds like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrimp-proven-to-be-a-nutritional-treasure-packed-with-antioxidants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">antioxidants</a> and anti-inflammatory agents that might help protect against disease and support a longer, healthier life.



But loading your cup with creamers, flavored syrups, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/childrens-cereals-now-contain-more-sugar-and-fat-than-ever/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extra sugar</a> changes the nutritional equation. It turns a health-friendly drink into something closer to dessert.



This nuance matters. People often think of coffee as either good or bad. This research suggests the truth is more subtle - coffee can be beneficial, but only if it’s not drowning in additives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limitations-of-the-study">Limitations of the study</h2>



As with any observational study, there are limitations. The researchers relied on self-reported dietary recall, which can vary depending on memory and accuracy. What someone reports eating on one day might not reflect their long-term habits.



Also, decaffeinated coffee didn’t show the same benefits in this study. But that may be because not enough people reported drinking decaf to make the data strong enough.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gaining-years-of-life-with-coffee">Gaining years of life with coffee </h2>



If you enjoy a daily cup of coffee, there’s no need to stop. In fact, if you drink it black or with just a touch of milk and minimal sugar, you might actually be doing your body a favor. 



But if your coffee resembles dessert in a cup, you might want to rethink what you're sipping.



In short: it’s not just the coffee that matters, but also how you drink it. Keep it simple, keep it balanced, and you might gain more than just a morning boost. You might just gain a few more years.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S002231662500286X?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Nutrition</a>.



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Coffee may help you live longer - if you drink it this way

Coffee is more than just a wake-up call. For many,...

In the face of global biodiversity loss, protected areas have emerged as a crucial conservation strategy. These regions are set aside to limit human interference and provide wildlife with a safe space. 



Conservationists often focus on species counts when measuring success. But are these protected zones doing enough to preserve the entire structure of ecosystems?



This question is at the heart of a new study from <a href="https://www.swansea.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Swansea University</a>. Instead of focusing only on species richness, the researchers examined how protected areas affect the complex interactions between species. 



These species interactions - especially predator-prey relationships - build the food webs that make <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extinction-by-design-should-we-genetically-erase-harmful-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> stable and functional.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-species-count-is-not-enough-nbsp">Species count is not enough&nbsp;</h2>



Species richness is important. However, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-millions-of-fungal-species-still-remain-unknown/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a> are more than a list of species. The relationships between organisms play a key role in ecological balance. A hawk hunting smaller birds or a songbird feeding on insects reflects interactions that keep ecosystems working.



The Swansea team wanted to understand if protected areas help maintain this ecological balance. They examined the structure of food webs rather than just counting how many species lived in each location. 



A food web includes all the feeding relationships between animals in a region. It shows who eats whom and how energy flows through the environment.



To conduct this study, the researchers turned to citizen science. They used data from platforms like eBird, where volunteers record bird sightings. This allowed the experts to track 509 bird species across 45 ecological networks from Spain to Finland.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-webs-inside-and-outside-reserves">Food webs inside and outside reserves</h2>



Using this large database, the team combined observational bird records with known predator-prey links. For example, if a particular raptor feeds on smaller birds, that relationship was mapped. Each network captured the structure of a local bird community and its food web.



The team compared food webs inside protected areas to those in surrounding, non-protected <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-lynx-day-2025-protecting-the-silent-hunters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">landscapes</a>. These comparisons were not simple. 



The researchers controlled for many variables. They looked at habitat diversity, the percentage of forest and agricultural land, and levels of human pressure.



The experts also considered the designation status of the protected areas. Some zones were part of the European Bird Directives, which provide stronger conservation measures. Others had more general protections. 



These different conservation levels allowed the team to ask whether clearer goals led to better ecological outcomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protected-areas-help-in-some-places">Protected areas help in some places</h2>



So, what did the researchers find? In some cases, protected areas improved the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-day-for-biological-diversity-2025-bonding-with-nature/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">structure</a> of food webs. The networks inside protected zones tended to have more species overall. Intermediate-level species - those neither top predators nor at the bottom - were more common. 



Also, predators inside protected areas tended to be larger in body size, both at the top and middle levels of the food web.



However, not all of the results were encouraging. The length of food chains and the connectivity of species within the web did not show consistent improvement. In other words, simply having more species did not guarantee a healthier or more connected ecosystem.



The effects varied across Europe. Food webs in Spain responded differently from those in Finland or central Europe. This suggests that local conditions still matter greatly. Protection alone cannot guarantee the same results everywhere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-factors-behind-food-web-differences">Factors behind food web differences</h2>



What caused the variation in results? Several environmental factors played a role. Areas that were more remote generally had healthier food webs. Places with higher habitat diversity also performed better. Human pressure and the amount of nearby farmland had a strong influence too.



Interestingly, areas under the European Bird Directives showed stronger positive trends. This suggests that clearer conservation planning makes a real difference. Just designating a region as "protected" is not enough. What matters is how that protection is implemented.



Study co-author Dr. Miguel Lurgi, who leads the Computational Ecology Lab, emphasized the significance of the research. 



“Studies like ours highlight the complexity of conservation action and the importance of considering key aspects of biodiversity beyond species richness, such as ecological interactions and the tangled networks that they form, into biodiversity assessments,” noted Dr. Lurgi.



“These networks not only structure communities and enable their persistence, but they also play important roles in the functions that ecosystems fulfil in nature.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-we-must-protect-species-and-their-roles-nbsp">We must protect species and their roles&nbsp;</h2>



This study challenges a common assumption in conservation planning. Many projects measure success by the number of species saved. The research shows that relationships between species are equally vital. 



Protecting one bird species is good. Ensuring that it still plays its ecological role - as predator, prey, or pollinator - is better.



Protected areas clearly help in some ways. They offer space for species to live and grow. But without active planning, their impact on food webs may fall short. Conservation needs to think about networks, not just numbers.



By looking at predator-prey relationships, this research opens a path to more holistic conservation strategies. It also highlights the value of citizen science. 



Platforms like eBird make this kind of large-scale ecological work possible. Every birdwatcher’s observation helps build a clearer picture of how our ecosystems function.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protected-areas-need-better-plans">Protected areas need better plans</h2>



Europe's protected areas are not failing, but they are not universally succeeding either. They need tailored strategies, grounded in ecological data. Simple protection does not always support complex ecosystems.



This study gives policymakers a reason to refine their approaches. If the goal is to protect ecosystems, not just individual species, then conservation must shift. It must include ecological interactions, food web structures, and the subtle forces that hold nature together.



As this research shows, conservation cannot afford to stay simple. Nature is complex. Our strategies must match that complexity.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2025.0614" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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Protected areas don't always protect food webs

In the face of global biodiversity loss, protected areas have...

Fires sweep through forests, darkening skies and sparking conversations about smoke pollution, health, and lost trees - but few of us picture how this may affect life in the ocean.



Every smoke plume carries tiny particles and nutrients that fall into the sea and quietly reshape life below the waves.



In a new study, led by a team at the Barcelona Supercomputing Center (<a href="https://www.bsc.es/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BSC-CNS</a>), scientists traced the smoke-ocean link with advanced climate models.



The results point to a future in which rising temperatures bring more fires in the far north and, with them, more iron-rich dust for the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-warming-triggers-rising-north-atlantic-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">North Atlantic</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fires-as-a-source-of-ocean-fertilizer">Fires as a source of ocean fertilizer</h2>



Fires loft bits of burned wood and soil into the upper air. Winds push those particles across continents and oceans. When they land, the particles deliver <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/low-iron-levels-will-make-it-hard-for-corals-to-endure-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iron</a> - an essential micronutrient that is in short supply in many parts of the sea.



With the additional iron, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-heatwaves-have-complex-effects-on-phytoplankton-food-web/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phytoplankton</a> can bloom just as crops respond to fertilizer. The plankton draw carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air as they grow, which links forest flames on land to the global climate balance.



Professor Carlos Pérez García-Pando is co-leader of the BSC's Atmospheric Composition group and senior co-author of the study.



“Climate-driven fires arise from more favorable weather conditions for fire, such as low humidity and high temperatures, which in turn are influenced by anthropogenic climate change," noted Professor García-Pando.



"Understanding these fires and their impact on the fertilization of key ocean regions, like the North Atlantic, is essential for more accurately predicting future atmospheric CO2 levels."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forest-fire-smoke-and-ocean-life">Forest fire smoke and ocean life</h2>



The researchers ran high-resolution simulations to study changing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-activity-is-rapidly-changing-weather-in-north-america/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weather patterns</a>, vegetation, and emissions. They found that by the late 21st century, climate change could push boreal wildfires to release 1.8 times more iron than today.



In North Atlantic zones where iron is scarce, that extra supply could raise summer phytoplankton productivity by as much as 40 percent.



Smoke-borne iron is only one piece of the nutrient puzzle. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plankton-change-their-cell-chemistry-to-survive-warming-oceans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Warming oceans</a> are expected to reduce the upwelling of other key nutrients in many regions. That drop could blunt some of the carbon-absorbing benefit of new phytoplankton growth.



“Quantifying this nutrient source for phytoplankton is important for gaining a more precise idea of how much CO2 will remain in the atmosphere in the coming decades," said Elisa Bergas-Massó, BSC-CNS researcher and lead author of the study.



"By determining how climate-driven fires will increase the supply of iron to the ocean, we are revealing a crucial feedback loop in the Earth system that we must understand to address climate change." 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-estimating-future-co-2-levels">Estimating future CO2 levels</h2>



Fire science, atmospheric chemistry, oceanography, and climate policy often move on separate tracks. This study pulls them together and shows why that matters. Accurately estimating future CO2 levels depends on knowing how land fires fertilize the sea.



Study co-senior author Maria Gonçalves Ageitos is a researcher at the BSC and the Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC).



“The results of this study are crucial for improving projections of the carbon cycle and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alarming-shifts-in-ocean-health-less-oxygen-more-heat-and-acidity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean health</a> under a changing climate, paving the way for more accurate climate models and better-informed future climate change adaptation policies,” said Gonçalves.



The authors call for better observations of smoke plumes, ocean nutrient levels, and phytoplankton blooms, along with finer-scale modeling. 



Each improvement will tighten the numbers on how much carbon the ocean can pull from the air - and how forest management, fire prevention, and emissions cuts on land might echo across the planet’s largest ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-hidden-connections">Earth’s hidden connections</h2>



In a warming world, nothing exists in isolation. Climate change doesn’t just melt ice or just raise sea levels - it alters winds, shifts fire seasons, changes ocean chemistry, and influences the tiniest organisms at sea.



This study is one more example of how deeply connected Earth’s systems really are. Fires in distant forests can influence life and carbon absorption in the ocean. What happens on land doesn’t stay on land.



As the climate continues to change, we need to pay closer attention to these hidden links - because solving one part of the puzzle means understanding how it fits into the whole.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-025-02356-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Climate Change</a>.



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Forest fire smoke boosts ocean life - but with a hidden cost

Fires sweep through forests, darkening skies and sparking conversations about...

The Bronze Age cemetery of Tiszafüred-Majoroshalom reveals a remarkable transformation around 1500 BCE. Led by Tamás Hajdu and Claudio Cavazzuti, a research team explored diet, mobility, millet consumption, and inequality during this critical period in the Carpathian Basin.



Using carbon, nitrogen, and strontium isotope analysis, they uncovered drastic lifestyle changes at the dawn of the Tumulus culture. Their study combined archaeology, bioanthropology, and environmental science to show how people adapted to shifting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millet-farming-marked-a-turning-point-in-life-during-the-bronze-age/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food</a> systems and social structures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-settlements-break-down-new-patterns-emerge">Settlements break down, new patterns emerge</h2>



During the Middle <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bronze-age-technology-is-a-modern-solution-for-clean-energy/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bronze</a> Age (2000–1500 BCE), the region had many local cultures with tell-settlements. These were large fortified villages. But by 1500 BCE, these settlements were abandoned. Instead, people moved into short-term, horizontal communities with weaker central control.



This shift marked the arrival of the Tumulus culture, known for mound burials and new pottery styles. The big question: did new people bring these changes, or did local populations simply adopt new practices?



The researchers collected 130 isotope samples and radiocarbon-dated 60 individuals. They tracked changes in movement and eating habits with unprecedented precision.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-less-movement-different-origins">Less movement, different origins</h2>



Strontium isotope analysis helps identify where individuals grew up based on local geology. At Tiszafüred-Majoroshalom, most buried people had isotope signatures matching the immediate area. This means they were likely locals. 



About 20% had values matching nearby regions within 100 kilometers. Only one man clearly came from a more distant place.



Migration routes also shifted over time. In the Middle Bronze Age, newcomers came from radiogenic areas like the Upper Tisza and Northern Carpathians. 



In the Late <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bronze-age-teeth-discovery-highlight-the-evolution-of-the-human-diet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bronze</a> Age, migrants arrived from different regions, such as the Middle Danube, Southern Carpathians, or Transdanubia. These new patterns follow known west-to-east cultural movements.



Men showed slightly more mobility, but not by much. Few women came from outside, suggesting that marriages between distant groups were uncommon. When they did happen, they mostly occurred within the local region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-millet-intake-rose-in-the-bronze-age">Millet intake rose in the Bronze Age</h2>



A major dietary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-from-9000-year-old-skeletons-disproves-migratory-waves-theory-from-south-africa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">shift</a> also occurred. Carbon isotopes revealed that broomcorn millet entered the diet around 1540–1480 BCE. Millet, a fast-growing crop, became a vital food by the Late Bronze Age.



Dental calculus confirmed this. In the Middle Bronze Age, millet traces appeared in only 2 of 14 individuals. In the Late Bronze Age, millet was found in 6 of 11 individuals. This cereal quickly became a staple.



At the same time, nitrogen isotopes showed reduced protein intake. Middle Bronze Age diets had wider protein access, especially among males. 



This gap closed in the Late Bronze Age, hinting at social leveling. Both men and women consumed less meat, and the diet was poorer but more equal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-variety-vanished-as-inequality-shrunk">Variety vanished as inequality shrunk</h2>



The Middle Bronze <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/technologically-advanced-society-discovered-across-philippine-islands-35000-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Age</a> saw more dietary diversity. People ate wheat, barley, lentils, and other plants. Spelt and emmer were present, while einkorn faded away. Legumes, oil crops, and foraged foods enriched meals.



By the Late Bronze Age, broomcorn millet overshadowed other grains. Macro-remains of millet were rare in earlier layers but became common after 1500 BCE. Stable isotope and dental evidence confirmed its growing role.



“The abandonment of the fortified MBA tell settlement is followed by a new phase with less structured centres, less stable social hierarchies and the reduced inequalities that we could clearly observe, at least at the level of food consumption,” the authors noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bronze-age-life-changed-with-millet">Bronze Age life changed with millet</h2>



These findings challenge old views of the Tumulus people as nomadic herders. Their mobility decreased. Their diet shifted from rich and varied to simpler and millet-based. Social networks became flatter and more equal.



The Tumulus culture wasn’t just about burial mounds and metalwork. It marked a deeper change in how people lived, ate, and moved.



“The strong investment in broomcorn millet as key-cereal is considered one of the earliest phases in Europe,” noted the researchers.



This Bronze Age study shows how bones, teeth, and millet reveal the past. By studying them closely, we uncover stories of change, resilience, and adaptation that shaped ancient Europe.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-025-01113-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Bronze Age people abandoned meat for millet 3,500 years ago

The Bronze Age cemetery of Tiszafüred-Majoroshalom reveals a remarkable transformation...

In today’s world of rapid change and constant information overload, people crave meaning more than ever. Romantic partners often become anchors in the chaos, offering comfort and companionship. But beyond love and support, relationships can offer something deeper, a shared way of seeing the world.



When two people align in how they understand their surroundings, they don’t just feel closer. They also feel more certain, more secure, and more purposeful. 



A recent study from <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McGill University</a> explores this idea and reveals that partners who develop a shared view of the world gain more than emotional satisfaction. They also gain a deeper sense of meaning, especially in difficult or confusing times.



The findings, published in the&nbsp;Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, offer a fresh look at how romantic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-depression-contagious-couples-may-share-it-through-kissing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">relationships</a> shape our sense of self, purpose, and reality. They show that meaning doesn’t only come from being supported. It can also emerge when partners interpret the world together.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-partners-shared-worldview-gives-life-meaning">Partners’ shared worldview gives life meaning</h2>



The McGill researchers conducted five separate studies involving nearly 1,300 adults from Canada and the United States. These studies used a mix of online surveys, laboratory tasks, and controlled experiments. 



The goal was to understand whether sharing a sense of reality with a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/men-might-say-i-love-you-first-to-show-they-care/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">romantic</a> partner could help people feel more certain and more meaningful.



The results were clear and consistent across all five studies. Participants who reported greater alignment with their partner’s views and interpretations of the world also reported a stronger sense of meaning in life. 



This connection came through reduced uncertainty. In simple terms, when people agreed with their partner’s view of the world, they felt more grounded.



Importantly, this effect was observed even in highly stressful contexts. For example, front-line health-care workers during the COVID-19 pandemic and Black Americans during the Black Lives Matter movement found it easier to cope when their partner shared their understanding of the events unfolding around them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-just-support-the-shift-in-perspective">Not just support: The shift in perspective</h2>



The study highlights a key difference from earlier research. In the past, scholars mostly focused on how relationships provide belonging or emotional support. But this study suggests another route to meaning through shared interpretation.



“Our approach was different from earlier work on how relationships promote meaning, which tended to focus on aspects like belonging or support,” said M. Catalina Enestrom, lead author of the research paper. 



“We set out to explore whether sharing thoughts, ideas and concerns about the world with a romantic partner could enhance meaning by reducing uncertainty about one’s environment.”



This focus on thought alignment, rather than just <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-are-falling-in-love-with-ai-companions-and-it-could-be-dangerous/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">emotional</a> closeness, shifts how we understand the role of relationships. It suggests that meaning is not only found in being loved but also in being understood and in understanding together.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-partners-view-the-world-together">How partners view the world together</h2>



As couples spend more time together, they naturally build shared experiences. But these experiences become more than memories. They form the foundation of a shared reality, a mental and emotional map that both partners use to navigate life.



“As couples accumulate shared experiences, shared feelings, goals, and memories, they develop a generalized shared reality,” said senior author John Lydon, a psychology professor at McGill University. “This is different from simply feeling close or supported. It’s not just ‘my partner gets me,’ it’s ‘we get it.’”



This “we get it” feeling is powerful. It suggests that both individuals are not just emotionally close, but also intellectually and perceptually in sync. That can make the world seem less confusing, more organized, and easier to deal with.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-meaning-through-empathy">Building meaning through empathy</h2>



A shared reality doesn’t always require both partners to live through the same event. It can also form when one partner listens and aligns with the other’s interpretation. This means that even when experiences differ, a sense of shared meaning can still emerge.



“Shared reality can form, for instance, when a couple watches a horror movie together and one or both partners perceive that they both find it scary. But shared reality doesn’t necessarily require shared experiences," noted Enestrom.



"One partner can describe a stressful event they experienced, and if the other partner sees it the same way, this too can foster shared reality. As couples accumulate these shared reality experiences, they come to develop a sense of shared <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/who-is-happier-being-single-men-or-women/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">understanding</a> about the world in general."



This type of understanding strengthens the connection between partners. It allows them to act as each other’s witnesses to the world and co-creators of meaning, even in times of hardship.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coherence-and-purpose-the-roots-of-meaning">Coherence and purpose: The roots of meaning</h2>



While meaning can feel abstract, the researchers define it in practical terms as a sense of coherence and purpose. When people understand how the pieces of their lives fit together, they feel more stable. And when they know what they are working toward, life feels worthwhile.



Many studies have already shown that people who experience meaning also experience greater happiness, improved health, and stronger resilience. 



What this study adds is the idea that romantic relationships can play a key role in that process. Not just by offering support, but by helping partners reduce confusion and uncertainty together.



In chaotic moments, having someone to interpret the world with can be a powerful source of calm. That shared sense of reality gives people something to hold onto.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-shared-reality-matters-for-partners">Why shared reality matters for partners</h2>



This research sheds light on an often-overlooked part of intimacy. Love is not just about affection. It is also about perception. It is about looking at the same event, interpreting it in a similar way, and saying, “I see it too.”



In a world full of noise and confusion, being able to say “we get it” is more than comforting. It is grounding. It builds a shared path forward, where both partners can walk with clarity and purpose. And in that shared path, they find meaning not just as individuals, but as a team.



When two people consistently understand the world the same way, they are not just more connected. They are also more certain, more stable, and more fulfilled.



The study is published in the <a href="https://psycnet.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fpspi0000472" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Personality and Social Psychology</a>. 



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Partners who view the world the same way feel more secure

In today’s world of rapid change and constant information overload,...

Most insects, including many beetles, cannot see red. Their eyes detect ultraviolet, blue, and green light. Bees often visit red flowers, but not for their color. They are drawn to ultraviolet reflections, not the red hue itself.



But two Mediterranean beetles break that pattern.&nbsp;Pygopleurus chrysonotus&nbsp;and&nbsp;Pygopleurus syriacus&nbsp;can truly perceive red. They seek out red flowers, especially poppies, anemones, and buttercups, for pollen. Their eyes are uniquely tuned to do this.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beetles-with-a-four-color-vision-system">Beetles with a four-color vision system</h2>



‘To our knowledge, we are the first to have experimentally demonstrated that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insects-are-still-disappearing-and-there-are-hundreds-of-reasons-why/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beetles</a> can actually perceive the color red,’ said Dr Johannes Spaethe.



The researchers confirmed this by recording electrical activity from photoreceptors in beetle eyes. They discovered four photoreceptor types. These respond to ultraviolet, blue, green, and red wavelengths.



This tetrachromatic system is rare among beetles. Most have just two or three receptor types. Blue sensitivity, previously missing in some beetle lineages, reappears here. It likely evolved through a gene duplication event and a spectral shift from ultraviolet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beetles-choose-red-over-grey">Beetles choose red over grey</h2>



Photoreceptors are light-sensitive cells in the eye. Just having them doesn't prove an animal can&nbsp;see&nbsp;colors. To show true color vision, an animal must tell colors apart even when they have the same brightness.



To test this, scientists used a trick from bee research by Von Frisch. They gave beetles a choice between red circles and grey ones that varied in brightness. If beetles picked red over all shades of grey, it meant they could see red as a distinct color - not just as a lighter or darker patch.



That’s exactly what happened. In every test, beetles chose red first. The researchers also ran a second test in the wild using traps in five colors. Almost all P. chrysonotus beetles ended up in red traps. This showed their natural color preference matched the lab findings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-opponency-and-complex-visual-processing">Opponency and complex visual processing</h2>



Recordings also revealed opponency signals. These occur when one receptor type’s signal suppresses another. It is a marker of complex color processing. 



For example, red receptors showed suppressed responses in green wavelengths. This confirmed interaction between channels.



This kind of opponency, previously seen in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-farming-is-causing-many-insect-species-to-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">butterflies</a>, suggests advanced neural processing. It likely helps the beetles make sharp color distinctions in complex natural environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-beetles-and-red-flowers">Evolution of beetles and red flowers </h2>



Why do these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/very-little-is-known-about-99-of-all-insects-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">beetles</a> care so much about red? It may reflect a mutual evolutionary pathway. Red flowers in the Mediterranean are mostly pollinated by Glaphyridae beetles. These flowers form the “poppy guild.”



‘The prevailing opinion in science is that flower colours have adapted to the visual systems of pollinators over the course of evolution,’ says Spaethe.



Yet this case flips that assumption. Glaphyrid beetles may have evolved their vision to match flower color diversity. 



Within their family, different genera prefer different flower colors such as yellow, white, violet, and red. This suggests their visual systems may be flexible and evolving alongside flowers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-red-vision-helps-beetles-access-flowers">Red vision helps beetles access flowers</h2>



Specializing in red gives beetles an advantage. Most insects cannot see red. That means red flowers are invisible or less noticeable to them.



But&nbsp;P. chrysonotus&nbsp;and&nbsp;P. syriacus&nbsp;can see red clearly. This gives them special access to food - like pollen - from red flowers that others ignore.



Because fewer insects compete for red flowers, the beetles face less crowding. They also become more reliable pollinators for those flowers.



Over time, flowers may evolve to become red on purpose. This helps attract only beetles and avoid unwanted visitors like bees that may steal pollen without pollinating. This is what scientists call a "private niche in color space."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-window-into-insect-vision">Rare window into insect vision</h2>



P. chrysonotus&nbsp;and&nbsp;P. syriacus&nbsp;are now among the few <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-heat-shrinking-habitats-insects-face-hidden-threats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a> with confirmed red color vision. Their unique tetrachromatic eyes, behavioral responses, and flower preferences paint a new picture of insect-flower interaction.



This research does more than reveal a rare trait. It creates a valuable model for studying pollination, vision, and co-evolution, all through the eyes of beetles.



The study is published in the <a href="https://journals.biologists.com/jeb/article/doi/10.1242/jeb.250181/368218/Remarkable-red-colour-vision-in-two-Mediterranean" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Experimental Biology</a>. 



Image Credit: Johannes Spaethe / University of Würzburg



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Beetles that see red break the rules of insect vision

Most insects, including many beetles, cannot see red. Their eyes...

A vast, ghostly “cloud” of high-energy particles - stretching nearly 20 million light-years from end to end - has been discovered enveloping the distant galaxy cluster PLCK G287.0+32.9.



The discovery reveals the largest structure of its kind ever seen and overturns long-held ideas about where cosmic particles get their power.



Instead of being fed by jets from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-map-of-supermassive-black-holes-unveiled/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">supermassive black holes</a> inside individual galaxies, the electrons lighting up this cloud appear to be jolted repeatedly. Colossal shockwaves and turbulent eddies rumble through the thin gas filling the space between galaxies, re-energizing them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biggest-particle-cloud-ever-discovered">Biggest particle cloud ever discovered</h2>



Astronomers have watched PLCK G287.0+32.9 since 2011, drawn by earlier radio images that revealed a striking pair of “relics.” Bright arcs on opposite rims mark shockwaves from past collisions with smaller clusters.



Those relics were already record-breakers, but new observations with South Africa’s <a href="https://www.sarao.ac.za/science/meerkat/about-meerkat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MeerKAT radio telescope</a> have revealed something far bigger.



The low-frequency images show a faint, continuous radio haze that fills the entire cluster, located 5 billion light-years away. This haze stretches nearly 20 times wider than our <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-ways-black-hole-unleashes-mysterious-flares/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>, connecting the relics and spilling beyond them. 



Dr. Kamlesh Rajpurohit, the study's lead author, is an astronomer at the <a href="https://www.cfa.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Astrophysics | Harvard &amp; Smithsonian</a>.



“We expected a bright pair of relics at the cluster's edges, which would have matched prior observations, but instead we found the whole cluster glowing in radio light,” he said. “A cloud of energetic particles this large has never been observed in this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/titanic-galaxy-cluster-collision-defies-all-current-understanding-of-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxy cluster</a> or any other.”



The previous record holder, Abell 2255, measures about 16 million light-years across; the new halo beats it by roughly 25 percent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-faint-signals-from-aging-electrons">Faint signals from aging electrons</h2>



Radio halos form when fast-moving electrons spiral around intergalactic magnetic fields, emitting faint radio waves.



The catch is that such electrons lose energy quickly - on cosmic timescales, they should fade in a few hundred million years and fall silent long before they can drift across a region this huge. Something, therefore, must be re-energizing them along the way.



In quieter clusters, astronomers usually point to active galaxies whose central black holes pump out relativistic jets.



The jets stir the surrounding plasma and inject fresh <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-source-of-cosmic-rays-found-after-a-century-long-search/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cosmic-ray</a> electrons. But in PLCK G287.0+32.9, the newly mapped glow extends far beyond any galaxy’s sphere of influence, leaving no obvious power source.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clues-from-colossal-cluster-collisions">Clues from colossal cluster collisions</h2>



Dr. Rajpurohit’s team suspects that the same merger events that generated the edge relics also sent slower, large-scale shockwaves and turbulence washing through the cluster’s 100-million-degree gas.



Those motions could repeatedly accelerate aging electrons, giving them multiple “booster shots” that keep them radiating across the full 20-million-light-year span.



Confirming that idea will require new computer models; present theories do not predict efficient re-acceleration over such distances.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-history-of-violent-upheaval">A history of violent upheaval </h2>



Clues come from<a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission/chandra-x-ray-observatory/"> NASA’s Chandra X-ra</a><a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission/chandra-x-ray-observatory/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">y</a><a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission/chandra-x-ray-observatory/"> Observatory</a>. When the researchers overlaid Chandra’s view onto the MeerKAT radio map, they saw box-shaped edges, comet-like tails, and other scars in the X-ray-bright gas. These features lined up with structures seen in the radio map. 



The shapes reveal a history of violent upheaval - sub-clusters crashing into one another and supersonic gas fronts ripping through the surrounding medium.



Outbursts from a central black hole may also be adding local turmoil. Each disturbance is another candidate engine for electron re-acceleration.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-huge-halo-maps-hidden-fields">Huge halo maps hidden fields</h2>



Magnetic fields thread the cosmos from planets to galaxy clusters, yet their origin and evolution remain murky.



By lighting up those fields across unprecedented scales, the PLCK G287.0+32.9 halo provides a new laboratory.



Mapping radio brightness and polarization helps scientists study the strength and shape of magnetism across the galaxy cluster. This could reveal whether the fields formed in the early universe or emerged later from astrophysical activity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-energy-in-clusters">Hidden energy in clusters</h2>



If giant shocks and turbulent cascades can keep electrons lively across tens of millions of light-years, similar “re-acceleration zones” may lurk in many massive clusters still awaiting sensitive low-frequency surveys.



Next-generation arrays such as the <a href="https://www.skao.int/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Square Kilometer Array</a> and upgraded <a href="https://public.nrao.edu/telescopes/vla/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Very Large Array</a> will be able to hunt for them systematically. 



Each new detection would force cosmologists to factor in previously hidden reservoirs of relativistic particles and magnetic energy. These particles and energy sources must be considered when modeling how clusters grow, merge, and heat the gas that ultimately forms new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-galaxy-formation-occurred-much-faster-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-giant-particle-cloud">Significance of the giant particle cloud </h2>



PLCK G287.0+32.9 sits five billion light-years away, so the light reaching Earth today left when our solar system was still forming its first oceans. 



Catching the cluster mid-commotion offers a time-machine glimpse into how violently particles and the universe’s largest building blocks evolve.



“We’re starting to see the universe in ways we never could before - and that means rethinking how energy and matter move through its largest structures,” Rajpurohit concluded.



A preprint of the study can be found on <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2505.05415" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arXiv</a>.



Image Credit: X-ray: NASA/CXC/CfA/K. Rajpurohit et al.; Optical: PanSTARRS; Radio: SARAO/MeerKAT; Image processing: NASA/CXC/SAO/N. Wolk 



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Largest cosmic particle cloud ever found has stunned astronomers

A vast, ghostly “cloud” of high-energy particles - stretching nearly...

Axolotls have charmed the world with their feathery gills and perpetual smiles. However, their true superpower lies in their ability to regrow lost limbs - even hands, arms, and parts of organs - without leaving a single scar.



This rare ability sets axolotls apart from almost all other vertebrates. Scientists have long looked to them as a living model for unlocking the secrets of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/axolotls-regeneration-powers-critically-endangered/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">regeneration</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-secrets-of-axolotl-healing">Secrets of axolotl healing</h2>



In a study led by <a href="https://www.northeastern.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northeastern University</a> biologist James Monaghan, researchers asked a question that has puzzled scientists for almost two centuries: How does an axolotl know which body part to rebuild and how much of it to replace?



“It could help with scar-free wound <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-killifish-regeneration-may-help-us-heal-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">healing</a> but also something even more ambitious, like growing back an entire finger,” said Monaghan. “It’s not out of the realm of possibility to think that something larger could grow back like a hand.”



Monaghan traced the animal’s “positional memory” to a common signaling molecule called retinoic acid. Inside the axolotl’s arm, retinoic acid forms a gradient - high near the shoulder, low near the fingertips. Fibroblast cells read that gradient like a map and decide what to build.



“The cells can interpret this cue to say, ‘I’m at the elbow, and then I’m going to grow back the hand’ or ‘I’m at the shoulder. I have high levels of retinoic acid, so I’m going to then enable those cells to grow back the entire limb,’” noted Monaghan.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rewriting-the-regeneration-plan">Rewriting the regeneration plan</h2>



To test the system, the team boosted retinoic-acid levels in a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/skydiving-salamanders-can-fully-control-blood-flow-in-their-toes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">salamander</a>’s hand. The result was startling: instead of one new hand, the axolotl sprouted a duplicate limb.



Monaghan said the experiment was "pretty Frankensteiny." Still, it showed that tweaking the signal can rewrite the regeneration plan.



People make retinoic acid too, and our fibroblasts help mend <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/healing-chronic-wounds-with-gold-and-red-wine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wounds</a>. The problem is that human cells ignore the signals that axolotls obey. They lay down collagen and form scars instead of new tissue.



“If we can find ways of making our fibroblasts listen to these regenerative cues, then they’ll do the rest,” said Monaghan. “They know how to make a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/limb-development-genes-connected-to-fingerprints/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">limb</a> already because, just like the salamander, they made it during development.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-genetics-of-axolotl-healing">The genetics of axolotl healing</h2>



Digging deeper, the researchers linked retinoic-acid signaling to the short homeobox gene (shox). 



When they removed shox with CRISPR-Cas9, the salamanders grew stubby arms capped by normal-size hands - the same limb pattern seen in people who carry a SHOX mutation.



“In order for regenerative biology or regenerative medicine to move forward, we need to understand where positional memory lies and how to manipulate it and engineer it,” explained Monaghan. 



“How do you make a cell move where you want? Changing its positional memory is critical for this.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-searching-for-the-healing-control-switch">Searching for the healing control switch </h2>



Monaghan’s lab is now probing the inner workings of fibroblasts to find out exactly how retinoic acid flips genetic switches like shox. 



Cracking that code could bring medicine a step closer to scar-free <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blueberries-could-be-key-to-treating-non-healing-wounds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">healing</a> - and, one day, the chance to replace more than a fingertip.



For now, the smiling axolotl keeps teaching us that the blueprints for regeneration are already inside our own cells. The challenge is learning how to read them.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this could mean for medicine</h2>



While limb regrowth in humans may still sound like science fiction, scientists see realistic opportunities for smaller steps in the near future. 



Advances in regenerative cues and gene targeting could lead to new ways to treat severe injuries, reduce scarring after surgery, or even regrow damaged cartilage.



Rather than trying to grow an entire arm right away, researchers envision using the axolotl’s secrets to guide healing in stages - like rebuilding bone, restoring tissue layers, or regenerating nerves. 



Understanding how fibroblasts respond to positional signals may also open new paths for treating birth defects or degenerative diseases.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-59497-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



Image Credit: Alyssa Stone/Northeastern University



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Secrets of axolotl healing could teach us how to regrow limbs

Axolotls have charmed the world with their feathery gills and...

Antarctica is home to some of the clearest skies on Earth, and that brutal clarity makes it the perfect place to eavesdrop on the cosmos. Hovering high above the continent, a NASA balloon carries the Antarctic Impulsive Transient Antenna, or ANITA.



The ANITA experiment <a href="https://techport.nasa.gov/projects/94282" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">catches radio murmurs</a> born when ultra-energetic cosmic rays hit the atmosphere. 



Most of those pops behave exactly as physicists expect: the signals flip polarity after bouncing off the two-mile-thick ice sheet, a clean mirror image that tells researchers the particle came from above.



But ANITA has also logged a handful of pulses that refuse to flip. 



The implication is unsettling because the only way to produce such upward-going radio waves is for a particle to plow straight through the planet, survive more than 3,000 miles of rock, and burst out of the ice on the far side. No known particle should manage that trick.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-anita-finds-rule-breaking-pulses">ANITA finds rule-breaking pulses</h2>



Those anomalous pulses arrived at surprisingly steep angles, emerging from about 30° below the horizon instead of the gentle slopes seen in run-of-the-mill cosmic-ray echoes. 



The geometry alone flags them as outliers, yet the team verified that the pulses were real and not an instrumental hiccup.



“The radio waves that we detected were at really steep angles, like 30 degrees below the surface of the ice,” said <a href="https://science.psu.edu/physics/people/szw5718" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stephanie Wissel</a>, an associate professor of physics, astronomy and astrophysics who combs the ANITA data for unexpected patterns. 



“It’s an interesting problem because we still don't actually have an explanation for what those anomalies are, but what we do know is that they're most likely not representing neutrinos.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-helping-anita-filter-cosmic-chatter">Helping ANITA filter cosmic chatter</h2>



Separating genuine particle signatures from noise takes painstaking effort. Researchers replay thousands of hours of balloon data through computer models that mimic the detector’s response to lightning, satellite transmissions, and even the crackle of auroras. 



By comparing those simulations with real events, they can cull anything that lacks the hallmark shape of a particle-induced shower.



The ANITA collaboration also leans on cross-checks with ground networks such as <a href="https://icecube.wisc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IceCube</a> and the <a href="https://www.auger.org/observatory/auger-hybrid-detector" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pierre Auger Observatory</a>. If a pulse appears only in the balloon logs and nowhere else, it goes under the microscope. 



The handful of strange upward events survived every filter the scientists could devise, reinforcing the sense that something unfamiliar is in play.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ghostly-nature-of-neutrinos">Ghostly nature of neutrinos</h2>



The obvious culprits would be <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-breaking-ghost-particle-km3-230213a-neutrino-spotted-deep-in-the-mediterranean-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neutrinos</a>, the universe’s most elusive messengers. These chargeless wisps hardly ever collide with matter, making them perfect probes of distant cataclysms, yet fiendishly hard to spot.



“You have a billion neutrinos passing through your thumbnail at any moment, but neutrinos don't really interact,” she said. 



“So, this is the double-edged sword problem. If we detect them, it means they have traveled all this way without interacting with anything else. We could be detecting a neutrino coming from the edge of the observable universe.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-listening-from-25-miles-up">Listening from 25 miles up</h2>



“We use radio detectors to try to build really, really large neutrino telescopes so that we can go after a pretty low expected event rate,” Wissel explained. 



ANITA tackles that challenge by floating roughly 25 miles above the snow, a perch that expands each antenna’s footprint to hundreds of square miles without planting a single pole in the ice.



“We have these radio antennas on a balloon that flies 40 kilometers above the ice in Antarctica,” Wissel said. “We point our antennas down at the ice and look for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-source-of-cosmic-rays-found-after-a-century-long-search/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">neutrinos</a> that interact in the ice, producing radio emissions that we can then sense with our detectors.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



When the team traced the weird signals backward, the flight paths pointed through Earth’s interior, defying the standard model of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-category-of-particles-discovered-in-the-subatomic-realm-paraparticles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">particle physics</a>. 



Additional searches in data from the IceCube and Auger neutrino detectors turned up no counterpart events, trimming the roster of ordinary explanations.



“My guess is that some interesting radio propagation effect occurs near ice and also near the horizon that I don't fully understand, but we certainly explored several of those, and we haven't been able to find any of those yet either,” Wissel said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hoping-that-pueo-can-help">Hoping that PUEO can help</h2>



The next balloon in the series is the Payload for Ultrahigh Energy Observations, or <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/Vieregg_PUEO_MOE_June2021_TAGGED.pdf?emrc=8a9411" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PUEO</a>, set for its first Antarctic voyage in December 2025. 



It will carry more antennas and faster electronics, improving sensitivity by at least a factor of five over ANITA.



“So, right now, it's one of these long-standing mysteries, and I'm excited that when we fly PUEO, we'll have better sensitivity," Wissel concluded. 



"In principle, we should pick up more anomalies, and maybe we'll actually understand what they are. We also might detect neutrinos, which would in some ways be a lot more exciting.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-next">What happens next?</h2>



Elsewhere, instruments buried deep in ice, anchored to the seafloor, or orbiting aboard satellites are racking up their own successes. 



In February 2025 a detector beneath the Pacific seafloor logged the most energetic neutrino ever observed, underscoring how quickly the discipline is advancing.



Whether ANITA’s anomalies prove to be exotic particles or a quirk of radio propagation, upcoming missions promise fresh clues. Until then, we will all have to wait and wonder.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prl/abstract/10.1103/PhysRevLett.134.121003" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physical Review Letters</a>.



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Unknown radio waves coming from deep below the Antarctic ice "defy physics"

Antarctica is home to some of the clearest skies on...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



—–



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



-----



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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