Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

A new experimental study led by the <a href="https://quadram.ac.uk/">Quadram Institute</a> and the <a href="https://www.uea.ac.uk/">University of East Anglia</a> (UEA) has found that transplanting fecal microbiota from young into old mice can reverse hallmarks of aging in the gut, brain, and eyes. In a reverse experiment, microbes transplanted from older mice caused inflammation in the brain of younger recipients and depleted a key protein that is required for normal vision. These findings suggest that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-cravings-linked-to-microbial-activity-in-the-gut/">gut microbiota</a> plays a crucial role in regulating the process of aging, and open the possibility of gut microbe-based therapies to combat decline in old age.



“This ground-breaking study provides tantalizing evidence for the direct involvement of gut microbes in aging and the functional decline of brain function and vision and offers a potential solution in the form of gut microbe replacement therapy,” said study senior author Simon Carding, the head of the <a href="https://quadram.ac.uk/research_areas/gut-microbes-health/">Gut Microbes and Health Research Program</a> at the Quadram Institute, and a professor of Biology at UEA. &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



Scientists have long known that the population of microbes that we carry in our gut is strongly linked to health. Many diseases are associated with changes in the types and behaviors of gut microbes. Some of these changes in the composition of gut microbiota happen as we age, negatively impacting our metabolism and immune systems, and leading to age-related diseases, such as inflammatory bowel syndrome, or cardiovascular, autoimmune, metabolic, and neurodegenerative disorders.



To better understand these changes, Professor Carding and his team transferred gut microbes from aged mice into young ones, and vice-versa. They found that the microbes from old donors led to loss of integrity of the lining of the gut in young recipients, allowing bacterial products to cross into circulation - a phenomenon that triggers immune responses and inflammatory reactions in the brain and eyes. Moreover, brain cells that are known to be associated with age-related chronic inflammation were also over-activated in young mice that received aged microbiome transplants, while proteins linked to retinal degeneration were elevated.



However, in old mice receiving transplants from young, healthy ones, the age-related detrimental changes in the gut, brain, and eyes were reversed. In future studies, the researchers aim to clarify how long these positive effects last, and to identify the beneficial components of the young donor microbiota and the ways in which they can affect organs distant from the gut.



“We were excited to find that by changing the gut microbiota of elderly individuals, we could rescue indicators of age-associated decline commonly seen in degenerative conditions of the eye and brain,” said study lead author Dr. Aimee Parker, a researcher at the Quadram Institute.



“Our results provide more evidence of the important links between microbes in the gut and healthy aging of tissues and organs around the body. We hope that our findings will contribute ultimately to understanding how we can manipulate our diet and our gut bacteria to maximize good health in later life,” she concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s40168-022-01243-w">Microbiome</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Can fecal transplants reverse signs of aging?

A new experimental study led by the Quadram Institute and...

Over a third of adults in the United States and United Kingdom don’t get enough <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/getting-more-sleep-can-boost-weight-loss/">sleep</a> on a regular basis, due to reasons related to modern life such as stress, the blurring of work-life boundaries, or the excessive use of electronic devices. Previous studies have shown that sleep disorders can cause a variety of health problems, including cardiovascular disease, diabetes, high cholesterol, atherosclerosis, or obesity. Now, a research team led by the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/english/">University of Copenhagen</a> has also found that lack of good quality sleep undermines people’s attempts to keep weight off after dieting, and that approximately two hours of vigorous exercise per week could help maintain better sleep.



“It was surprising to see how losing weight in adults with obesity improved sleep duration and quality in such a short time, and how exercising while attempting to keep the weight off preserved improvements in sleep quality,” said study lead author Adrian Bogh, a Master student in Biomedical Sciences at the University of Copenhagen. “Also, it was intriguing that adults who aren’t sleeping enough or getting poor quality sleep after weight loss appear less successful at maintaining weight loss than those with sufficient sleep.”



In order to investigate the relation between sleep patterns and weight, the scientists enrolled 195 adults 18 to 65 years old with obesity who followed a low-calorie diet for two months, and lost an average of 12 percent of their body weight. Afterwards, the patients were followed for one year to assess how various factors – including a weight-loss drug, a placebo, and four sessions of exercise per week - influenced weight loss maintenance. Sleep duration was measured using data from accelerometers worn by the participants, while sleep quality was assessed through a qualitative self-rated questionnaire.



The scientists found that, after the two months low-calorie diet, both sleep duration and quality improved in all participants. However, after one year, participants in the exercise group managed to maintain the sleep improvements achieved from a low-calorie diet, while non-exercise groups relapsed. Moreover, individuals who slept less than six hours per night or had lower quality sleep at the start of the study gained more weight during the follow-up year than those who slept longer or better.



“The fact that sleep health was so strongly related to weight loss maintenance is important since many of us don’t get the recommended amount of sleep needed for optimal health and functioning,” said study co-author Signe Torekov, an expert in obesity and weight loss maintenance at the University of Copenhagen.&nbsp;



“Future research examining possible ways of improving sleep in adults with obesity will be an important next step to limit weight regain. Weight loss maintained with exercise seems promising in improving sleep,” she concluded.



The study will be presented at this year’s <a href="https://zoomforward22.org/">European Congress on Obesity</a> (ECO) in Maastricht, Netherlands (4-7 May, 2022).&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Poor sleep may hamper the ability to keep weight off

Over a third of adults in the United States and...

Freezing temperatures are highly challenging for life, which is water-based. Animals have three main strategies to survive extremely low winter temperatures: migrating, remaining where they are and resisting the cold, or reducing their body temperatures and metabolic rates in a state called torpor (which includes both dormancy and full-blown hibernation). The main role of these cold-survival strategies is dealing with energy deficits imposed by reduced solar energy and food availability in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/swallows-are-no-longer-migrating-south-as-winters-become-milder/">winter</a>.



Biologists have usually studied these cold-survival strategies in isolation, treating them as mutually exclusive alternatives. However, according to a new study conducted by Giorgia Auteri, a biologist at the <a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a>, many animals combine multiple strategies to beat the cold.&nbsp;



For instance, a large number of high-latitude bats and birds such as swallows, warblers, or hummingbirds use both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/assisted-migrations-could-help-species-survive-climate-change/">migration</a> and torpor. In some cases, strategies are split among members of the same species: some blue jays migrate south during winter, while others stay put, and individual eastern chipmunks often shift from torpor to cold resistance when food is abundant.&nbsp;



“Each cold-survival strategy exists not as a binary but on a spectrum,” explained Dr. Auteri. “Separate treatment of these strategies misses opportunities to identify broader patterns and mechanisms and eliminates the possibility of discoveries that require comparisons across strategies.”



The integrated conceptual framework for mapping cold-survival strategies that Dr. Auteri has developed could help resolve discrepancies in Bergmann’s rule, which argues that the trend of larger animal body size at higher latitudes facilitates cold resistance due to the lower surface area-to-volume ratio that is a trademark of large animals. However, many migratory birds and small mammals deviate from this rule.&nbsp;



“This proposed framework, which considers cold-survival strategies collectively, resolves the mystery of why some taxa ‘break’ the rule,” said Dr. Auteri. “Small mammals do not follow the rule well because they often use torpor instead of resistance. Migratory birds conform less strongly because, like small mammals, they use an alternative - migration.”



In order to conceptualize and quantify cold-survival strategies, Dr. Auteri proposes a framework with four main components. She argues 1) that seasonal migration, torpor, and cold-resistance should be considered collectively; 2) that species often use multiple strategies; 3) that each of these strategies exists on a spectrum which permits partial use; and 4) that species can exhibit proportional use, where the employment of one strategy leads to a significant decrease in the use of others.



According to Dr. Auteri, this new integrated conceptual framework could shed more light on phenomena such as animal responses to climate change, capacities of colonizing high latitudes, disease dynamics, niche partitioning, adaptive tradeoffs, or how changes in seasonal regimes impact ecological networks.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2022.0050">Biology Letters</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Animals combine different strategies to survive the cold

Freezing temperatures are highly challenging for life, which is water-based....

Some groups of marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-iridescent-colors-protect-animals-from-predators/">animals</a> have achieved enormous body sizes in the past and, although most of them are now extinct, scientists still puzzle over how their extreme body shapes and sizes allowed them to move efficiently in their aquatic environment. Among the largest, only cetaceans (whales) have survived into the modern era, while the ancient reptiles known as ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs have become extinct.



Dr. Susana Gutarra Díaz from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a> and her colleagues have conducted a recent study examining the body shapes of these large marine animals using models and computational fluid dynamics. Some of the animals show more streamlined body shapes, such as modern whales and the dolphin-like&nbsp;<a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/2302957-prehistoric-ichthyosaurs-evolved-rapidly-to-be-as-big-as-whales/">ichthyosaurs,</a>&nbsp;while the plesiosaurs had massive paired flippers.and necks that could measure as much as half the total body length.&nbsp;



“Until now, it was not very clear how this great diversity of shapes and sizes affected the energy demands of swimming in these marine animals,” said Dr. Gutarra Díaz. “To test our hypotheses, we created various 3D models and performed computer flow simulations of plesiosaurs, ichthyosaurs and cetaceans. These experiments are performed on the computer, but they are like water tank experiments.”



Tetrapods, or&nbsp;"four-limbed&nbsp;vertebrates," have repeatedly returned to the oceans over the last 250 million years, and their bodies have become adapted to the marine environment in different ways. For example, dolphins and ichthyosaurs have similar body shapes, adapted for reducing resistance or drag as they swim rapidly through the water. By contrast, plesiosaurs that lived side-by-side with the ichthyosaurs in the Mesozoic Era, propelled themselves underwater using giant flippers, and some had extremely long necks that hardly look helpful for swimming at all. These necks likely helped them to snap up quick-moving fish, but were also believed to make them slower.



The results of the analysis, published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/commsbio/">Communications Biology</a>, showed that body size had a major influence on possible shapes for marine reptiles.&nbsp;In fact, body size was more important than body shape in determining the energy economy of swimming for aquatic animals.&nbsp;



While the large limbs and long necks of many plesiosaurs created a significant amount of drag, bigger bodies and larger torsos lowered the energetic cost of moving through water. This is because drag is created by the friction between water and an animal’s skin, and as bodies get larger, the ratio of surface area to mass is actually reduced.



“Large animals have a greater drag in absolute terms,” said Dr. Gutarra Díaz. “But the power they need to invest to move a unit of body mass is smaller.”



“We showed that although plesiosaurs did experience more drag than ichthyosaurs or whales of equal mass because of their unique body shape, these differences were relatively minor," explained Dr Colin Palmer, an engineer involved in the project. "We found that, when size is taken into account, the differences between groups became much less than the shape differences. We also show that the ratio of body length to diameter, which is widely used to classify these aquatic animals as more or less efficient, is not a good indicator of low drag.”



In this study, the researchers were particularly interested in one family of plesiosaurs known as the elasmosaurs. These were plesiosaurs with the longest necks of all, measuring up to 20 feet (6 metres) in some species, and having over 70 cervical (neck) vertebrae. In these species, the neck was almost half of the total body length and would have been too long and too heavy to hold above the surface of the water.&nbsp;



“We were also particularly interested in the necks of elasmosaurs and so we created hypothetical 3D models of plesiosaurs with various lengths of necks," said Dr. Gutarra Díaz. "Simulations of these models reveal that, past a certain point, the neck adds extra drag, which potentially would make swimming costly. This ‘optimal’ neck limit lies around twice the length of the trunk of the animal.”



“When we examined a large sample of plesiosaurs modelled on really well-preserved fossils at their real sizes, it turns out that most plesiosaurs had necks below this high-drag threshold, within which the neck can get longer or shorter without increasing drag," said Dr. Benjamin Moon. "But more interestingly, we showed that plesiosaurs with extremely long necks also had evolved very large torsos, and this compensated for the extra drag!”



According to <a href="about:blank">Dr. Tom Stubbs</a>, the study shows that in contrast with prevailing popular knowledge, very long-necked plesiosaurs were not necessarily slower swimmers than ichthyosaurs and whales, and this is in part thanks to their large bodies. "We found that in elasmosaurs, neck proportions changed really fast. This confirms that long necks were advantageous for elasmosaurs in hunting, but they could not exploit this adaptation until they became large enough to offset the cost of high drag on their bodies.”



“Our research suggests that large aquatic animals can afford to have crazy shapes, as in the elasmosaurs," said Professor Mike Benton. "But there are limits: body sizes cannot get indefinitely large, as there are some constraints to very large sizes as well. The maximum neck lengths we observe, seem to balance benefits in hunting versus the costs of growing and maintaining such a long neck. In other words, the necks of these extraordinary creatures evolved in balance with the overall body size to keep friction to a minimum.”



&nbsp;---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Plesiosaurs with long necks needed large bodies to minimize friction

Some groups of marine animals have achieved enormous body sizes...

Cognitive impairment as a result of severe <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-based-diets-reduce-the-risk-of-severe-covid-19/">COVID-19</a> is similar to 20 years of aging and is the equivalent to losing ten IQ points, says new research from the <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a> and Imperial College London.



The results suggest that cognitive impairment is still detectable more than six months after the acute illness and recovery is gradual at best.



There is growing evidence that COVID-19 can cause lasting cognitive and mental health problems. Recovered patients have reported fatigue, "brain fog," problems recalling words, sleep disturbances, anxiety and even post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) months after infection. In the UK, a study found that one in seven individuals reported cognitive difficulties 12 weeks after COVID-19.



To understand this link, the data of 46 individuals who received hospital or intensive care (mechanical ventilation) for COVID-19 from March to July 2020 was analyzed. These patients were at Addenbrooke’s Hospital, part of Cambridge University Hospital's NHS Foundation.



Cognitive tests were used six months after the patient's illness using the Cognitron platform, which measures mental faculties such as memory, attention and reasoning. Scales measuring anxiety, depression and post-traumatic stress disorder were also assessed.&nbsp;



COVID-19 survivors were less accurate and had a slower response time than the control population. These symptoms were still detectable six months later. The effects were strongest for those who required ventilation.&nbsp;



By comparing the patients to 66,008 members of the general public, the researchers estimate that the magnitude of cognitive loss is similar on average to that sustained with 20 years aging, between 50 and 70 years of age, and that this is equivalent to losing ten IQ points.



Survivors scored poorly on tasks such as verbal reasoning, supporting the commonly-reported problem of difficulty finding words. They also showed slower processing speeds, which aligns with post COVID-19 decreased brain glucose consumption within the frontoparietal network of the brain, responsible for attention, complex problem-solving and working memory.



“Cognitive impairment is common to a wide range of neurological disorders, including dementia, and even routine aging, but the patterns we saw – the cognitive 'fingerprint' of COVID-19 – was distinct from all of these," explained study senior author Professor David Menon.



It has been well documented that people who have recovered from severe COVID-19 can have symptoms of poor mental health – depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress, low motivation, fatigue, low mood, and disturbed sleep. However, the research team found that acute illness severity was better at predicting these cognitive deficits.



Over time, the patients’ scores and reaction times began to improve, however, recovery in cognitive faculties was at best gradual and likely to be influenced by a number of factors including illness severity and its neurological or psychological impacts. It is also considered likely that some individuals will never fully recover.



There are several factors that could cause the cognitive deficits, including inadequate oxygen or blood supply to the brain, blockage of large or small blood vessels due to clotting, and microscopic bleeds. Emerging evidence suggests that damage may be caused by the body’s own inflammatory response and immune system.



While this study looked at hospitalized cases, the team say that even those patients not sick enough to be admitted may also have tell-tale signs of mild impairment. This emphasizes the importance of exploring methods that could help patients recover.&nbsp;



This is the first time that such rigorous assessment and comparison has been carried out in relation to the after effects of severe COVID-19.



“Around 40,000 people have been through intensive care with COVID-19 in England alone and many more will have been very sick, but not admitted to hospital. This means there is a large number of people out there still experiencing problems with cognition many months later. We urgently need to look at what can be done to help these people," said study first author Professor Adam Hampshire.



The research was funded by the NIHR BioResource, NIHR Cambridge Biomedical Research Centre and the Addenbrooke’s Charitable Trust.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Cognitive loss from severe Covid equates to 20 years of aging

Cognitive impairment as a result of severe COVID-19 is similar...

In a surprising new study led by <a href="https://www.georgetown.edu/">Georgetown University</a>, scientists have contradicted the theory that city rats and other urban animals host a greater number of communicable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/avocados-substantially-reduce-the-risk-of-heart-disease/">diseases</a>. The research suggests that urban wildlife has less potential to spark the next pandemic than expected.&nbsp;



More than two years after the COVID-19 pandemic first emerged, scientists are urgently investigating the risks of future pandemics. It has long been assumed that city rats and urban animals are likely to harbor more infectious diseases.



The researchers set out to analyze the pathogens hosted by nearly 3,000 mammal species. They found that urban animals could host roughly ten times as many types of diseases. On the other hand, the experts noted that urban species had been the focus of about 100 more scientific studies.



“There are plenty of reasons to expect urban animals to host more diseases, ranging from their food to their immune systems to their close proximity to humans,” said study lead author Dr. Greg Albery. “We found that urban species do indeed host more diseases than non-urban species, but the reasons for this appear to be largely associated with the way we study the ecology of disease. We’ve looked more at animals in our cities, so we’ve found more of their parasites - and we’ve started to hit diminishing returns.”



Once the sampling bias was accounted for, the researchers were surprised to find that urban animals do not host more viruses than animals in rural areas.



“Stunningly, although urban-adapted species have 10 times as many parasites, more than 100 times as many studies have been published on them," said Dr. Albery. "When you correct for this bias, they don’t have more human pathogens than expected – meaning that our perception of their novel disease risk has been overinflated by our sampling process."



The results suggest that city rats and other urban animals are not the disease reservoirs that they were expected to be. However, that doesn’t mean cities are disease-free, said Dr. Albery.



“This probably means that urban animals aren’t hiding as many important novel pathogens as we might think – those pathogens that might cause the next ‘Disease X.' But they are still incredibly important carriers of many pathogens that we do know about. Rats, raccoons, and rabbits are still good at coexisting alongside us, and they still spread a lot of diseases to humans living in urban areas.”



Study co-author Dr. Colin Carlson said that the study highlights the value of scientific data. “If we take the time to build better datasets, and look more closely at the patterns in them, we might keep overturning long-standing assumptions about who’s at risk from emerging diseases and why."



According to v the researchers, further research is needed to explore how many pathogens any given animal has, as well as how city living may influence the transmission of those diseases.&nbsp;



“What this really accentuates is that we need to design more evenly distributed, more equitable sampling regimes if we want to find novel pathogens of humans; sampling needs to be more focussed in wild areas of the world, but also in urban areas in less well-studied places,” said Dr. Albery. “Not only will this help us to find the new ones, but will improve surveillance of the old ones, and will ultimately help to address ages-old geographic biases in ecology.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natecolevol/">Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

City rats do not harbor more diseases than their country cousins

In a surprising new study led by Georgetown University, scientists...

Some animals, such as rosemary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spiny-genitalia-of-seed-beetles-linked-to-reproductive-success/">beetles</a> and starlings, possess brilliant iridescent colors that constantly change in the light. In a new study from the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/">University of Bristol</a>, researchers have found that this iridescence serves as a form of deceptive warning coloration. The experts report that it is the key feature of iridescence -&nbsp; changing colors - that supports its ability to protect animals even after they have been detected by predators.&nbsp;



The hue and intensity of metallic iridescent colors vary depending on the angle of the view and the direction of the light. Researchers in Bristol University’s CamoLab set out to investigate why iridescence has evolved so many times in the animal kingdom.&nbsp;



The research team had previously demonstrated that iridescence is a highly effective type of camouflage. Now, the experts wanted to know whether iridescent colors may help provide any protection from predators post-detection.



“One of the challenges when studying the functions of such highly reflective structural coloration has been to separate the effects of the changeability of colors, the hallmark of iridescence, from the effects of simply having multiple colors at the same time, and also to separate the effects of gloss from the effects of iridescence," explained study lead author Dr. Karin Kjernsmo.



To investigate, the researchers presented wing cases of real and artificial jewel beetles to birds that had no previous experience with this particular prey. The wing cases used for the experiment were iridescent, non-iridescent, glossy and matte. The experts then observed the birds’ willingness to attack the prey.



"Here, we tested the effects of both iridescence and surface gloss (i.e. specular reflection) on the attack behavior of prey-naïve avian predators. Using real and artificial jewel beetle, Sternocera aequisignata, wing cases, we found that iridescence provides initial protection against avian predation by significantly reducing the willingness to attack," explained the researchers.



"Importantly, we found that the main factor explaining this aversion is iridescence, not multiple colors per se, with surface gloss also having an independent effect. Our results are important because they demonstrate that even when prey are presented up close and against a mismatching background, iridescence may confer a survival benefit by inducing hesitation or even, as sometimes observed, an aversion response in attacking birds."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/animal-behaviour">Animal Behaviour</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How iridescent colors protect animals from predators

Some animals, such as rosemary beetles and starlings, possess brilliant...

In a study led by <a href="https://www.gwu.edu/">George Washington University</a>, experts have discovered a new species of salamander from the Gulf Coastal Plain of southeastern Mississippi and southwestern Alabama. According to the researchers, the region has been studied intensively for hundreds of years, but nonetheless still contains abundant undescribed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/environmental-dna-reveals-the-diversity-of-coral-reef-fish/">diversity</a>.



“This discovery shows us how much more there is to learn even in our own backyards,” said Professor R. Alexander Pyron. “The famed naturalist E.O. Wilson called this region ‘America’s Amazon,’ where ivory-billed woodpeckers and red wolves once lived. We are losing biodiversity at a dramatic rate, while still discovering how much was originally there. Salamanders are among the most imperiled animals globally, and we’ve yet to understand their true biodiversity.”



The experts report that the new species of salamander, Desmognathus pascagoula, is similar to another species that was recently discovered, Desmognathus valentinei. The team identified morphological, genetic and geographic aspects of D. pascagoula that differ from D. valentinei.



When the researchers sequenced the genomes of the two species, they pinpointed 881 genetic variations. They also found subtle differences in the body structure of D. pascagoula and D. valentinei. For example, D. pascagoula has a longer body that is more slender and a narrower head and nostrils.



“Many of these dusky salamanders are cryptic, meaning they can’t easily be told apart with the naked eye, which is one reason they went undiscovered for so long,” said Professor Pyron. “Only with genome sequencing can we see how different they really are. Then, precise measurements of preserved specimens reveal tiny differences in things like the width of the head, which are otherwise imperceptible.”



According to the researchers, further research is needed to provide insight both into the biology of D. pascagoula, as well as its former and current geographical extent.&nbsp;



"This discovery increases knowledge of the biodiversity in the southeastern United States Coastal Plain, a candidate region meeting the global criteria for a 'biodiversity hotspot,' and underscores the amount of cryptic diversity likely remaining to be discovered and described in Nearctic salamanders," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.mapress.com/zootaxa/">Zootaxa</a>.



Image Credit: Dave Beamer



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New salamander sheds light on a biodiversity hotspot

In a study led by George Washington University, experts have...

According to the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/">Environmental Protection Agency</a> (EPA), agriculture contributes 9.6 percent to U.S. greenhouse gas emissions, and approximately 36 percent of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/methane-emissions-are-higher-than-previously-estimated/">methane</a> emissions, which are produced in large part by livestock. Scientists have long known that methane emissions from cattle are a significant contributor to climate change. As cows digest their foods through a process known as “enteric fermentation,” they release methane (a powerful greenhouse gas able to trap massive amounts of heat in the atmosphere), mostly through their burps.&nbsp;



Now, the environmental data firm<a href="https://www.ghgsat.com/"> GHGSat</a> has managed for the first time to measure - by using three powerful, high-resolution satellites orbiting 300 miles above the Earth - methane emissions from cow burps on a cattle feedlot in California’s Joaquin Valley. California is home to 1.4 million cows, representing the largest source of cattle-related methane emissions in the country.



Since agricultural methane emissions are generally hard to measure, and accurate measurements are necessary to set enforceable reduction targets for the beef-production industry, this groundbreaking use of satellite data is a significant step forward in controlling these harmful emissions.&nbsp;



According to Brody Wight, the sales director at GHGSat, this is first time that scientists were able to use satellite imagery to provide an accurate idea of the amount of methane emissions from cattle farming. 



“This is really pushing the envelope of our capabilities,” said Wight. “What's unique about us is we can really kind of get to the source” of such emissions, by zooming in on specific feedlots. Each satellite flew above a specific area for about 20 seconds, taking quick “snapshot” of emissions.



The measurements revealed that the amount of methane the satellites have detected from a single feedlot would result in 5,116 tons of methane emissions, if sustained for a year. If that methane were captured, it could power more than 15,000 houses. In the future, regular monitoring with such satellites could offer reliable estimates of how emissions change over time, allowing farmers to test the impact of different diets on cows’ methane emissions.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Satellites detect methane emission from cow burps

According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), agriculture contributes 9.6...

PFAS (per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances) are a class of over 9,000 <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chemicals-from-42000-sources-are-polluting-drinking-water-in-the-u-s/">chemicals</a> that are often added to a large variety of consumer products to make them stain-resistant, non-sticking, or waterproof. In addition to items including carpets, upholstery, or apparel, PFAS are also widely used in a variety of everyday products such as food packaging, non-stick cookware, cosmetics, or even dental floss. Now, a research team led by the <a href="https://silentspring.org/">Silent Spring Institute</a> has found that many children’s products – including those labeled “green” or “nontoxic” – also contain these harmful chemicals, exposing children to a wide range of health-related risks.&nbsp;



Many studies have linked PFAS with the risk of developing various diseases, including cancers, thyroid disorders, high cholesterol, or asthma. Moreover, there is also evidence that PFAS can suppress the immune system, thus weakening the body’s ability to ward off infections, as well as the effectiveness of vaccines, particularly in children.



“Children’s bodies are still developing and are especially sensitive to chemical exposures,” explained study co-author Dr. Laurel Schaider, a senior scientist at the Silent Spring Institute. “It makes sense that parents would want to steer clear of products that contain ingredients that could impact their children’s health now and in the future.”



Dr. Schaider and her colleagues have tested 93 different products frequently used by children and adolescents, including clothing, bedding, or furnishing. The scientists chose products that were labeled as stain- or water-resistant, as well as “green” or “nontoxic.”&nbsp;



By using a rapid screening method to test these products for fluorine – a major marker of PFAS – they found that 54 of the products contained detectable levels of this toxic chemical, with the highest concentration discovered in a school uniform shirt.



The scientists then tested a subset of products for 36 different PFAS chemicals and discovered that all products labeled stain- or water-resistant contained significant concentrations of these chemicals, regardless of whether they were also marketed as “green” or “nontoxic.” PFAS were detected most frequently in upholstered furniture, clothing, and pillow protectors.



“These are products that children come into close contact with every day and over a long period of time. Given the toxicity of PFAS and the fact that the chemicals don’t serve a critical function, they should not be allowed in products,” said study co-author Kathryn Rodgers, a doctoral student at the <a href="https://www.bu.edu/sph/">Boston University School of Public Health</a>.



These findings highlight the need for green certifiers (third party organizations assessing whether products contain harmful substances) to include PFAS in their criteria and to conduct more thorough reviews of the products they certify.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.1c05175">Environmental Science &amp; Technology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Many children’s products contain harmful chemicals

PFAS (per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances) are a class of over...

Wealth inequality is typically considered for human populations. Now, a new study suggests that wealth inequality in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-needed-for-seed-dispersal-are-the-first-victims-of-deforestation/">animals</a> can shed light on social evolution.



Adapting the study of wealth inequality in humans, the researchers show how wealth - material goods, individual attributes, or social connections - occurs broadly across animal species and can be distributed equally or unequally. This framework explores the idea that the unequal distribution of wealth has important consequences for all animal societies.



Inequality is one of the greatest challenges of a modern society that presents consequences to all. Scholars study inequality to understand where it comes from and how policies could help produce more equitable societies.



Eli Strauss from the <a href="https://www.ab.mpg.de/">Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior</a> in Germany (MPI-AB) and Daizaburo Shizuka, from University of Nebraska-Lincoln are both behavioral ecologists who study social evolution in non-human societies.&nbsp;



“Reading these fascinating sociology and economics papers, it struck me that this work shares a common goal with my work in animal behavior, which is that we both want to understand how inequality arises and affects outcomes for individuals and groups,” said Strauss.



Researchers have previously explored differences among animals in their physical traits, territory, resources and the social power they wield. However, these dimensions were not previously grouped under the umbrella of inequality. For the first time, the study gathered research from different academic fields to bridge the divide between inequality research in human and animal societies.&nbsp;



In humans, “inequality” exists when something of value is distributed unequally among individuals. Usually, that value is defined as their wealth.&nbsp;



To understand the value of wealth among animals, the scientists turned to research that explores inequality in hunter-gatherer societies. “These societies show varying degrees of wealth inequality, but wealth isn’t limited to bills and coins,” said Strauss.&nbsp;



Instead, anthropologists view wealth as individual characteristics like knowledge or hunting ability, and social connections. For instance, a woman could be wealthy by owning many cows, being skillful at growing crops, or having influence in her society.&nbsp;&nbsp;



The human dimensions of wealth also operate in animals, through territory ownership and access to food. In dolphins and crows, for example, tool use techniques are valuable pieces of information that open up new foraging opportunities.



Social relationships are also a critical source of wealth in many species, who form alliances to help rise through societal ranks. Interestingly, wealth in animals can also be transferred to offspring.&nbsp;



Animal wealth can be spread evenly among individuals or can be concentrated in the hands of just a wealthy few. Inequality research can help to further understand how animal societies work.&nbsp;



“The structure of a society has a lot of different influences on all individuals that live within it. In many cases, the differences between individuals arise from the various ways in which unequal societies affect them," said Shizuka.



"In turn, individuals try to exert control over or navigate these unequal systems in different ways. The biology of animal societies includes these types of dynamics, and we can’t understand the evolution of social animals without recognizing this feedback between the individual and the society."



Strauss and Shizuka are hopeful that their findings will guide future research on wealth inequality across species, as this could lead to a better understanding of social evolution.



“We can look to other species to understand the general evolutionary processes that produce all animals, ourselves included, but the question of what makes an ethical human society is fundamentally a moral question where the social lives of animals can’t guide us," said Strauss. "This is something we need to figure out on our own.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/951509">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:katherinebucko@gmail.com">Katherine Bucko</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Inequality among animals can shed light on social evolution

Wealth inequality is typically considered for human populations. Now, a...

Alaska during the Cretaceous Period was a different place from the state that exists today. Alaska was warmer and wetter, and supported an array of different plant species, as well as an abundance of large, herbivorous dinosaurs. During the late Cretaceous, large-bodied (&gt;1000 kg) herbivorous dinosaurs in the Arctic were predominantly from the groups known as hadrosaurids (duck-billed dinosaurs) and ceratopsids (horned dinosaurs), and their fossilized remains have been found at numerous sites in the region.



In order to understand more about the relationship between the biota and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/assisted-migrations-could-help-species-survive-climate-change/">climate</a> in the ancient Arctic between 100 and 66 million years ago, scientists from the USA and Japan have investigated the distribution of these megaherbivores in Alaska. The authors feel that this study might help them predict what the Arctic region might look like in the years ahead, if the climate continues to become warmer and wetter.&nbsp;



Study co-author Paul McCarthy, a professor in the <a href="https://www.uaf.edu/">UAF</a> Department of Geosciences, is a sedimentologist and a fossil soils specialist who has been studying the region’s ancient past for many years.&nbsp;



“The reason we've been looking at Cretaceous environments up here is because Earth was in a greenhouse state at that point in time, and it offers the potential to provide analogs to what we might see, eventually, if global warming continues,” said Professor McCarthy.



“We can't simulate the rates of change, which are likely to have been totally different in the Cretaceous. But we can simulate what an ice-free coast would look like and also see how rivers and floodplains would respond to spring snowmelt from the mountains if everything's not frozen. And we can look at the distribution of plants and animals.”



Professor McCarthy led the analysis of the depositional environments and ancient soils of three rock formations: the fossil-rich Prince Creek Formation along the Colville River in northern Alaska, the Lower Cantwell Formation in the Central Alaska Range and the Chignik Formation on the Alaskan Peninsula.



The three formations are close enough to one another on the geologic time scale to allow for a climate comparison, according to the research paper. They all contain Late Cretaceous rocks that were deposited approximately 83 million to 66 million years ago.



In particular, the researchers estimated mean annual temperature (MAT) and mean annual precipitation (MAP) for each site using characteristics found in the fossilized soils. These geochemical and pollen proxies enabled them to get a better picture of climatic conditions that prevailed during this time period. Fossilized plants and animals and ancient footprints get most of the public attention, but fossil soil has equally important information to offer through its preserved features, mineral composition and chemical makeup.



“We can look at microscopic features preserved in the fossil soil samples and relate that to modern soil types to get an idea of where they formed,” said Professor McCarthy. “Are we looking at deserts? Are we looking at tropical rainforest or temperate forest? Or grasslands?”&nbsp;



“Fossil soil also preserves pollen grains that can tell us something about the composition of the local vegetation. And it contains clay minerals, organic matter and the iron-carbonate mineral siderite, all of which can be used to determine precipitation and temperature using stable isotopic methods.”



The researchers estimated the relative abundances of dinosaurs at each site using the occurrences of fossilized tracks, as well as the frequency with which each type of dinosaur dominated in the fossil skeletal deposits.&nbsp;



The findings of the study, published recently in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/geosciences">Geosciences</a>, showed that dinosaur distribution in Alaska was correlated more strongly with the amount of annual precipitation than with the mean annual temperatures. Hadrosaurids, the family of duck-billed dinosaurs, became more dominant where climates were wetter and had a narrower annual temperature range. In contrast, ceratopsids, such as the well-known Triceratops, preferred a milder and drier climate.



At the three Alaskan sites studied, the ceratopsids, with their beaks and horns, were never dominant over the hadrosaurids in terms of population numbers.



The finding that precipitation has a greater influence on dinosaur distribution than temperature supported prior research from the Prince Creek Formation. That research, led by Celina A. Suarez of the University of Arkansas, suggested that ceratopsids preferred the drier, better-drained regions of the Late Cretaceous Arctic while the hadrosaurids preferred the wetter regions. Professor McCarthy was also involved in the study, which was focused on dinosaur teeth.&nbsp;



Previous research has also found that variations in population sizes of large herbivores are related more to variations in precipitation than to variations in temperature. Precipitation has its effect on vegetation and the productivity of ecosystems, and these large-bodied megaherbivores would have depended on sufficient supplies of fresh food.&nbsp;



The authors conclude that the&nbsp;formations studied “provide ample evidence for a flourishing high-latitude ecosystem during the Late Cretaceous greenhouse, an ecosystem where the local paleoclimate was a primary driver in structuring the relative abundances of large-bodied herbivores in local environments. The analysis suggests that MAP played a more direct role in determining the distribution of dinosaurs than did MAT, although seasonal temperature ranges between summer and winter may have also played a secondary role.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

In Alaska, dinosaurs lived where rainfall was optimal

Alaska during the Cretaceous Period was a different place from...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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