Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Good,Morning,,New,Day,,Weekend,,Holiday.,Happy,Middle,Aged,Woman

Night after night, our bodies cycle through light and heavy slumber. Most of us judge a good night’s rest by how spry we feel over morning coffee, but there is a deeper story. During the night, when muscles go limp and dreams fade, the brain slips into slow-wave sleep - the quietest, most restorative phase.



Researchers now point to a slow erosion of that phase as a silent warning sign for dementia. The issue is not the total number of hours you sleep each night, it's about how deeply we sleep year after year. 



Losing too much of that deep stretch appears to open the door to memory problems later in life. Even small nightly losses, study authors argue, can snowball over time and quietly shape cognitive destiny.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-slow-wave-sleep">Understanding slow-wave sleep</h2>



Often called <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sleep-clears-toxic-waste-from-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deep sleep</a>, slow-wave sleep is the most restorative phase of the sleep cycle. During this stage, the brain produces slow, high-amplitude delta waves, and the body enters its most relaxed state - heart rate slows, blood pressure drops, and muscles become nearly immobile.



During these spells, cerebrospinal fluid washes through brain tissue, sweeping away proteins such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleeping-may-lower-levels-of-alzheimers-abnormal-proteins/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amyloid and tau</a> that gather while we are awake.



Both are major suspects in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stopping-alzheimers-before-it-starts-early-treatment-shows-potential/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer’s disease</a>, which already affects about one in nine Americans older than 65.



When deep sleep shrinks, that nightly rinse falters. Laboratory work confirms that even a single restless night nudges amyloid levels upward. 



Over decades, a chronic shortfall can allow debris to pile up, fraying the circuits that handle recall, planning, and mood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-sleep-over-decades">Tracking sleep over decades</h2>



An analysis drawn from the <a href="https://www.framinghamheartstudy.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Framingham Heart Study</a> followed 346 adults older than 60 who completed two overnight sleep studies five years apart. 



Over the next 17 years, 52 of them developed dementia, and a clear pattern emerged: each 1 percent annual drop in slow-wave sleep was linked to a 27 percent increase in risk.



“Slow-wave sleep, or deep sleep, supports the ageing brain in many ways, and we know that sleep augments the clearance of metabolic waste from the brain, including facilitating the clearance of proteins that aggregate in Alzheimer’s disease,” explained Associate Professor Matthew Pase of <a href="https://www.monash.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monash University</a>.



“However, to date we have been unsure of the role of slow-wave sleep in the development of dementia. Our findings suggest that slow-wave sleep loss may be a modifiable dementia risk factor.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-sleep-and-risk">Genes, sleep, and risk</h2>



The same project highlighted a genetic wildcard: <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC5839141/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">APOE ε4</a>. Carriers of this variant lost deep sleep faster than their peers. Even without that gene, though, a steep decline in slow-wave minutes still spelled trouble.



Brain-volume measurements did not explain the trend, hinting that sleep itself is the driver. By tracking nightly brain waves, clinicians may gain an early heads-up long before symptoms appear.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-slow-wave-sleep">Studying slow-wave sleep</h2>



A <a href="https://bmcmedicine.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12916-023-02811-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">separate study</a> at the <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a>, shows how deep sleep might soften the blow even when pathology is already in place. 



Sixty-two older volunteers spent a night undergoing electroencephalography and then tried to match names to faces. 



Those with heavy beta-amyloid deposits but plentiful slow-wave sleep performed as well as participants with cleaner brains.



“With a certain level of brain pathology, you’re not destined for cognitive symptoms or memory issues,” said <a href="https://www.abg.psychol.cam.ac.uk/staff/dr-zsofia-zavecz" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zsófia Zavecz</a>, a postdoctoral researcher at UC Berkeley’s <a href="https://www.humansleepscience.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Human Sleep Science</a>. 



“People should be aware that, despite having a certain level of pathology, there are certain lifestyle factors that will help moderate and decrease the effects. One of those factors is sleep and, specifically, deep sleep.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-keeping-memory-afloat">Keeping memory afloat</h2>



Neuroscientist <a href="https://psychology.berkeley.edu/people/matthew-p-walker" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Matthew Walker</a>, senior author of the UC Berkeley study, posed a compelling question: If sleep is truly essential for memory, could it be a missing piece in the puzzle explaining why two people with the same level of amyloid pathology experience such different memory outcomes?



He noted that if this theory proves true, it would be exciting - because sleep is something we can actually change. It’s a modifiable factor.



Walker went on to compare deep sleep to a life raft: it keeps memory afloat rather than letting it sink under the weight of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-disruptions-could-signal-the-onset-of-alzheimers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer’s disease</a>. 



He suggested that non-REM, slow-wave sleep may be a crucial piece in understanding cognitive reserve. Even better, it’s something we can improve, even later in life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-getting-more-slow-wave-sleep">Getting more slow-wave sleep</h2>



Laboratory gadgets cannot guarantee longer slow-wave stretches, yet everyday choices matter. 



Regular bedtimes anchor the body clock; a cool, dark bedroom keeps overheating at bay; and avoiding caffeine after lunch reduces late-night jitters. A warm shower before lights-out also nudges the brain toward <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-sleep-how-slow-waves-boost-memory-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deeper stages</a>. 



“One of the advantages of this result is the application to a huge population right above the age of 65,” Zavecz said. 



“By sleeping better and doing your best to practice good sleep hygiene, which is easy to research online, you can gain the benefit of this compensatory function against this type of Alzheimer’s pathology.”



Wearable sensors are not perfect, but they now offer a glimpse into nightly slow-wave trends at home.



By understanding and supporting this critical stage of sleep through consistent habits and healthy routines, we gain a powerful, accessible tool for maintaining cognitive resilience well into older adulthood.



Spotting a downward drift early gives older adults a chance to course-correct with simple habits - an investment that could pay off in sharper memories for years to come.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamaneurology/fullarticle/2810957" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JAMA Neurology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Scientists point to one particular sleep stage as being most important for preventing dementia

Night after night, our bodies cycle through light and heavy...

Galaxy clusters pack thousands of galaxies into a volume only a few million light-years wide. They also fill the space between them with a thin plasma hotter than the Sun’s surface.



When a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/spiral-galaxy-j23453268-0449256-black-hole-fury-defies-current-knowledge-base/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">spiral galaxy</a> plunges through this intracluster medium, the hot plasma acts like a supersonic headwind, pushing on the galaxy’s cooler gas. NGC 4858 is currently enduring some of the strongest ram-pressure stripping ever observed.



“This galaxy, NGC 4858, is traveling very quickly through the Coma Cluster,” said Harrison Souchereau, an astronomer at <a href="https://www.yale.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale University</a> and lead author of a new study exploring this galaxy.



“It is effectively in a wind tunnel, and its gas is in the process of being stripped away by the wind,” he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-survey-of-jellyfish-galaxies">A survey of jellyfish galaxies </h2>



NGC 4858 is classified as a "jellyfish galaxy." This type of galaxy has long, trailing streams of gas and young stars extending from one side - making it resemble a jellyfish with flowing tentacles.



Earlier optical pictures showed distinct blue tentacles of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-captures-a-young-stars-jet-colliding-with-space-dust/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">young stars</a> trailing behind NGC 4858. These features confirmed that ram-pressure winds removed the galaxy’s interstellar gas and compressed it into new star-forming knots.



But optical light cannot reveal the cold molecular clouds that provide the raw material for future stars.



To map that component, Souchereau and Yale professor Jeffrey Kenney used <a href="https://www.almaobservatory.org/en/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ALMA Observatory</a>’s high resolution and sensitivity at radio wavelengths. 



Their observations - part of a broader survey of jellyfish galaxies - resolved structures just a few hundred light-years across. These were small enough to compare directly with computer simulations of ram-pressure stripping.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bunny-ears-and-inner-tails"><a></a>Bunny ears and inner tails</h2>



The ALMA images show that the galaxy’s leading edge, which faces into the wind, appears sharply compressed. On the trailing side, a short, hook-shaped plume of CO-bright gas curves back toward the disk.



Above the disk plane, two arched spiral arms stretch outward and backward, giving the galaxy a cartoonish set of “bunny ears.”



“This is likely due to a combination of the environmental wind pushing on the gas and the rotation of the galaxy,” Souchereau explained.



Models show headwinds drag unevenly on spinning galaxies, bending arms and piling gas onto one side of the disk. Stars can still form where the gas density peaks, even as other parts of the disk go without.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-galactic-fountain-effect"><a></a>The galactic fountain effect</h2>



The study highlights one of its most striking findings: clear evidence for “fallback,” a long-theorized but rarely documented process.



When ram pressure pushes gas out of the disk, the material does not always escape into intergalactic space. If it fails to reach the cluster’s escape velocity, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unraveling-gravity-quantum-nature-entanglement-mechanics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gravity</a> eventually reverses its course.



“Most people think of ram pressure stripping as removing the gas from galaxies, which is the main effect and a big deal, since gas is the raw material for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fluffy-molecular-clouds-may-change-our-understanding-of-star-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a>,” Kenney said.



“But sometimes gas can get pushed out but not stripped, since it never reaches the escape speed. So it falls back, creating a kind of galactic fountain. When this happens, the gas falling back often concentrates in distorted spiral arms on one side of the inner tail.”



In NGC 4858, the returning gas streams converge inside the bunny-ear arms and along the inner tail, triggering bursts of star formation in regions that would otherwise be quiescent.



The galaxy shows both destruction and renewal, as some forces gut certain regions while others briefly revive with recycled gas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-recycling-may-change-a-galaxy-s-fate">Recycling may change a galaxy’s fate</h2>



Astronomers consider ram-pressure stripping one of the fastest ways to convert blue, star-forming spirals into red, gas-poor ellipticals inside clusters.



The new ALMA data indicate that the transformation can be messier and more gradual than simple one-way stripping models predict.



Gas recycling may prolong a galaxy’s star-forming life, albeit in distorted patches rather than orderly spiral arms. The uneven fallback suggests that angular momentum and magnetic fields steer stripped gas - key factors for next-generation simulations to model.



Upcoming optical and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thousands-of-galaxies-revealed-in-a-single-webb-image/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Webb telescope</a> observations will analyze the chemical makeup of gas flowing into and out of the galaxy. These studies will test whether recycled material can eventually build a fresh, stable disk or simply fuel brief starbursts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-galaxy-survival-limits">Testing galaxy survival limits</h2>



Astronomers study NGC 4858 as a compelling case of extreme environmental effects on galaxies because it lies nearby and sits in one of the densest known clusters.



By comparing it to other jellyfish in the Coma sample - some at different angles of motion and stages of stripping - astronomers hope to build a timeline of how ram-pressure interactions unfold.



For now, the galaxy’s whimsical bunny-ear silhouette offers three key lessons. Ram-pressure winds compress and bend spiral arms; gas can cycle out and back in a galactic fountain; and even under relentless external assault, galaxies can briefly reignite pockets of star formation.



Observing these processes in real time provides a critical benchmark for theories of galaxy evolution in the universe’s most crowded neighborhoods.



A preprint of the study can be found on <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2506.07262" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arXiv</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Jellyfish galaxy grew ‘bunny ears’ while battling galactic wind

Galaxy clusters pack thousands of galaxies into a volume only...

A new study has revealed that corals growing in waters where temperatures swing wildly from month to month cope far better with sudden marine heatwaves than those from calm, steady seas.



The secret is not just hidden in their DNA. It’s also written in the algae and bacteria inside the coral that help defend against stress.



By tracing how those microscopic allies behave when heat strikes, scientists have found new clues to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-cant-survive-rising-sea-urchin-numbers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coral reef</a> survival in a hotter world.



A team from <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McGill University</a> and the <a href="https://stri.si.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute </a>(STRI) made the discovery after comparing two reef systems on opposite sides of Panama.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-gulfs-two-climates">Two gulfs, two climates</h2>



The Gulf of Panama faces regular upwelling that brings cold, nutrient-rich water to the surface. Conditions can flip back to warm within days.



Roughly 60 miles (100 kilometers) west, the Gulf of Chiriquí enjoys placid, almost constant temperatures year-round.



The researchers gathered small fragments of the staghorn-like coral Pocillopora damicornis from both sites. They exposed the samples to simulated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-heatwaves-escalate-coral-bleaching-threats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">heatwaves</a> in a specialized laboratory tank called the Coral Bleaching Automated Stress System. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-training-coral-for-heat">Training coral for heat</h2>



In the thermal tests, corals from the volatile Gulf of Panama bleached more slowly, kept higher protein stores and suffered less oxidative damage than their cousins from the calm gulf.



The team found Panama corals also kept stronger antioxidant defenses during peak heat, neutralizing harmful oxygen radicals more effectively.



“Minor genetic differences seem to contribute to thermal tolerance, but the environmental context makes a big difference,” said Rowan Barrett, a professor of biology at McGill who supervised the work.



This was an important hint that living in a place that regularly throws curve-balls may train corals to ride out extreme events still to come.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coral-s-microscopic-team">Coral's microscopic team</h2>



Inside every coral lives a dense population of single-celled algae known as Symbiodiniaceae plus a cloud of helpful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/highly-unusual-bacteria-discovered-in-deep-sea-corals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacteria</a>.



Under normal light and temperature these algae pump out sugars that feed their hosts, while the bacteria help corals resist pathogens and modulate stress.



When seas warm, the partnership can break down. Stressed corals purge the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/algae-revived-after-7000-years-beneath-the-baltic-sea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">algae</a>, lose their color and begin to starve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unexpected-recovery-strategy">An unexpected recovery strategy </h2>



The new study probed the composition of these inner communities before, during, and after heat stress. In both regions, the bacterial consortia became less stable and more patchy as temperatures climbed, a warning sign of coral bleaching risk.



Yet corals from the Gulf of Panama recovered a more orderly microbiome once heat subsided, matching their better overall health.



Curiously, the researchers did not see the wholesale shift toward heat-hardy Durusdinium algae that often accompanies bleaching in places such as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-coral-collapse-may-help-save-the-great-barrier-reef/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Great Barrier Reef</a>. Instead, many Panamanian corals continued to host mostly Cladocopium, a genus that supplies more energy but usually less protection from heat.



“This suggests there’s a trade-off between energy supply and heat resistance,” Barrett said. Retaining the high-energy algae may help corals bounce back quickly after short bursts of stress, provided they can tolerate the initial shock.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-history-shapes-coral-survival">Heat history shapes coral survival </h2>



Field observations back up the lab results. The Gulf of Panama was ground zero for the 1982–83 El Niño, one of the strongest warming events of the twentieth century.



Reefs there were badly damaged, yet many later rebuilt their living cover. The more predictable Gulf of Chiriquí lost whole stretches of coral that have yet to recover fully.



“Understanding what makes some corals more resilient to increasing temperatures helps us figure out how reefs might survive climate change and where to focus conservation efforts,” said lead author Victoria Glynn, who conducted the work as a PhD student at McGill.



The researchers combined physiology data with high-resolution genetic scans and detailed inventories of each coral’s microbial passengers.



They found that corals from both gulfs share the bulk of their DNA, yet subtle gene variants linked to stress response appear more common in the heat-tested populations.



Still, genetics alone could not explain performance. The environmental backdrop - and the track record of daily and seasonal swings - played an outsized role in shaping the whole coral-microbe partnership.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-panama-s-tough-coral-communities">Panama's tough coral communities</h2>



“Panama’s reefs give us a natural laboratory to understand <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coral-reefs-may-be-more-resilient-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resilience</a>,” said co-author Sean Connolly, a scientist at STRI.



“By studying how coral communities adapt to their environment, we can better predict which reefs are most at risk - and which might bounce back.”



The work suggests that protecting places already exposed to repeated thermal variability could be a smart bet. These reefs may help repopulate damaged regions with hardier larvae or act as reservoirs of adaptive genes and microbes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strategies-to-save-coral-reefs">Strategies to save coral reefs</h2>



For reef managers, the findings highlight two priorities. First, identify hotspots of natural variability where corals are already rehearsing for future extremes.



Second, monitor not only the corals themselves but also the microscopic partners that drive their day-to-day metabolism and emergency responses.



Interventions that safeguard or restore healthy microbiomes could improve a reef’s odds during the next heatwave. Limiting nutrient runoff, which destabilizes bacterial communities, is one such approach.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coral-reefs-beyond-panama">Coral reefs beyond Panama</h2>



The team plans follow-up studies to test whether similar patterns hold in other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/oceans-cool-the-climate-more-than-previously-realized/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oceans</a> and among different coral species. They also hope to map the precise metabolic pathways that let certain microbes boost antioxidant defenses under stress.



Such knowledge could feed into breeding or translocation programs aimed at building reef resilience on a broader scale.



For now, the message is clear. A coral’s fate hinges on more than its own genome. It depends on the lifelong training it receives from its home waters and on the tiny partners it carries within.



Those insights provide a glimmer of hope that some reefs, armed with the right allies and honed by tough neighborhoods, can survive the heat to come.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960982225006517" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Wild temperature swings boost coral reef resilience

A new study has revealed that corals growing in waters...

Human evolution is not only about bones. It is about the forests, soils, and climates that supported early apes long before the first hominin walked upright. 



Though great apes diverged from other primates around 25 million years ago, our own lineage did not appear until roughly 5 million years ago. In that immense stretch of time, forests rose and fell, volcanoes erupted, and ancient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-our-power-our-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> adapted to the world around them.



One place where this deep story unfolds is western Kenya’s Koru 16. This fossil site captures a snapshot of life during the early Miocene, around 20 million years ago. Preserved by ash from the long extinct Tinderet Volcano, Koru 16 is a rich and complex time capsule. 



New research led by Venanzio Munyaka reveals that the story of ape evolution cannot be told without understanding the ecosystems they called home. The study adds fresh insight to a region already steeped in fossil history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ape-fossils-reveal-evolutionary-activity">Ape fossils reveal evolutionary activity</h2>



Koru 16 has drawn scientific interest for nearly a hundred years. The site’s first primate fossils were discovered in 1927, and legendary anthropologist Louis Leakey led several excavations in the decades that followed. 



While those early efforts laid important groundwork, the last decade brought new urgency and better tools for understanding its full ecological <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/apes-can-tell-when-humans-dont-know-something/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">context</a>.



Between 2013 and 2023, Munyaka and colleagues carried out a detailed investigation at two subsites. They recovered nearly 1,000 fossil leaves and a wealth of vertebrate remains. 



The bones came from 25 different species, including pythons, rodents, and three types of apes. These included Proconsul africanus, Proconsul major, and a newly identified large bodied nyanzapithecine.



These discoveries make Koru 16 the most ape rich site within the wider Tinderet group. The presence of multiple ape species in a single forested environment suggests the region played a key role in early ape evolution. But it was not just the bones that told a story.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-forests-shaped-how-early-apes-lived">Changing forests shaped how early apes lived</h2>



The team used a combination of paleosol chemistry, leaf structure, and tree stump fossils to reconstruct what Koru 16 looked like millions of years ago. Their results point to a warm, wet tropical forest, interrupted frequently by natural disturbances. 



Volcanic eruptions from the Tinderet complex blanketed the land with ash. Wildfires and seasonal floods added further stress.



Yet through all this, life thrived. Soil analyses indicate the region received about 2,000 mm of rainfall per year, with temperatures likely above 25°C. These conditions are similar to modern tropical forests in Africa, though the vegetation was slightly different. Koru 16’s forest likely had more deciduous trees, with plants that dropped their leaves seasonally.



“By studying the soil, fossils, and tree stumps, we could recreate the forest's climate,” said Munyaka. The climate was not stable. Instead, it was a shifting mosaic of dense forest, open patches, and recently disturbed areas. This landscape would challenge and shape the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-animal-will-replace-humans-as-earths-dominant-species-this-scientist-has-an-idea/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> living there.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-leaves-light-and-forest-layers">Leaves, light, and forest layers</h2>



Plant fossils offered a vivid picture of this forest. From the two subsites, researchers cataloged 18 distinct leaf morphotypes. These belonged to plants that likely had short lifespans and fast growth cycles. 



Such traits suggest a forest marked by high turnover, where plants quickly colonized open areas after fires or ashfalls.



Most of the fossilized leaves came from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-innovation-takes-the-lead-in-environmental-action/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> adapted to both shaded understories and sunlit clearings. This indicates a mixed canopy, with parts of the forest densely shaded and others exposed. The forest structure would have influenced how apes moved, fed, and nested. 



Some leaves had characteristics similar to those found in modern forests in Uganda and Madagascar, places where rainfall is seasonal and disturbance is common.



The researchers also found casts of fossilized tree stumps. In one subsite, stumps stood close together, suggesting a mature, shaded forest. In the other, stumps were widely spaced, hinting at a more open, disturbed area. 



These contrasts imply that even within a small region, early Miocene forests were ecologically diverse and constantly in flux.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-apes-among-the-ash">Apes among the ash</h2>



The fauna found alongside the plants reinforce this view. Apes were not alone. The site also yielded fossils of large pythons and several rodent species. The dominance of rodents reflects a rich, layered ecosystem. 



Most importantly, the three ape species discovered show that such forests supported a range of primate forms, including some of our most ancient relatives.



“The forest was not a quiet, uniform place,” said one researcher. “It was full of challenges that spurred change.” These challenges likely encouraged the development of new behaviors. Apes may have moved more on the ground, adapted their diets to seasonal food, or evolved new social habits to cope with ecological instability.



This type of environment, warm, seasonal, and disturbed, would have offered opportunities and obstacles. Forest fragmentation and frequent change may have nudged primates toward flexibility in how they lived, moved, and survived. In that sense, the forest itself became an evolutionary partner.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-roots-of-evolution">Ecological roots of evolution</h2>



Koru 16 forces a shift in how we think about ape origins. Rather than emerging in calm, unchanging rainforests, early apes lived in dynamic, fractured landscapes. 



These habitats were shaped by fire, flood, and ash. The soil, climate, and plants constantly shifted, creating a stage that demanded adaptability.



The presence of multiple ape species in this kind of forest suggests that environmental variability did not limit primate evolution. It may have energized it. The ability to navigate change, rather than thrive in stability, might have been a key evolutionary trait.



Through its ancient layers of ash and soil, Koru 16 gives us something rare. It offers a full picture of the world early apes inhabited. It tells a story not just of bones, but of climate, ecology, and survival. 



The research reminds us that the journey to becoming human began not just in upright steps but in leafy canopies, open glades, and the fertile ash beds of a forest always on the move.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2025PA005152" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Early apes lived in a constantly changing world of fire and ash

Human evolution is not only about bones. It is about...

Sea-level rise isn't always slow and steady. Fossil corals from the Seychelles show that it has surged in quick bursts in the past - rising much faster than most people would expect. 



The fossilized corals, once living just below the surface, captured a snapshot of a world much like today, but with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-sea-levels-spiked-dramatically-in-2023/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oceans</a> jumping higher in sudden leaps.



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.wisc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Wisconsin–Madison</a> and the University of Florida led the project, working with colleagues at the University of Sydney, the University of Minnesota Twin Cities, Victoria University of Wellington, and the University of Massachusetts Amherst. 



“This is not good news for us as we head into the future,” said Andrea Dutton, a professor of geoscience at Wisconsin.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sea-level-climbed-in-bursts-not-gradually">Sea level climbed in bursts, not gradually</h2>



The team studied two dozen fossil corals lodged at different heights above present sea level. Because these corals only grow in shallow, sun-lit water and the Seychelles sit far from ancient ice sheets, the skeletons provide clean snapshots of past oceans. 



Precise dating shows the peak of the Last Interglacial high stand came 122,000 - 123,000 years ago - when global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-temperatures-are-rising-faster-than-expected-and-likely-to-accelerate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperatures</a> resembled those we see now.



The surprise lay in how the sea level reached that peak. The record shows three bursts of rapid rise, each followed by a drop, over just 6,000 years.



“That says there's potential for this very rapid, dynamic change in both ice sheet volume and sea level change,” said Dutton. “This is hugely important for coastal planners, policy makers and those in the business of risk management.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ice-sheets-out-of-step">Ice sheets out of step</h2>



The sea-level swings hint that Greenland and Antarctic ice did not melt in sync. According to Professor Dutton, the swings suggest that the polar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctic-ice-sheet-patterns-point-to-rapid-melting-risks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ice sheets</a> were growing and shrinking out of phase with each other as a result of temperature changes in the two hemispheres that were not aligned.



“So even though sea level rose at least several meters higher than present during this past warm period, if temperature rises simultaneously in both hemispheres as it is today, then we can expect future sea level rise to be even greater than it was back then," explained Professor Dutton.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-contribution-from-antarctica">Hidden contribution from Antarctica </h2>



One pulse matches the collapse of the last fragments of the North American ice sheet, based on earlier Atlantic Ocean studies. 



“But if ice was still present in North America several thousand years into this past warm period, then some of the rise we've documented would have required more meltwater from another ice sheet, such as Antarctica,” said Dutton. 



“This would suggest that Antarctica was even more sensitive to warming than we previously recognized, because the full extent of sea-level rise flowing from the continent was masked by a remnant ice sheet in North America.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-corals-predict-greater-sea-level-rise">Corals predict greater sea level rise </h2>



Together, the coral data indicate that today’s warming could lock in far <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-much-did-sea-levels-rise-after-the-last-ice-age-alarming-new-clues-revealed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">higher seas</a> than current forecasts.



“We could be looking at upward of 10 meters of global average sea-level rise in the future just based on the amount of warming that has already occurred,” noted Professor Dutton. 



“The more we do to draw down our greenhouse gas emissions, and the faster we do so, could prevent the worst scenarios from becoming our lived reality."



Cutting emissions now cannot freeze the oceans in place, but it can slow the pace - and give coastal planners, and the millions who live near the shore, a fighting chance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-dangers-of-sea-level-rise">The dangers of sea level rise</h2>



The danger of rising sea levels isn’t just theoretical - it’s already becoming a reality for millions of people. 



Coastal cities and island nations are seeing higher tides, more frequent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-we-outrun-the-flood-risks-of-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flooding</a>, and increased erosion. In some places, communities are being forced to relocate as seawater creeps further inland.



These changes also put critical infrastructure at risk. Roads, power plants, ports, and wastewater systems in low-lying areas weren’t built to withstand repeated saltwater exposure. 



When sea level rises even a small amount, it raises the baseline for storm surges, making hurricanes and typhoons more destructive than they used to be. The economic impact is massive. Flood insurance costs are climbing, while property values in vulnerable areas are falling. 



Governments are spending billions on sea walls, drainage systems, and other short-term fixes. If the past is any indication - as the fossil coral record shows - sea levels may not rise slowly enough for these defenses to keep up.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adu3701" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Fossil corals reveal that sea-level rise occurs in rapid bursts

Sea-level rise isn't always slow and steady. Fossil corals from...

In the dense green heart of the Amazon, a silent conversation takes place between trees and sunlight. From space, this conversation appears as a faint glow, a shimmer given off by leaves. 



This glow, called solar-induced fluorescence (SIF), has helped scientists estimate how much photosynthesis is happening on Earth. The brighter the forest glows, the healthier it appears. But new research warns that this glow may not always tell the full truth.



As climate change makes dry seasons longer and harsher, researchers are looking closer at how the Amazon canopy responds. What they have found could change how we read satellite data and rethink what we know about forest health. 



A <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-part-of-the-climate-solution-but-not-the-whole-answer/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree</a> may shine brightly but still struggle to breathe, grow, and store carbon. The Amazon, often described as the lungs of the planet, may be gasping in ways we fail to see from above.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-trees-glow-and-handle-sunlight">How trees glow and handle sunlight</h2>



To understand how this vast forest manages sunlight, scientists at <a href="https://msu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Michigan State University</a> took their work into the forest. Led by doctoral candidate Leonardo Ziccardi, the team climbed trees nearly 60 meters tall in the central Amazon. 



Armed with a handheld device called the MultispeQ, the researchers measured how leaves absorb, use, and release sunlight.



“It’s been a long journey,” said Ziccardi. “Since 2019, we’ve run multiple field campaigns across seasons, climbing giant trees in the heart of the Amazon to understand how these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-trees-decide-between-growing-and-breathing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forests</a> respond to environmental changes." 



"We’ve spent hundreds of hours up in the canopy doing measurements, some of the most intense and rewarding work I’ve ever done.”



Over 3,000 leaf measurements showed how leaves manage energy in changing light, height, and moisture conditions. The team explored three energy paths: photosynthesis (ΦPSII), heat dissipation (ΦNPQ), and steady-state fluorescence (ΦNO).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-drought-unmasks-a-complex-dance">Drought unmasks a complex dance</h2>



In dry seasons, sunlight floods the upper canopy. But instead of boosting photosynthesis, this intense light overwhelms the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-have-unique-fungi-partnerships-that-help-them-survive/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">leaves</a>. 



As a defense, the leaves channel more energy into heat (ΦNPQ) and emit more fluorescence (ΦNO). Meanwhile, actual photosynthesis (ΦPSII) drops.



The researchers found a striking pattern. In dry conditions, photosynthesis and fluorescence first track together, then split, and finally oppose each other. 



This "triphasic" behavior means fluorescence can increase even as photosynthesis crashes. The phenomenon creates a major red flag for interpreting satellite SIF readings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tree-glow-shifts-across-canopy-layers">Tree glow shifts across canopy layers</h2>



Each forest layer has its own light and stress profile. The lower canopy, shaded and cooler, showed higher ΦPSII and ΦNO but lower ΦNPQ. 



Upper layers, exposed to harsh light, had the opposite pattern. They showed lower photosynthesis and more heat loss.



Interestingly, the strongest SIF signals came from these shaded, lower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-models-may-overestimate-how-much-carbon-trees-release/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">leaves</a>. That means satellites may often be “listening” to the quieter, protected parts of the forest rather than the sun-drenched treetops.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-species-matter-more-than-expected">Species matter more than expected</h2>



Different tree species do not respond to environmental stress in the same way. The study revealed that the fluorescence signal known as ΦNO varied strongly between species, particularly in the sun-exposed upper canopy during the dry season. 



This means that some trees, under intense light and water stress, increased their fluorescence output more than others, depending on how they manage excess energy. 



The species-level differences suggest that even if two forest regions appear to glow equally bright from a satellite’s perspective, their actual rates of photosynthesis and their ability to take in carbon could be very different.



In other words, the same level of fluorescence does not guarantee equal productivity. The forest’s composition, the types of trees present and how they deal with light, plays a crucial role in shaping what those glow signals really mean. 



Remote sensing tools must account for these biological differences to avoid drawing misleading conclusions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tree-glow-can-confuse-satellite-readings">Tree glow can confuse satellite readings</h2>



SIF still offers a powerful tool, but it must be used carefully. The researchers recommend accounting for leaf age, species, and height. 



Models that ignore these factors risk overestimating how much carbon forests absorb, especially during drought.



The study highlights how the Amazon's structure, with its dense lower canopy and diverse species, complicates the reading of satellite data. Signals from above might miss crucial internal forest dynamics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-research-goes-from-here">Where research goes from here</h2>



This work lays the foundation for smarter GPP models (gross primary productivity). By capturing the vertical, seasonal, and species-specific nuances of energy flow, it helps scientists avoid mistaking plant glow for plant growth.



Ziccardi’s team shows that to understand forest photosynthesis, we must look beyond surface signals. Forests whisper complex stories in light, and it’s time we listen closely.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nph.70183" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New Phytologist</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Amazon trees glow more under stress but photosynthesize less

In the dense green heart of the Amazon, a silent...

In the race to slow global warming, scientists have turned to the ocean. As the planet’s largest carbon sink, the ocean absorbs around a quarter of human-made CO₂ emissions. This vast system offers potential solutions to reduce atmospheric carbon and possibly restore declining oxygen levels.



Yet, as new research shows, not all solutions help the ocean itself. In fact, some of the most widely discussed marine carbon dioxide removal (mCDR) techniques could worsen one of the ocean's most urgent problems: deoxygenation.



Oceans are losing oxygen at a startling rate. Since the 1960s, global oceans have shed about two percent of their oxygen inventory. This trend is not just statistical. It plays out in rising fish mortality, biodiversity loss, and shrinking habitats for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-oceans-day-2025-sustaining-what-sustains-us/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine life</a>. 



Global warming, which causes warmer water and stronger layering, reduces the ocean's capacity to circulate oxygen to deeper layers. But what if the very methods designed to slow warming make this loss worse?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unintended-impacts-of-carbon-removal">Unintended impacts of carbon removal</h2>



A new study published in the journal Environmental Research Letters&nbsp;confronts this question directly. Led by Dr. Andreas Oschlies of <a href="https://www.geomar.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GEOMAR</a> Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research, the research team analyzed several mCDR methods.



These included ocean fertilization, macroalgae farming, artificial upwelling, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/national-dolphin-day-2025-honoring-the-oceans-most-playful-minds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean</a> alkalinity enhancement, and others. Using idealized global simulations, they examined both the direct and indirect effects of these techniques on ocean oxygen.



“What helps the climate is not automatically good for the ocean,” said Oschlies. His team collaborated with the UNESCO Global Ocean Oxygen Network (GO2NE), comparing how each method balances the goal of carbon removal against its unintended oxygen impacts.



The study shows that many biotic mCDR methods, especially those involving biomass production and sinking, can cause severe oxygen losses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-fertilization-s-deep-drawbacks">Ocean fertilization’s deep drawbacks</h2>



Among the oldest proposed mCDR methods is ocean fertilization. It involves adding nutrients, usually iron, to stimulate phytoplankton growth in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-seaweed-day-2025-saving-the-oceans-sustainable-powerhouse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean</a> surface. 



These microscopic plants absorb CO₂ and then sink after death, carrying carbon to deeper waters. But as the phytoplankton decay, they also consume oxygen.



Model simulations show that 100 years of continuous Southern Ocean fertilization would deplete the region's oxygen by about three percent globally. That is more than double the oxygen loss caused by warming alone. 



In some areas beneath the fertilized zones, oxygen levels could drop by over 50 micromoles. These changes mirror or exceed the deoxygenation seen under high-emission climate scenarios.



Simulations also reveal that any <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/darkening-oceans-are-shrinking-vital-marine-habitats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oxygen</a> gains from reduced global warming, thanks to this carbon removal, are dwarfed by the losses from biomass decomposition. 



“Our model simulations show that such approaches could cause a decrease in dissolved oxygen that is four to 40 times greater than the oxygen gain expected from reduced global warming,” said Oschlies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seaweed-solution-and-its-limits">Seaweed solution and its limits</h2>



Macroalgae farming has gained popularity as a promising mCDR strategy. Seaweeds grow quickly, require no freshwater, and absorb large amounts of carbon. But once again, what happens after growth determines its environmental impact. 



If macroalgae is sunk into the deep <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-ocean-animals-connect-countries-and-continents/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean</a>, it will eventually decompose, just like fertilized plankton. Complete remineralization of sunk macroalgae could reduce global ocean oxygen by more than ten percent within a century. 



Even if only a portion of it breaks down, the oxygen impact is still severe. These results raise red flags for projects proposing large-scale open-ocean kelp sinking as a climate fix.



Yet, there is one version of this method that does not harm oxygen levels. When seaweed is harvested and removed, either used in products or stored safely, oxygen is spared. No decomposition occurs in the ocean, and the removal of nutrients even reduces oxygen use elsewhere. 



Model results show that harvesting could boost global ocean oxygen by over two percent. In fact, this gain is ten times larger than the benefit from reduced warming alone.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cooler-surface-deeper-damage">Cooler surface, deeper damage</h2>



Artificial upwelling is another mCDR idea. It involves pumping cold, nutrient-rich deep water to the surface to stimulate photosynthesis. 



While this can help absorb CO₂, it also increases organic matter production. That biomass, once it sinks, consumes oxygen as it breaks down.



Simulations show that artificial upwelling can lower oxygen by around 1.5 Pmol, less than some other methods, but still significant. The impact is concentrated in the upper few hundred meters, especially in tropical and subtropical zones already vulnerable to oxygen decline. 



Some areas may see oxygen levels fall by ten percent. Worse, if used alongside macroalgae farming, it could intensify the oxygen drain even further.



Cooling effects from upwelling do offer minor gains in oxygen solubility. But these benefits are offset by biomass decay. As the study notes, upwelling could even lead to more warming in the long term if not managed carefully.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-daily-oxygen-cycles-in-the-ocean">Daily oxygen cycles in the ocean</h2>



Some proposals involve sinking land-based biomass like wood or crop waste into the ocean. In this case, the ocean acts as a storage site, not a carbon producer. Depending on the composition of the biomass, oxygen consumption could be slower than with marine material. 



But if nutrients from this decay reach the surface, they might fertilize surface waters and trigger the same oxygen-consuming cycle seen in ocean fertilization.



Blue Carbon Ecosystems, such as mangroves, salt marshes, and seagrass beds, also receive attention in mCDR strategies. They absorb CO₂ and store it in sediments. Oxygen impacts in these zones are complex. Photosynthesis boosts oxygen during the day, but respiration reduces it at night. 



These systems can develop intense daily oxygen cycles, which may stress marine life in both oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor phases. While small in global area, their local oxygen dynamics deserve careful monitoring.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geochemical-option-with-fewer-risks">Geochemical option with fewer risks</h2>



Not all mCDR methods worsen oxygen loss. Ocean alkalinity enhancement, or OAE, stands out for its minimal oxygen impact. This method involves adding alkaline substances like ground limestone to seawater. It changes ocean chemistry to absorb more CO₂ without stimulating biomass production.



Model results show that large-scale OAE could slightly increase global ocean oxygen. The rise is modest, about 0.5 Pmol, but consistent. 



Unlike biotic methods, OAE does not add nutrients that might fuel oxygen-consuming decay. For now, this makes it one of the safer marine carbon strategies from an oxygen standpoint.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxygen-tracking-and-ocean-carbon-removal">Oxygen tracking and ocean carbon removal</h2>



The research concludes with a strong recommendation. Any mCDR project, whether a small-scale trial or a full deployment, must measure oxygen from start to finish. 



“The ocean is a complex system which is already heavily under pressure,” said Oschlies. “If we intervene with large-scale measures, we must ensure that, no matter how good our intentions are, we are not further threatening marine environmental conditions that marine life depends on.”



Oxygen is one of six Essential Climate Variables already tracked for ocean health. It links directly to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-action-and-biodiversity-striking-the-right-balance/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>, ecosystem services, and carbon storage. Yet, it is often overlooked in carbon removal proposals.



Monitoring oxygen is not only about detecting harm. In some cases, oxygen increases, like those from macroalgae harvesting, could signal co-benefits. In others, it could reveal unintended risks in vulnerable areas. 



Either way, oxygen provides a critical feedback on whether our climate fixes help or harm the sea.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-removal-must-protect-ocean-oxygen">Carbon removal must protect ocean oxygen</h2>



Carbon dioxide removal is no longer optional. Even the most ambitious emission cuts will leave behind some unavoidable emissions. To meet net-zero goals, we must pull carbon from the air. The ocean, with its scale and buffering power, seems like an obvious partner.



But solutions must be judged on more than their climate impact. They must protect marine life, support biodiversity, and avoid causing further damage. 



This study makes clear that biotic mCDR strategies must be handled with care. Without oxygen, marine ecosystems collapse. And a climate solution that empties the ocean of life is no solution at all.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ade0d4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Research Letters</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Ocean climate fixes could worsen the oxygen crisis

In the race to slow global warming, scientists have turned...

Scientists have revealed a new biometric marker: your nasal breathing pattern. This is uniquely yours. According to new research, nasal airflow can identify individuals with 96.8% accuracy. That is on par with voice recognition.



The discovery came from a team at the <a href="https://www.weizmann.ac.il/pages/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Weizmann Institute of Science</a>. They created a wearable device that tracks nasal breathing patterns over 24 hours. Unlike short clinical tests, this method captures long-term characteristics.



“You would think that breathing has been measured and analyzed in every way,” said Noam Sobel. “Yet we stumbled upon a completely new way to look at respiration. We consider this as a brain readout.”



The study involved 97 participants and used 24 specific features extracted from their breathing patterns. Each feature remained stable over months, even up to two years. This suggests it comes from the brain’s respiratory <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breathing-rhythms-help-strengthen-memories-during-sleep/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">network</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-wearable-breathing-pattern-tracker">A wearable breathing pattern tracker</h2>



Participants wore a silicone-encased device on their neck all day. It connected to a nasal cannula with separate tubes for each nostril. This setup recorded every breath in real time, logging airflow asymmetries and temporal pauses.



Researchers used AI models to analyze features like inhale volume and duty cycles. With just one hour of breathing data, they could still identify about 43% of participants during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-prepares-the-brain-for-the-future-while-protecting-memories-of-the-past/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep</a>. When they tested data across months, accuracy remained high: 95% during waking hours and over 70% during sleep.



Importantly, they ruled out motion as a confounding factor. Position sensors built into the device could only identify people with 37% accuracy. The breathing pattern did far better.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breathing-patterns-and-mental-health">Breathing patterns and mental health</h2>



The study didn’t just identify people. It predicted health and emotional traits. Breathing patterns reflected body mass index, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-quality-could-be-the-key-to-better-metabolic-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep</a> quality, and mental health. For example, those with higher anxiety scores had shorter inhales and more varied pauses during sleep.



These effects were not linked to illness. All participants were healthy and had no clinical diagnoses. Yet their breathing revealed differences tied to depression, anxiety, and even traits linked to autism. 



“Perhaps the way you breathe makes you anxious or depressed,” said Sobel. “If that’s true, we might be able to change the way you breathe to change those conditions.”



Researchers used a technique called canonical correlation analysis. It showed a strong link between breathing patterns and psychological traits, with a correlation of 0.87 across multiple tests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breathing-data-predicts-mood-behavior">Breathing data predicts mood behavior</h2>



Using nasal airflow data, researchers could predict BMI with strong accuracy. Tidal volume and exhale volume during sleep both correlated with higher BMI. Interestingly, even nasal cycle features, like airflow differences between nostrils, predicted BMI. That suggests brain-driven breathing control is involved.



In those with higher depression scores, the study found faster airflow and longer exhale pauses during wakefulness. For anxiety, shorter inhales and less stable breathing occurred during sleep. Even those with higher autism trait scores showed longer inhale pauses and more variable patterns during sleep.



These findings suggest that breathing patterns reflect both state (like stress or sleep) and trait (like body composition or emotional tendencies).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-and-challenges">Next steps and challenges</h2>



Despite the promise, the device has limitations. The nasal cannula, often associated with illness, may discourage everyday use. It also doesn’t track mouth breathing and sometimes slips during sleep. Soroka and Sobel plan to improve the device's design.



Still, the potential is big. A nasal breathing pattern reader could someday be used to track well-being, monitor mental health, or guide therapies. “We definitely want to go beyond <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-bacteria-breathe-by-creating-electricity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diagnostics</a> to treatment, and we are cautiously optimistic,” stated Sobel.



Even now, the researchers can identify you by your breathing pattern. Soon, they might help you breathe your way to better health.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00583-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Study shows that our breathing pattern is as unique as our fingerprints

Scientists have revealed a new biometric marker: your nasal breathing...

Dinosaurs have long captivated human imagination. From towering giants to quick-footed hunters, these creatures ruled the prehistoric world for millions of years. Each fossil discovery brings new understanding. 



A recent find has added a key piece to the tyrannosaur story. Named Khankhuuluu mongoliensis, this newly identified dinosaur sheds light on how smaller predators evolved into giants like Tyrannosaurus rex.



This breakthrough comes from a global research team led by Jared Voris and Dr. Darla Zelenitsky of the <a href="https://ucalgary.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Calgary</a>. Their findings appear in the journal Nature. 



Khankhuuluu lived about 86 million years ago during a time of rapid change.



As other large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossilized-guts-reveal-the-eating-habits-of-sauropod-dinosaurs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predators</a> vanished, new ones took their places. Khankhuuluu stood at the crossroads of this transition. The species bridges the gap between earlier swift hunters and the colossal bone crushers that followed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-khankhuuluu-came-before-t-rex">Khankhuuluu came before T. rex</h2>



Khankhuuluu means “prince of dragons” in Mongolian. The name hints at its importance. It was not yet king, but it was certainly part of a royal bloodline.



This dinosaur is now seen as the closest-known ancestor of the tyrannosaurs. Unlike its massive descendants, Khankhuuluu weighed only about 750 kilograms (1,600 pounds). That is similar to the size of a modern horse.



“This new species provides us the window into the ascent stage of tyrannosaur evolution; right when they’re transitioning from small predators to their apex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-fossils-reveal-cancer-clues-for-modern-medicine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator</a> form,” explained Jared Voris, the study’s first author and a Ph.D. candidate at the University of Calgary.



Khankhuuluu rose to prominence after the extinction of many other large carnivores. It seized the opportunity and evolved new traits that would eventually lead to its dominance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fast-agile-and-built-to-pursue">Fast, agile, and built to pursue</h2>



Khankhuuluu was not a brute force <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-footprints-reveal-a-dinosaur-that-changed-pace-while-walking/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">predator</a>. It had a long, shallow skull that lacked the bone-crushing strength of a T. rex. Instead, it relied on its long legs for speed, and its sharp senses. Scientists describe it as a mesopredator, similar in role to a coyote. 



This means it likely preyed on small animals and used agility to avoid larger threats.



One of its most notable features was a pair of tiny horns above its eyes. These were likely used for mating displays or to intimidate other dinosaurs.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/dinosaur_t-rex-cousin_Khankhuuluu-mongoliensis_credit-UCalgary_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/dinosaur_t-rex-cousin_Khankhuuluu-mongoliensis_credit-UCalgary_1s.webp" alt="This artist's illustration shows the newly discovered dinosaur species Khankhuuluu mongoliensis, an ancestor of Tyrannosaurus Rex. Misidentified bones actually belong to a new species of tyrannosaur which rewrites the family history of the mighty T-Rex. Credit: University of Calgary" class="wp-image-1973997"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This artist's illustration shows the newly discovered dinosaur species Khankhuuluu mongoliensis, an ancestor of Tyrannosaurus Rex. Misidentified bones actually belong to a new species of tyrannosaur which rewrites the family history of the mighty T-Rex. Click image to enlarge. Credit: University of Calgary</figcaption></figure>



Later species such as Albertosaurus and Gorgosaurus would develop larger and more ornate versions of these horns. 



In Khankhuuluu, however, the structures were still in early development. These subtle differences mark it as a transitional figure in tyrannosaur history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-khankhuuluu-was-misidentified">Khankhuuluu was misidentified</h2>



The bones that identified Khankhuuluu were not newly dug from the ground. They were actually collected in the 1970s by paleontologist Altangerel Perle in the Bayanshiree Formation in southeastern Mongolia. 



At the time, the fossils were thought to belong to a dinosaur called Alectrosaurus that was more commonly found in nearby China. That assumption held for decades.



Then in 2023, Voris traveled to Mongolia to study the fossils in detail. While examining the material at the Institute of Paleontology, he noticed key differences. These included unique features in the skull and limbs. 



These observations confirmed that the fossils belonged to a new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/archaeopteryx-fossil-soft-tissue-flight-evolution-proves-darwin-right/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>. What had once been misidentified was now recognized as a pivotal ancestor of the tyrannosaurs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-tyrannosaur-that-crossed-continents">The tyrannosaur that crossed continents</h2>



Khankhuuluu's legacy is not limited to Mongolia. Its lineage spread far beyond Asia. 



“Khankhuuluu, or a closely related species, would have immigrated to North America from Asia around 85 million years ago. Our study provides solid evidence that large tyrannosaurs first evolved in North America as a result of this immigration event,” Dr. Darla Zelenitsky noted.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/dinosaur_t-rex-cousin_Khankhuuluu-mongoliensis_paleontologists_credit-UCalgary_1big.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/dinosaur_t-rex-cousin_Khankhuuluu-mongoliensis_paleontologists_credit-UCalgary_1s.webp" alt="Darla Zelenitsky, a paleontologist and associate professor in the Faculty of Science, and Jared Voris, a Ph.D. candidate, have identified a new species of dinosaur named Khankhuuluu. They, along with a team of international scientists, have published a paper in the journal, Nature, about the evolution of Tyrannosaurs. Credit: Riley Brandt/University of Calgary" class="wp-image-1974000"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Darla Zelenitsky, a paleontologist and associate professor in the Faculty of Science, and Jared Voris, a Ph.D. candidate, have identified a new species of dinosaur named Khankhuuluu. They, along with a team of international scientists, have published a paper in the journal, Nature, about the evolution of Tyrannosaurs. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Riley Brandt/University of Calgary</figcaption></figure>



This migration shaped the history of dinosaurs on both continents. Once in North America, tyrannosaurs began to grow larger and more specialized. Over time, they became the most dominant predators in their environments. 



The journey of Khankhuuluu set this in motion. It is a clear example of how species movement influences evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-tyrannosaurs-split">How tyrannosaurs split</h2>



Once in North America, the tyrannosaurs evolved along two main paths. One group became massive apex predators like Tyrannosaurus rex. 



These were the bone crushers, armed with powerful jaws and deep skulls. Another group developed long snouts and stayed medium-sized. Scientists call them “Pinocchio rexes” because of their distinctive faces.



Both branches trace back to Khankhuuluu or a very similar <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-extinction-theories-are-challenged-by-new-research/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ancestor</a>. This new discovery shows that the migration from Asia was not just a one-time event. It reveals a pattern of interaction and development that shaped dinosaur evolution.



These findings change the way scientists view the rise of tyrannosaurs. The journey was not linear. It involved branching, mixing, and adapting over millions of years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-chapter-in-the-tyrannosaur-story">Next chapter in the tyrannosaur story</h2>



Though Khankhuuluu has answered many questions, it has also raised new ones. Researchers now want to explore earlier stages of tyrannosaur evolution. 



What came before the dragon prince? What traits defined the first members of this mighty family? The answers may lie buried in rocks still waiting to be exposed.



For now, Khankhuuluu stands as a symbol of change. It was not the biggest or most fearsome predator. But it played a critical role in the story of Earth's past. 



As the dragon prince, it holds the key to understanding how some of the most iconic creatures in history came to rule the land.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-08964-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Meet the "prince of dragons," closest T-rex relative that started the tyrannosaur dynasty

Dinosaurs have long captivated human imagination. From towering giants to...

Most galaxies we see today are quiet, well-structured, and orderly. But not all play by those rules. Some are wild, chaotic, and packed with stars that are forming at a furious pace. 



These rare, chaotic galaxies give astronomers a glimpse of what the universe looked like billions of years ago - and perhaps a hint of what's in store for our own Milky Way.



Astronomers from the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a> have taken a detailed look at these unusual chaotic galaxies, also known as luminous and ultra-luminous infrared galaxies, or LIRGs and ULIRGs. 



These are incredibly bright in the infrared spectrum and are often caught in the middle of a galactic collision.



This study, part of a larger project called the Great Observatories All-sky LIRG Survey (GOALS), includes data from space telescopes such as Spitzer, Hubble, Chandra, and GALEX - and now, for the first time, the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) as well.



The results of the study were presented during a press briefing at the <a href="https://aas.org/meetings/aas246" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">246th meeting of the American Astronomical Society</a> on June 11. 



According to Sean Linden, a research associate at the University of Arizona <a href="https://astro.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Steward Observatory</a>, the findings will be published in an upcoming edition of the Astrophysical Journal. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cosmic-collisions-cause-chaotic-galaxies">Cosmic collisions cause chaotic galaxies</h2>



LIRGs and ULIRGs are not common in the universe close to Earth. Only 202 have been found within 1.3 billion light-years of us. What makes them special is that they are actively merging. 



Two galaxies smash together, forming bizarre structures - double galactic centers, long tails of stars and, most notably, star-forming clumps that are far larger than anything in our galaxy.



"These galaxies are very clumpy, very different from the beautiful spiral galaxies that we see now, such as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-galaxy-shows-us-what-the-early-milky-way-looked-like/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Milky Way</a>," said Linden. "And we know from cosmological simulations that these clumps were the building blocks of galaxies in the early universe."



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/milky-way_andromeda_merger_illustration_UArizona_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/milky-way_andromeda_merger_illustration_UArizona_1s.webp" alt="This artist's illustration shows a stage in the predicted merger between our Milky Way galaxy and the neighboring Andromeda galaxy, as it will unfold over the next several billion years. In this image, representing Earth's night sky in 3.75 billion years, Andromeda (left) fills the field of view and begins to distort the Milky Way with tidal pull. Credit: NASA; ESA; Z. Levay and R. van der Marel, STScI; T. Hallas; and A. Mellinger" class="wp-image-1974007"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This artist's illustration shows a stage in the predicted merger between our Milky Way galaxy and the neighboring Andromeda galaxy, as it will unfold over the next several billion years. In this image, representing Earth's night sky in 3.75 billion years, Andromeda (left) fills the field of view and begins to distort the Milky Way with tidal pull. Click image to enlarge. Credit: NASA; ESA; Z. Levay and R. van der Marel, STScI; T. Hallas; and A. Mellinger</figcaption></figure>



In our galaxy, the largest clumps of new stars weigh about 1,000 solar masses. In LIRGs and ULIRGs, a single clump can hold a million times the mass of our Sun. And there are hundreds of thousands of these clumps in each galaxy.



"You can imagine a million Suns forming in one small, compact region, and within one of those galaxies, there are hundreds of thousands of such clumps," Linden explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chaotic-galaxies-act-as-star-factories">Chaotic galaxies act as star factories </h2>



Galactic mergers are messy. But in that chaos, galaxies give birth to stars at a much higher rate than usual. When two <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/galaxy-collision-2-million-mph-stephans-quintet-captured-unprecedented-detail/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">galaxies collide</a>, gas clouds compress, temperatures soar, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fluffy-molecular-clouds-may-change-our-understanding-of-star-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">star formation</a> kicks into overdrive.



"These clumpy structures build up over time until they become incredibly massive, and if we want to understand them and how they actually contribute to galaxies evolving throughout cosmic time, we need to study them in detail," Linden said.



This is exactly what the new JWST data makes possible. Earlier telescopes, like Hubble, had already spotted some of these clumps. But thick clouds of dust made it impossible to see what was going on inside them. 



JWST's infrared vision has now peeled back those layers, giving researchers their best look yet at the internal workings of these star factories.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-chaotic-galaxies-crashed-and-clumped">When chaotic galaxies crashed and clumped</h2>



The universe used to be a more violent place. Billions of years ago, galaxies were packed closer together and collided more frequently. That meant more clumps, more chaos, and more extreme star formation.



"The universe used to be much more violent and extreme in the past, and it's now settling down," Linden said. "That's why these rare examples of extreme galaxies no longer exist in the local universe, because, by and large, most galaxies have settled down as well."



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/galaxies_interacting_IRAS-09111-1007_UArizona_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/galaxies_interacting_IRAS-09111-1007_UArizona_1s.webp" alt="Two interacting luminous infrared galaxies, designated as IRAS 09111-1007, from the survey. The galaxies already passed through each other once and are coming back on a second approach. Credit: Great Observatories All-sky LIRG Survey" class="wp-image-1974005"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Two interacting luminous infrared galaxies, designated as IRAS 09111-1007, from the survey. The galaxies already passed through each other once and are coming back on a second approach. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Great Observatories All-sky LIRG Survey</figcaption></figure>



Even so, these rare chaotic galaxies offer astronomers a chance to study a phenomenon that has mostly disappeared from the modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/universe-is-expanding-faster-than-science-can-explain-hubble-tension-physics-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">universe</a>. They serve as a kind of time machine - letting us peek into how galaxies like ours might have looked long ago.



"In a sense, you look at the local universe, and it gives you information about what would have happened 10 billion years ago," said Linden.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-the-milky-way-meets-andromeda">When the Milky Way meets Andromeda</h2>



These observations might not just be a look into the past. They could also foreshadow the future. 



The Milky Way is on a slow-motion collision course with the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/andromeda-galaxy-shows-signs-of-violent-past-collisions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Andromeda</a> galaxy. That merger will happen several billion years from now but, when it does, our quiet and orderly galaxy could roar back to life.



"As Andromeda gets closer and the pressure in the interstellar medium goes up, all of a sudden, the clumps that you will find that the Milky Way is forming will be more and more massive," Linden noted.



The survey also confirmed long-held predictions from computer simulations. Disk-shaped galaxies like the Milky Way form stars in small, scattered clumps. But when galaxies merge, they create larger clumps and more intense star-forming regions.



"We're now finding these massive clumps in the local universe," Linden said. "We are beginning to complete the picture by comparing, for the first time, observations of massive clumps from both the nearby and the distant universe."



These rare chaotic galaxies, once hidden behind thick veils of dust, are now offering scientists a clearer view of how cosmic structures behave under extreme conditions. 



Furthermore, with the help of JWST, researchers are uncovering how collisions and chaos shaped the universe we see today - and how they might shape what comes next.



Information from a University of Arizona <a href="https://news.arizona.edu/news/belly-beast-massive-clumps-reveal-star-factories-bygone-era-cosmos">press release</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Chaotic galaxies are star factories from another time

Most galaxies we see today are quiet, well-structured, and orderly....

Planet formation begins around young stars, inside swirling disks of gas and dust. A new analysis of data from the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) shows that the gas in these disks fades faster than the dust - reshaping ideas about how and when planets take shape.



The new work comes from the ALMA Survey of Gas Evolution of PROtoplanetary Disks (AGE-PRO) - a project led by scientists at the <a href="https://www.arizona.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arizona</a> and the University of Wisconsin-Madison.



“Now we have both, the gas and the dust,” said Professor Ilaria Pascucci. "Observing the gas is much more difficult because it takes much more observing time, and that's why we have to go for a large program like this one to obtain a statistically significant sample.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-close-look-at-planet-forming-disks">A close look at planet-forming disks</h2>



AGE-PRO examined 30 disks around Sun-like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/white-dwarf-stars-may-be-billions-of-years-older-than-estimated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">stars</a> in three star-forming regions that span one to six million years in age. 



These disks were studied not only for their dust properties, as in previous research, but also for their gas mass and size - providing the first robust look at how gas content evolves throughout a disk’s lifetime.



The most surprising result of the study was that gas and dust do not vanish together. Large amounts of gas blow away early, then leak more slowly as the disk grows older. Dust, however, tends to persist.



The researchers also found that the gas-to-dust mass ratio evolves over time - and not necessarily in the way earlier models predicted. 



Smaller disks weren’t shedding their gas faster, as previously assumed. Instead, the gas-to-dust ratio appeared surprisingly consistent across disks of different sizes, a twist that hints at deeper complexities in disk evolution.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-planet-birth">What this means for planet birth</h2>



If gas leaves early, giant planets like Jupiter must form rapidly before the disk’s supply runs out. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rocky-planets-a-new-target-in-the-search-for-extraterrestrial-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Rocky planets</a>, by contrast, may continue building over a longer timeline, supported by lingering dust.



Ke Zhang of Wisconsin-Madison, principal investigator of AGE-PRO, noted that some older disks still carry more gas than expected. This unexpected retention suggests a wider variety of evolutionary paths - and potentially more diverse planetary systems - than previously assumed.



The disk’s initial mass, size, and angular momentum also influence the types of planets it can form - whether gas giants, icy giants, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-planet-named-enaiposha-is-unlike-anything-in-our-solar-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mini-Neptunes</a> - as well as their migration patterns after formation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-finding-the-faintest-signals">Finding the faintest signals</h2>



ALMA’s sharp vision enabled the team to detect faint “fingerprints” of cold gas in the form of molecular spectral lines. 



While carbon monoxide (CO) is the most commonly used gas tracer, AGE-PRO went further - adding diazenylium, formaldehyde, methyl cyanide, and even molecular species containing deuterium, a rare hydrogen isotope. These additional tracers significantly improved the accuracy of gas mass estimates.



This marks the first large-scale chemical survey of planet-forming disks across multiple evolutionary stages, made possible by ALMA’s sensitivity and long integration times.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eyes-on-planet-forming-regions">Eyes on planet-forming regions</h2>



The researchers focused on three nearby regions where stars and planets are currently forming: Ophiuchus, Lupus, and Upper Scorpius. 



These regions represent different stages in the evolution of protoplanetary disks - with Ophiuchus being the youngest (around 1 million years old).



Lupus is in the middle (1–3 million years), and Upper Scorpius is the oldest (about 5–6 million years). This range allowed the team to observe how gas and dust behave over time as disks age.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-radio-signals-and-planet-forming-disks">Radio signals and planet-forming disks </h2>



Dingshan Deng, a graduate student at the University of Arizona’s Lunar and Planetary Laboratory, handled the painstaking data reduction for the Lupus region. 



The task involved turning raw <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-detect-more-than-20-mysterious-radio-signals-from-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">radio signals</a> into detailed images of the disks, a step essential for measuring gas mass.



“Thanks to these new and long observations, we now have the ability to estimate and trace the gas masses, not only for the brightest and better studied disks in that region, but also the smaller and fainter ones,” said Deng. 



“Thanks to the discovery of gas tracers in many disks where it hadn't been seen before, we now have a well-studied sample covering a wide range of disk masses in the Lupus star-forming region.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legacy-for-future-work">A legacy for future work</h2>



According to Professor Pascucci, it took years to figure out the proper data reduction approach and analysis to produce the images used in this paper for the gas masses and in many other papers of the collaboration.



The AGE-PRO data create a public spectral-line library covering key stages of disk evolution. Astronomers worldwide can now compare young and old disks using the same observational foundation. 



The team hopes this resource will fuel new models of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-formation-new-insights-mechanics-physics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planet formation</a>, offering insights into how worlds emerge and migrate inside their dusty cradles.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2506.10734" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal</a>.



Image Credit: NSF/AUI/NSF NRAO/S.Dagnello



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Young planet-forming disks lose gas faster than expected

Planet formation begins around young stars, inside swirling disks of...

Take a sip of cabernet and your tongue might feel as if it's being scraped by coarse paper, while another vintage wine may glide across your mouth. According to chemists, this contrast in wine texture isn't just about how much tannin is present, but rather the exact molecular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wines-may-develop-new-tastes-as-climate-patterns-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">structure</a> of the tannins themselves.



The new <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40377541/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Condensed Tannin Fragmentation Fingerprinting method</a> tags every tannin fragment as it shatters inside a high‑resolution <a href="https://www.broadinstitute.org/technology-areas/what-mass-spectrometry" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mass spectrometer</a>. The method transforms an invisible chemical jumble into a sortable library of flavor clues that winemakers can read like sheet music.



The peer‑reviewed study was directed by <a href="https://foodscience.psu.edu/directory/mtk5407" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Misha Kwasniewski</a>, associate research professor of fermented beverage science and technology at <a href="https://agsci.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State’s College of Agricultural Sciences</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tannins-affect-wine-texture">Tannins affect wine texture</h2>



<a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12111099/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Procyanidins</a> are branched chains of the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/flavanols" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">flavanol catechin</a> that can run from two to well over a dozen units, and the twists, bonds, and branching angles within those chains set how tightly the molecules clamp onto salivary proteins. 



Longer, more entangled chains strip away lubrication faster, so the same <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-grapes-became-wine-in-italy-over-7000-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemical</a> family can create either a silky glide or a chalky drag across the gums.



When tannins bind those proteins, the resulting complexes lose solubility and scatter light - roughening tissue surfaces and amplifying the tactile signal drinkers describe as <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34796497/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">astringency</a>. 



The familiar sensation is therefore less about tongue chemistry than about the mechanical friction created once saliva’s slip layer has been thinned out.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mixtures-of-taste-and-touch">Mixtures of taste and touch</h2>



Bitterness rides a different sensory pathway, relying on taste‑bud receptors that respond to specific tannin fragments floating free in the fluid rather than to whole chains. 



Two drinks can carry the same total tannin load yet, by favoring different fragment sizes, trigger strikingly different mixtures of taste and touch.



Climate compounds the story because cooler regions produce grapes with fewer skin tannins and shorter seed tannins. As a result, wines from Pennsylvania or Scandinavia often feel lighter than peers from California or Australia even when alcohol, color, and sugar match. 



This gap has long frustrated growers who cannot simply boost tannin numbers without upsetting balance elsewhere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tannin-structure-and-wine-texture-details">Tannin structure and wine texture details</h2>



Similar <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32242660/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">in‑source fragmentation</a> approaches are gaining traction across metabolomics because they deliver tandem‑level structural detail on instruments that usually collect only parent masses, saving both money and analysis time. 



The Penn State team adapted the trick for tannins by firing three voltage steps (gentle, moderate, and high) at each molecule. This ensured that dimers, trimers, and longer polymers all leave distinctive fingerprints.



The researchers validated the workflow on 19 lab mixtures whose tannin <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wine-production-in-a-warming-world-the-winners-and-losers/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">recipes</a> were already known, deliberately mixing short and long chains to challenge the algorithm. 



The fingerprint report matched within two percentage points across the board, then repeated the performance on eight commercial ciders where the ingredient lists were revealed only after testing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-it-matter">Why does it matter?</h2>



The precision of the tannin fingerprinting method matters because classic colorimetric or precipitation assays lump every tannin together, masking the structural fine print that drives texture and health activity. 



Without that information, winemakers have been forced to tweak fermentation time, barrel choice, or fining agents by taste alone and hope the chemistry followed.



“Sometimes that tannic element is really harsh, like dragging sandpaper across your tongue. Other times it is velvety or smooth,” said Kwasniewski.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-manipulating-the-texture-of-wine">Manipulating the texture of wine</h2>



Pennsylvania vintners often struggle to build the weightier mouthfeel associated with <a href="https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=vitis+vinifera" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vitis vinifera</a> harvested in warmer valleys where skins thicken and seeds ripen fully. 



With the new fingerprint in hand, they can select clones, tweak maceration length, or add oak alternatives in a more targeted quest for body.



Because the read‑out comes from a one‑minute <a href="https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Analytical_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modules_(Analytical_Chemistry)/Instrumentation_and_Analysis/Chromatography/Liquid_Chromatography" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">liquid‑chromatography</a> run, small wineries could check fermentations each morning, log the tannin profile, and steer punch‑downs or blending before irreversible changes set in. 



Kwasniewski’s group is beta‑testing a suitcase‑sized instrument that can plug into the hose manifold next to the press.



Cider makers and craft‑beer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/red-or-white-the-surprising-truth-about-wine-and-cancer-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">brewers</a> have joined the conversation, chasing the sweet spot where bitterness perks up flavor without tipping into harsh drying. 



Early trials suggest they can tune ingredient blends to drop perceived bitterness by fifteen percent while keeping the bright snap consumers expect.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tannin-structure-and-health-benefits">Tannin structure and health benefits</h2>



Beyond flavor, tannin architecture parallels antioxidant power in foods such as dark chocolate, where procyanidins shoulder much of the <a href="https://www.cancer.gov/publications/dictionaries/cancer-terms/def/free-radical" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">free‑radical</a> scavenging load. 



Early <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0955286302002152" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> shows that lengthening certain procyanidin chains can boost oxidative‑stress protection in tissue models without altering taste.



The Penn State fingerprint could therefore let nutrition researchers screen <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4696435/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cocoa</a> batches or tea harvests for the most potent molecular forms before those ingredients reach candy factories or teabags. Regulators in turn might rely on the data to validate label claims about flavanol content.



It could also clarify why some epidemiological reports tie moderate red‑<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moderate-wine-consumption-reduces-cardiovascular-risks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wine</a> intake to vascular benefits while others find weaker links. Differentiating tannin shapes instead of measuring simple totals may reconcile those mixed results and point nutrition guidelines toward structure‑specific thresholds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-uses-of-tannin-fingerprinting">Future uses of tannin fingerprinting</h2>



The team now plans to push detection toward even larger tannin polymers that dominate age‑worthy reds - a task that may require higher voltages or alternative ionization modes to break the stubborn giants apart. 



Parallel work aims to translate the approach to <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9796155/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">white‑wine phenolics</a>, coffee, and even hops.



Collaborations with grape breeders are under way to evaluate experimental crosses for mouthfeel before full planting, turning sensory instinct into data that farmers can act on. 



If the project succeeds, future drink labels could list nuanced tannin fingerprints alongside alcohol percentage and acidity.



The study is published in the <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.jafc.5c02379?goto=supporting-info" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Hidden chemistry of wine: What actually shapes its texture?

Take a sip of cabernet and your tongue might feel...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



—–



Like what you saw and read?&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a>&nbsp;for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



—–



Check us out on&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href="https://www.earth.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth.com</a>.



—–

Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



-----

What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"]</div>



Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

News coming your way