Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Alcohol consumption has been linked to serious negative health outcomes in much research, but also to instances of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-heat-linked-to-mental-health-issues/">health</a> benefit. In the latest research, to be presented at the American Heart Association’s <a href="https://professional.heart.org/en/meetings/epi-lifestyle">Epidemiology, Prevention, Lifestyle &amp; Cardiometabolic Health Conference 2022</a>, data from 312,400 adults in the UK indicates that moderate alcohol consumption, taken at mealtime, may reduce the risk of developing type 2 diabetes.&nbsp;



“The effects of alcohol consumption on health have been described as a double-edged sword because of its apparent abilities to cut deeply in either direction – harmful or helpful, depending on how it is consumed,” said study author Dr. Hao Ma, a biostatistical analyst at the Tulane University Obesity Research Center in New Orleans. “Previous studies have focused on how much people drink and have had mixed results. Very few studies have focused on other drinking details, such as the timing of alcohol intake.”



In their analysis, the researchers used data from adults enrolled on the UK Biobank, who reported being regular drinkers of alcohol.&nbsp;The participants, all of whom enrolled between 2006 and 2010, were monitored over about 11 years. At the time of enrollment, none of them had diabetes, cardiovascular diseases or cancer. In this study researchers specifically examined the effect that moderate drinking may have on the development of new-onset type 2 diabetes among the study participants. The average age of participants was 56 years, slightly more than half of the adults were women, and 95% were white adults.



The negative health risks most commonly associated with alcohol consumption include motor vehicle accidents, violence, risky sexual behavior, high blood pressure, obesity, strokes, breast cancer, liver disease, depression, suicide, accidents, alcohol abuse and alcoholism. These health risks increase with increasing levels of consumption, and for some cancers and other health conditions, the risk increases even with less than one drink daily.



On the other hand, some research has found that moderate drinking seems to be good for the heart and circulatory system, raises HDL cholesterol levels and reduces the risks of blood clots and gallstones, although some of the results are inconclusive or contradictory.&nbsp;



“Clinical trials have also found that moderate drinking may have some health benefits, including on glucose metabolism,” said Dr. Ma. “However, it remains unclear whether glucose metabolism benefits translate into a reduction of type 2 diabetes. In our study, we sought to determine if the association between alcohol intake and risk of type 2 diabetes might differ by the timing of alcohol intake with respect to meals.”



The analysis of data from the 312,400 participants who were regular drinkers indicated that consuming alcohol, most notably wine, with meals is associated with a lower risk of developing type 2 diabetes. During the 11-year monitoring period, 8,600 of the adults in the study developed type 2 diabetes but those who consumed alcohol with meals had a 14 percent lower risk than those who consumed alcohol without eating food.



This benefit was only seen among people who drank alcohol during meals, although the exact mealtime was not specified in the dataset. In addition, lower risk of type 2 diabetes was most common among participants who drank wine, and not other types of alcoholic beverages. In fact, increased consumption of beer or liquor was associated with a higher risk of developing type 2 diabetes.



“The message from this study is that drinking moderate amounts of wine with meals may prevent type 2 diabetes if you do not have another health condition that may be negatively affected by moderate alcohol consumption, and in consultation with your doctor,” said Dr. Ma.



Despite the apparent lower risk of developing type 2 diabetes, the American Heart Association and the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommend that adults who do not drink alcohol should not start. Those who already consume alcohol should do so in moderation – this is defined as one glass of wine (150 ml) or equivalent per day for a woman and two glasses of wine (300 ml) or equivalent per day for a man, according to Ma.



According to Dr. Robert H. Eckel, who was not involved in the study, the relationship between alcohol consumption and new-onset type 2 diabetes remains controversial.



“These data suggest that it’s not the alcohol with meals but other ingredients in wine, perhaps antioxidants, that may be the factor in potentially reducing new-onset type 2 diabetes," said Dr. Eckel.



"While the type of wine, red versus white, needs to be defined, and validation of these findings and mechanisms of benefit are needed, the results suggest that if you are consuming alcohol with meals, wine may be a better choice."



The study suffers from the limitation that most of those participating were self-reported white adults and of European descent. It is unknown whether the findings can be generalized to other populations.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Alcohol at mealtime reduces the risk of type 2 diabetes

Alcohol consumption has been linked to serious negative health outcomes...

In a new study from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>, scientists have investigated how wild chimpanzee social networks are impacted by human-dominated landscapes. The researchers discovered that male and female chimpanzees react much differently to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/could-a-botanical-extract-extend-the-lifespan-of-humans/">human</a> presence.&nbsp;



"Wild animals are being forced to modify their behavior due to the risks of living alongside humans," said study lead author Zoe Satsias.



By observing chimpanzees in forests and human-dominated landscapes, the researchers determined that females tend to avoid human presence, particularly those with dependent offspring. This avoidance may be because the females are less likely to risk the danger associated with human presence. These risks include the humans themselves, dogs, livestock, snares, traps, and roads.&nbsp;



Males seem to feel much differently. In fact, Dr. Matt McLennan, who runs the Bulindi Chimpanzee and Community Project, said that male chimpanzees seem unperturbed by the prospect of running into people, and are even willing to engage in confrontations with villagers.



The differences in behavior affect chimpanzee social structure. Dr. Kimberly Hockings is an expert in the Centre for Ecology and Conservation on Exeter's Penryn Campus in Cornwall. She explained that males and females were equally central in their social networks inside the forest - but in more risky croplands and village areas, the core of the social network was dominated exclusively by males.



This change in social structure could lead to devastating consequences for chimpanzee populations as human encroachment continues.



"The avoidance of certain areas by females – resulting in them being in the periphery of their social networks – could disrupt the spread of information and reduce social learning opportunities for younger chimpanzees, potentially suppressing the learning of new behaviors that could help them survive," said Dr. Hockings.



"Large animal species are most likely to survive human-induced rapid environmental change if they display high levels of behavioral flexibility," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



"Examining social responses in species that form closely bonded social groups and display high fission-fusion dynamics, such as chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes, will help determine their resilience to dynamic human activities and the potential for sustainable human-wildlife interactions."



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/animal-behaviour">Animal Behaviour</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Female chimpanzees try to avoid the dangers of humans

In a new study from the University of Exeter, scientists...

The potato is being increasingly incorporated into regular diets worldwide, even in Asian countries where rice has been the traditional staple food for millennia. However, unlike in the case of other major crop staples such as rice or wheat, efforts to breed new varieties of potatoes with higher yields have remained large unsuccessful.&nbsp;



A research team led by the <a href="https://www.mpipz.mpg.de/en">Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research</a> is trying to solve this problem by implementing genome-assisted breeding of new potato varieties that will be more productive and resistant to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ipcc-report-window-to-secure-a-liveable-future-is-rapidly-closing/">climate change</a>.



After shopping for potatoes on a market today, it is quite possible that the buyer will return home with a potato variety which was already available a century ago. This is not only testament to the enduring popularity of traditional potato varieties, but also highlights their lack of genetic variety. This can have dramatic consequences, such as the Irish famine of the 1840s, where for several years the only existent variety of potato crops was attacked by the newly emergent tuber blight and rotted in the ground.&nbsp;



The difficulty of breeding different potato varieties stems from this plant’s genetic peculiarity. Instead of inheriting one copy of every chromosome from both the father and the mother (as in the case of humans), potatoes inherit two copies of each chromosome from each parent, making them a tetraploid species.&nbsp;



This increased genetic complexity makes it highly challenging and time-consuming to generate new varieties with desired combinations of individual properties. Moreover, multiple copies of each chromosome also make the scientific reconstruction of the potato genome a highly challenging task.



The scientists from the Max Planck Institute have managed to overcome these longstanding problems and succeeded in generating the first full assembly of the potato genome through a simple and elegant trick. Rather than trying to differentiate the four – often very similar – chromosome copies from one another, the researchers sequenced the DNA of large numbers of individual pollen cells, which contain only two random copies of each chromosome. This helped them reduce the complexity of the problem and finally sequence the entire potato genome.



With this information, researchers can now identify more easily the genetic variants responsible for desirable or undesirable traits, and incorporate or exclude them during breeding. Improvements in potato breeding could have an enormous impact on delivering food security in the decades to come.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists are breeding more resilient potatoes

The potato is being increasingly incorporated into regular diets worldwide,...

A new study led by the University of Miami’s <a href="https://www.rsmas.miami.edu/">Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science</a> has found that a stressful temperature treatment in the laboratory for 90 days can make corals more tolerant to increased water temperatures.



Since global warming is the greatest threat that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-destroyed-14-percent-of-the-worlds-coral-reefs/">coral reefs</a> currently face, these findings can offer restoration scientists new approaches to increase the success rate of planting new, more resilient coral onto degraded reefs as climate change continues to increase water temperatures.



While previous “stress-hardening” experiments have exposed corals to short-term higher temperatures, this new study assessed the effect of a long-term, variable treatment, where temperatures were increased to a stressful level for a brief period of time, twice per day.



“This ‘training’ regime is akin to an athlete preparing for a race,” said study lead author Allyson DeMerlis, a Ph.D. candidate at the UM Rosenstiel School. “We were able to demonstrate that this temperature treatment can boost the corals’ stamina to heat stress.”



DeMerlis and her colleagues collected fragments from six distinct genetic individuals of Caribbean staghorn coral from the UM Rosenstiel School’s <a href="https://rescueareef.rsmas.miami.edu/">Rescue a Reef</a> coral nursery and randomly assigned them to three groups: field control, laboratory control, and variable temperature treatment. 



While the laboratory control corals were kept at a constant 28 degrees Celsius for a period of three months, the variable temperature treatment corals were exposed twice per day to fluctuating temperatures between 28 and 31 degrees Celsius.



The scientists measured bleaching progression and the number of days that corals endured thermal stress before bleaching. They found that the variable temperature treatment significantly improved tolerance to thermal stress. Moreover, untreated corals were more prone to succumb to disease-like signs of tissue loss.



These results prove the benefits of using such methods to increase corals’ thermal endurance, and could be applied in the field by restoration practicians in order to identify locations where their nurseries and outplanting sites could be exposed to higher, fluctuating temperatures.



“We have unfortunately reached the point where active intervention and restoration are necessary to ensure that valuable coral reefs are able to persist for generations to come,” said study senior author Ian Enochs, a coral scientist at the <a href="https://www.noaa.gov/">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a> (NOAA).&nbsp;“We want to increase the efficiency and efficacy of these efforts, and ultimately ensure that the corals that are placed back out on a reef have the greatest chance of enduring the stressful conditions they will face in the future.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Our findings bring a glimmer of hope to the uncertain future of corals, as we identified a treatment in which we can enhance their tolerance to heat stress,” concluded DeMerlis.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00338-022-02232-z">Coral Reefs</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Corals can be trained to endure heat stress

A new study led by the University of Miami’s Rosenstiel...

Fossils of the dinosaur group known as Stegosauria have been discovered on all continents except Antarctica and Australia, but more than half of the 14 different species unearthed thus far have been found in China. These iconic herbivorous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-dinosaurs-died-in-the-springtime/">dinosaurs</a> with small heads and impressive armored plates and sharp spikes on their bodies roamed the planet during the Middle and Late Jurassic period, about 170 to 145 million years ago.&nbsp;



Stegosaurian fossil finds are rare, and the skeletons are always incomplete, making it difficult to work out how many different species there are, and what evolutionary relationships exist between them.&nbsp;



A team from the Chongqing Bureau of Geological and Mineral Resource Exploration and Development in China, and London’s Natural History Museum, have now identified and named a new species, Bashanosaurus primitivus. The remains of the new stegosaur were excavated from a deposit in Chongqing, China. Its scientific name, “Bashan,” refers to the ancient name for the area of Chongqing in China where it was found.



The new species has some unique features that led the paleontologists to place it in a brand new genus. It has a smaller head and less developed shoulder blades, as well as armored plates that are narrower and have thicker bases than other stegosaurians discovered thus far. In addition, the bony point at the end of the Bashanosaurus shoulder blade is small and less well developed than in other stegosaurians, while a bony projection of the thighbone is positioned below the middle of the shaft, and the bases of the armor plates curve outwards and are thicker than the plates on the backs of its later relatives.&nbsp;



Interestingly, it does share some features with the very earliest armored dinosaurs, which date from 20 million years earlier, indicating that it may indeed be an early representative of the Stegosauria. The evolutionary history of this group is not well understood, so the addition of a new species contributes important and valuable knowledge.&nbsp;



“All these features are clues to the stegosaurs’ place on the dinosaur family tree,” said Dr. Dai Hui, who led the research. “Bashanosaurus&nbsp;can be distinguished from&nbsp;other Middle Jurassic stegosaurs, and clearly represents a new species.”



The fossilized remains of the new stegosaurian, which included bones from the back, shoulder, thigh, feet, and ribs, as well as several armor plates, have been dated to the Bajocian stage of the Middle Jurassic period, around 168 million years ago. This is much earlier than most known stegosaurians and can thus cast light on the early evolution of the group.&nbsp;



“Our analysis of the family tree indicates that it is one of the earliest-diverging stegosaurs along with the Chongqing Lizard (Chungkingosaurus) and Huyangosaurus. These were all unearthed from Middle to Late Jurassic Shaximiao Formation in China, suggesting that stegosaurs might have originated in Asia,” said Dr. Hui.



Well-known Stegosauria include&nbsp;Huayangosaurus&nbsp;(one of the most primitive members of the group),&nbsp;Gigantspinosaurus, notable for its enormous shoulder spines, and&nbsp;Miragaia, known&nbsp;for its extremely long neck. However, the fragmentary fossil material has hindered attempts to understand how the stegosaurians evolved and what the evolutionary relationships are between species.



With the discovery of this new species, however, the relationships have become clearer.&nbsp;Bashanosaurus primitivus&nbsp;has several primitive features that are similar to those of the earliest stegosaurians like&nbsp;Huayangosaurus&nbsp;and&nbsp;Gigantspinosaurus,&nbsp;as well as to early representatives of the armored dinosaurs. These features include longer tail vertebrae, a shoulder blade that is narrower and flares out, and features of the back vertebrae that are similar to the early armored dinosaur, Scelidosaurus, which lived during the Early Jurassic period.



“The discovery of this stegosaur from the Middle Jurassic of China adds to an increasing body of evidence that the group evolved in the early Middle Jurassic, or perhaps even in the Early Jurassic, and as such represent some of the earliest known bird-hipped dinosaurs,” said study co-author Dr. Susannah Maidment.



“China seems to have been a hotspot for stegosaur diversity, with numerous species now known from the Middle Jurassic right the way through until the end of the Early Cretaceous period.”



Image Credit: Banana Art Studio



The study is published in the <a href="https://vertpaleo.org/journal-of-vertebrate-paleontology/">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fossil from China may be the world’s oldest stegosaur

Fossils of the dinosaur group known as Stegosauria have been...

After noticing an increase in the number of disposal masks littering rocky pools, an international team of researchers became interested in learning how masks and their chemicals are affecting marine life. It is already known that polypropylene, a type of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-interior-has-accumulated-missing-plastics/">plastic</a> found in masks, has detrimental effects on aquatic animals.&nbsp;



The researchers observed the behavior of three small crustaceans - blue mussels (Mytilus edulis), sea snails (Littorina littorea), and copepods - in the presence of masks and compared this to their normal behavior.&nbsp;



When put into a simulated rocky environment with mask fragments, scientists noticed that mussels were 40 percent more likely to cluster together, a behavior typically observed when confronted with a threat which is also used to measure stress in the species. The experts believe mussels are using their osphradium (a sensory organ) to detect the chemicals released by the masks and aggregate together as a result.&nbsp;



Marine snails were also affected. Although they did not avoid the mask or the mask fragments, they did exhibit stress when they crawled on them and preferred not to crawl over them. Furthermore, the chemicals from the masks seemed to make them less alert, which means they might be more likely to suffer predation.&nbsp;



The study also suggests that copepod reproduction is affected by mask chemicals. Male copepods found it more challenging to detect female pheromones, which meant they were less likely to find females and mate with them.



The findings of this study may have wider implications. The species observed for this study are keystone species, which means that other members of the ecosystem heavily depend on them. A decline in populations of keystone species could have devastating consequences for other members of their community, including human consumers.&nbsp;



“We’re seeing more and more masks in rocky pools,” said Laurent Seuront, a marine ecologist at the French Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique. “This could cascade up the food chain and up to us.”



The research will be presented by Seuront at the <a href="https://osm2022.secure-platform.com/">2022 Ocean Sciences Meeting</a>, which will be held online. The meeting brings together researchers from the <a href="https://www.agu.org/">American Geophysical Union</a>, the Association for the Sciences of Limnology and Oceanography, and The Oceanography Society.



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By <a href="mailto:nire518@gmail.com">Erin Moody </a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Disposable masks are increasingly impacting marine animals

After noticing an increase in the number of disposal masks...

It’s been long hypothesized that Stonehenge was a solar calendar of sorts. Specific alignments of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-sun-may-be-the-original-source-of-earths-water/">Sun</a> with different stones is suggestive. Now, a new analysis of the famous stone ring reveals exactly how it may have functioned.&nbsp;



“The clear solstitial alignment of Stonehenge has prompted people to suggest that the site included some kind of calendar since the antiquarian William Stukeley,” said Professor Timothy Darvill of Bournemouth University. “Now, discoveries brought the issue into sharper focus and indicate the site was a calendar based on a tropical solar year of 365.25 days.”



According to Darvill’s analysis the calendar was based on what seems to us to be an unusual ten day week. Special stones seem to mark the beginning of each of the twelve months denoted by the circle.&nbsp;



“The proposed calendar works in a very straightforward way. Each of the 30 stones in the sarsen circle represents a day within a month, itself divided into three weeks each of 10 days,” said Professor Darvill.



Although seven day weeks seem natural to most of us, there is a precedence for ten day weeks. They were used in other parts of the world near the time that Stonehenge was built.&nbsp;



“Such a solar calendar was developed in the eastern Mediterranean in the centuries after 3000 BC and was adopted in Egypt as the Civil Calendar around 2700 and was widely used at the start of the Old Kingdom about 2600 BC,” explained Professor Darvill.



Although there isn’t solid evidence of travel between Stonehenge and the Mediterranean or Egypt yet, there is some evidence of distant travel from that time. The “Amesbury Archer,” a bronze age man whose burial was found nearby seems to have been born in the Alps and moved to Britain as a teenager.&nbsp;



Professor Darvill hopes that future research, possibly including DNA analysis will make a link between far flung cultures more clear. Still, his work has already furthered our understanding of Stonehenge.&nbsp;



“Finding a solar calendar represented in the architecture of Stonehenge opens up a whole new way of seeing the monument as a place for the living," said Darvill. "A place where the timing of ceremonies and festivals was connected to the very fabric of the universe and celestial movements in the heavens.”&nbsp;



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://antiquity.ac.uk/">Antiquity</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New analysis reveals that Stonehenge was a solar calendar

It’s been long hypothesized that Stonehenge was a solar calendar...

In response to the dire circumstances surrounding the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/many-older-adults-develop-medical-conditions-after-covid-19/">COVID-19</a> pandemic, countries pledged around $13 trillion in stimulus packages to help economic recovery. However, of this large sum of money that could have been used to restructure economies in a more visionary manner, only six percent of it was invested in projects that address climate change issues.&nbsp;



This is the finding of a <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> study, details of which are published today in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature</a>. The authors analyzed over $13 trillion in COVID-19-related stimulus packages from 19 countries and the European Union, and found that the vast majority of recovery spending didn’t address climate issues at all. Moreover, three percent of the money went to support projects that are likely to increase greenhouse gas emissions.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“These economic recovery packages provided an opportunity for countries, including the United States, to really envision what they want their economies to look like going forward,” said co-author&nbsp;<a href="https://engineering.jhu.edu/ehe/faculty/scot-miller/">Scot Miller</a>, an assistant professor of environmental health and engineering at Johns Hopkins. “The pandemic could have been an opportunity to push countries toward greener economies and a lot of governments have failed to do so.”



The team of scientists analyzed each nation’s stimulus policy from the beginning of the pandemic in 2020 to well into 2021, identifying the percentage of funds allocated to projects that would lower greenhouse gas emissions, those that would increase them and those that would have no impact. The six percent of recovery funding that did support emission-reducing projects was invested in activities such as the development of electric vehicles and transit infrastructure, building energy efficient homes and offices, and carrying out research into renewable energy.&nbsp;



“Even though this was a public health crisis, in principle governments could have intervened in the economy in a way that changed everything, getting together to do something really big to meet the climate challenge,” said lead author&nbsp;<a href="https://sais.jhu.edu/users/jnahm1">Jonas Nahm</a>, assistant professor of energy, resources, and environment at Johns Hopkins’ School of Advanced International Studies. “But the vast majority of the money spent has very tenuous relations to emissions so it was, overall, very disappointing.”



The team found that of green stimulus measures, only about 27 percent would directly reduce greenhouse emissions. The remaining approximately 72 percent would have only an indirect impact; these included projects like subsidies for biofuel producers in Brazil, or funding in Germany to aid the construction of electric vehicle charging stations.



South Korea and the European Union each devoted 30 percent of their stimulus money to funding green projects, while Brazil, Germany and Italy invested more than 20 percent. France spent ten percent of its recovery money on green projects, but the majority of countries, including the United States, Japan, Russia, and the United Kingdom, paid almost no attention to climate-related projects and spent less than five percent of their stimulus packages in this area.&nbsp;



Governments clearly did not prioritize climate protection over economic growth in the attempts to recover from the devastating effects of the COVID-19 pandemic. This is common during economic downturns, the authors say, yet stimulus spending during recessions offers an opportunity to combine climate and economic objectives. In the aftermath of the 2009 recession, for instance, 16% of global stimulus spending targeted emissions-reducing activities.



The trillions of dollars pledged by countries around the world to stimulate economic recovery were spent, instead, mainly on unconditional checks issued to individuals and businesses. They could have been invested in technology, infrastructure, and research and development to meet the climate goals of the Paris Agreement, creating jobs and economic recovery along the way.&nbsp; Signatories to the Agreement have 2030 deadlines to meet concerning interim emissions goals, and recovery funding could have been used to support their attempts to reach these targets.&nbsp;



“If there was ever an opportunity to tie economic recovery with these climate goals that are drawing closer by the day, this would have been the time to do it,” Miller said. “In the months and years ahead, we shouldn’t forget about climate and greenhouse gas emissions goals when devising economic recovery measures. These 2030 climate goals are coming faster and sooner than we think and we can’t put off thinking about climate change until the pandemic is over.”



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Pandemic stimulus funding could have been used to address climate crisis

In response to the dire circumstances surrounding the COVID-19 pandemic,...

The use of eDNA, or environmental DNA, is an increasingly common practice in conservation. DNA found in the environment has been used to detect endangered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-turtles-are-making-a-comeback-in-the-cayman-islands/">turtles</a> in Vietnam, and has also been used in demanding environments like the Amazon and Mt. Everest.&nbsp;



In an attempt to monitor whale and dolphin populations, many of which are endangered, researchers from three universities and the <a href="https://www.wcs.org/">Wildlife Conservation Society</a> (WCS) have turned to eDNA collected from water samples. This method can be used in concert with other monitoring methods, including acoustic surveys. It’s even possible that eDNA may one day be used to identify individual animals.&nbsp;



Whales and dolphins are increasingly in need of protection and careful monitoring. Plans by the Biden administration, the state of New York (where the study was carried out) and others to increase offshore wind administration pose potential threats to whales. This on top of threats from fishing gear, whaling, pollution and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thousands-of-whales-are-killed-by-ship-strikes-each-year/">strikes with ships</a>. 



Environmental DNA could be one more tool to help understand and protect whales and dolphins. WCS has already been working to develop guidelines for wind energy to make it as whale and dolphin friendly as possible.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; 



“Determining how cetaceans and other threatened marine animals use coastal habitats is critical to their effective conservation," said study lead author Dr. Elizabeth Alter of California State University.



"By generating eDNA data in parallel with survey data, it will be possible to gain a clearer understanding of how this tool can be used in management and conservation contexts to monitor species of conservation concern over large marine ecosystems.”



Not only are whales and dolphins detectable with eDNA, so are some of their prey species, such as fish. Monitoring whales, dolphins, and smaller animals may provide a greater understanding of the state of various populations and the habitats that are suitable for them.&nbsp;



Study co-author Dr. Howard C. Rosenbaum is the director of WCS’s Ocean Giants Program and a senior scientist at the NY Aquarium.



“Innovation and application of new techniques, such as the possibility of using eDNA, that leads to having better information about distribution of whales, dolphins and their prey is so important today, especially where potential impacts in these habitats may be increasing human activities," said Dr. Rosenbaum.



The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/">Frontiers</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Environmental DNA collected from water used to monitor whales

The use of eDNA, or environmental DNA, is an increasingly...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tomato-fruit-warns-the-rest-of-the-plant-when-attacked/">Tomatoes</a> have been domesticated by native American cultures thousands of years ago. However, since very few tomato archaeological remains have been found, the precise history of this plant’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cat-brains-shrank-in-size-as-they-became-domesticated/">domestication</a> remains a mystery. While some scientists claim that the domestication occurred in Mesoamerica, the region comprising Mexico and Central America, others argue that this process happened in Peru and Ecuador. 



By analyzing the whole genome of 628 wild and cultivated tomato plants, a team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.upv.es/en/">Polytechnic University of Valencia</a> in Spain has discovered that the history of the American tomato is more complex than initially thought.



The genomic analyses revealed that, while most of the contemporary cultivated tomato is very similar to the wild Mesoamerican plants (Solanum lycopersicum&nbsp;var.&nbsp;cerasiforme), wild Ecuadorian and Peruvian species (S. pimpinellifolium) have also been involved in its domestication.



According to the scientists, the domestication process started with the Mesoamerican materials, which migrated southward to a region located between the foot of the Andes and the Amazonian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deforestation-in-the-amazon-rainforest-hits-new-records/">rainforest</a> in Peru and Ecuador called Ceja de Montaña. This initial migration was probably fast and most likely due to the emergence of commercial relationships between different Mesoamerican and Ecuadorian and Peruvian cultures.



More recently though, some of these plants, very similar to the ones still grown in Northern Peru and Southern Ecuador, migrated back to Mexico. Surprisingly, the vintage Yucatan tomatoes are more similar to the ones found in&nbsp;Ceja de Montaña than to their wild counterparts found in Mexico, suggesting that some wild tomatoes migrated southward and, then, went back as cultivated.



These voyages would change the tomato forever. Growers from&nbsp;Ceja de Montaña did not use pure Mesoamerican plants, but rather admixtures created by crossing the newly arrived plants with wild varieties from coastal Peru and Ecuador. This hybridization between Mesoamerican and Ecuatorial plants was necessary for the adaptation of northern tomatoes to the climate and latitude of Ecuador.



These complex movements between Mesoamerican and Ecuatorial territories were only the beginning of the tomato’s trip around the world. After being introduced in Europe in the 16th century by the Spanish conquistadores, many more different genetic varieties were and continue to be created according to various people’s needs, uses, and tastes. From a secondary crop used mainly to prepare sauces by some Mesoamerican populations, the tomato spread around the world and became one of the most famous and widely consumed vegetable.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Tomato domestication was more complex than previously thought

Tomatoes have been domesticated by native American cultures thousands of...

An international team of archaeologists led by the <a href="https://www.shh.mpg.de/en">Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History</a> and the <a href="https://english.cas.cn/">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a> has recently discovered an innovative 40,000-year-old culture in a well-preserved Paleolithic site in northern China. This previously unidentified set of cultural innovations found at the site of Xiambei in the Nihewan Basin consists of a set of distinct blade-like stone tools, together with the earliest known evidence of ochre processing in Eastern Asia.



“One main layer of the site contains the earliest known ochre-processing feature in East Asia, a distinctive&nbsp;miniaturized stone tool assemblage with bladelet-like tools bearing traces of hafting, and a bone tool,” reported study lead author Dr. Shixia Yang, a researcher at the Max Plank Institute and the Chinese Academy.



By using accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS) radiocarbon dating and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating to establish the chronology of a 290-cm-deep section of the site, the researchers found that the main cultural layer discovered at Xiambei is 41,000 to 39,000 years old. Although no hominin remains were found at Xiambei, the presence of modern human fossils at sites located nearby suggests that the visitors to Xiambei were probably Homo sapiens, although genetic and cultural exchanges with archaic groups of Denisovans or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetic-variant-linked-to-both-covid-risk-and-hiv-protection/">Neanderthals</a> are not excluded.



According to the scientists, the different types of ochre found at this site were brought to Xiambei and processed through pounding and abrasion to produce powders of different color and consistency. Some of the blade-like stone tools showed clear evidence of hafting to a handle, with functional and residue analysis suggesting that they were used for boring, hide scraping, whittling plant material, and cutting soft animal matter. These hafted, multipurpose tools are evidence of a complex technical system for transforming raw materials not seen at older or slightly younger archeological sites.



“The ability of hominins to live in northern latitudes, with cold and highly seasonal environments, was likely facilitated by the evolution of culture in the form of economic, social, and symbolic adaptations,” said Dr. Yang. “The finds at Xiamabei are helping us to understand these adaptations and their potential role in human migration.”



According to Dr. Yang and her colleagues, the record emerging from Eastern Asia shows that a variety of adaptations were taking place as modern humans entered the region 40,000 years ago that challenge previous ideas of continuous cultural innovation and the existence of a fully formed set of adaptations that enabled early humans to expand from Africa all over the globe.



“Our findings show that current evolutionary scenarios are too simple,” said study co-author Michael Petraglia, a professor of Human Evolution and Prehistory at the Max Planck Institute. “Modern humans, and our culture, emerged through repeated but differing episodes of genetic and social exchanges over large geographic areas, rather than as a single, rapid dispersal wave across Asia,” he concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-04445-2">Nature</a>. &nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Evidence of innovative 40,000-year-old culture found in China

An international team of archaeologists led by the Max Planck...

A new study from the <a href="https://www.leeds.ac.uk/">University of Leeds</a> reveals why exercise becomes harder when you don't do it very often. The experts have linked low levels of physical activity to the deactivation of a vital protein in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/watermelon-may-provide-health-benefits-to-the-entire-body/">body</a>.&nbsp;



The research shows that a lack of exercise deactivates the Piezo1 protein, a blood flow sensor, which then reduces the density of capillaries carrying blood to the muscles. When this occurs, blood flow is restricted and physical activity becomes more difficult. According to the study authors, this phenomenon can lead to a reduction in how much exercise is even possible.



"Physical fitness is important for survival," wrote the study authors. "Lack of physical activity results in detraining, lower performance, and ultimately, incapacity. At least 2,500 years ago it was first documented that exercise is good for health."



"Since the first epidemiological studies, research has continued to bestow on us a wealth of evidence that exercise protects against a host of ailments and life-threatening conditions that affect large numbers of people in 21st-century societies through heart attacks, strokes, diabetes, depression, dementia, cancer, osteoporosis, chronic kidney disease, and sexual dysfunction. Exercise is commonly encouraged, even prescribed, as therapy."



The researchers conducted their study using a mouse model, but the Piezo1 protein is also found in humans, which suggests that the outcome of low physical activity is the same.&nbsp;



"Unfortunately, many people fail to exercise enough, for reasons such as injury and computer usage. This puts people at more risk of disease. The less people exercise, the less fit they become, often leading to a downward spiral," said study lead author Fiona Bartoli.



“Although many responses to exercise are known, how the benefits of exercise are initially triggered at a molecular level is mysterious. Our study highlights the crucial link between physical activity and physical performance made at this level by Piezo1. Keeping our Piezo1s active by exercising may be crucial in our physical performance and health.”&nbsp;



Professor David Beech said that the research sheds new light on how Piezo1’s role in blood vessels is connected to physical activity. "A lot was already known about its role in blood vessel development, but far less was known about its contribution to vessel maintenance in adults."&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Our discovery also provides an opportunity to think about how loss of muscle function could be treated in new ways: if we activate Piezo1, it might help to maintain exercise capability.”&nbsp;



The study was funded by the British Heart Foundation and is published in the <a href="https://www.jci.org/">Journal of Clinical Investigation</a>.



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Exercise literally becomes harder when you don't do it

A new study from the University of Leeds reveals why...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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