Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Humpaback,Whales,Playing,In,The,Ocean,In,Juneau,,Alaska

A new study published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2021.0547#d1e1723">Biology Letters</a> has found that some humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) travel extremely long distances in search of mates during their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-have-a-high-risk-of-disease-due-to-inbreeding/">breeding</a> season. Moreover, while scientists previously presumed that whales which assemble on winter breeding grounds in Mexico and Hawaii are seasonally isolated, the new findings suggest that whales in these two winter assemblies may mix during one winter season.



By analyzing the <a href="https://www.happywhale.com/home">Happywhale</a> database, which includes photos of over 26,000 individual humpback whales taken since 1977, a research team led by <a href="https://whaletrust.org/">Whale Trust</a> in Hawaii found that two distinctive male humpback whales swam thousands of miles in search of partners during their mating season.&nbsp;



While the first whale traveled 2,824 miles (4,545 km) from Maui, Hawaii to the Revillagigedo Archipelago of Mexico between 23 February and 17 April 2006, the other made the opposite journey, travelling 3,693 miles (5,944 km) from Guerrero, Mexico to Maui between 16 February and 5 April 2018. Moreover, both whales have also been spotted in northern feeding grounds off Alaska and Canada during the summer months.



Although on average, humpback whales swim at speeds of around 2.5 mph, to complete their journeys in the time they did, the two males must have been swimming much faster than this.



“Our first reaction was, ‘You've got to be kidding me!’” said study lead author James Darling, a researcher at Whale Trust. “They might just be traveling the ocean like it's their own backyard.”



According to Darling and his colleagues, females may also be making these mammoth journeys. “If the males were out there following females, it would make more sense than them out there by themselves swimming for 40 days sans females during the breeding season,” explained Darling.&nbsp; &nbsp;



Overall, the findings suggest that, contrary to previous opinions, there aren’t distinct humpback whale populations in the north-east Pacific. The sighting of the two males in both Mexico and Hawaii, “combined with other lines of evidence on Mexico–Hawaii mixing, including interchange of individuals year to year, long-term similarity of everchanging songs, one earlier same-season travel record, and detection of humpback whales mid-ocean between these locations in winter, suggests reassessment of the ‘distinctiveness' of these populations may be warranted,” the authors concluded.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;

Humpback whales travel thousands of miles to mate

A new study published in the journal Biology Letters has...

3d,Rendering,Of,The,Walking,Spinosaurus

A research team led by the NOVA <a href="https://www.fct.unl.pt/en">School of Science and Technology</a> in Portugal has recently redescribed the fossils of a large theropod <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/two-new-predatory-dinosaurs-found-on-the-isle-of-wight/">dinosaur</a> with a crocodile-like skull and spiny back discovered in 1999 around 30 miles south of Lisbon. The remains were initially assigned to&nbsp;Baryonyx walkeri, a genus of theropod dinosaurs that lived in the Early Cretaceous period (130-125 million years ago).&nbsp;



However, new materials recovered in 2020 together with fresh phylogenetic analyses have revealed that the fossils actually belong to a new genus and species, Iberospinus natarioi - a type of spinosaurid that roamed most of the Earth from the Early to Mid-Cretaceous.



“Spinosaurs are some of the most enigmatic theropod dinosaurs due to their unique adaptations to aquatic environments and their relative scarcity,” explained study lead author Octavio Mateus, a paleontologist at NOVA. “Their diet mainly included fish, although other food items, such as pterosaurs, were consumed.”



Iberospinus natarioi (named after Carlos Natario, an amateur paleontologist who discovered the fossils in 1999) was a medium-sized spinosaur, with a length of about 33 feet and a weight of three tons. It had a massive skull and spiny back similar to those of today’s crocodiles, and most probably waded into the water to prey on fish.&nbsp;



One of the most striking features of this dinosaur is its unique pattern of nearly constant teeth replacement, with new teeth growing in its jaws always ready to replace those used or damaged as a result of hunting. Among the fossils discovered near Lisbon, scientists found tooth sockets with two replacement teeth in development next to the one in use. Although frequent teeth replacement is known to be quite common among spinosaurids, Iberospinus natarioi seemed to have a much quicker turnaround time than its relatives.



According to Professor Mateus and his colleagues, the rather unusual body plan of this dinosaur and related spinosaurids is an adaptation to the largely aquatic environments in which they hunted, “either as specialized pursuit aquatic predators in some cases or as wading-ambush hunters, like herons.”



The remains of this dinosaur form one of the most complete spinosaurid specimens discovered until now, and offers further evidence that the spinosaurid clade possibly originated in the territory of today’s Western Europe.



A detailed description of Iberospinus natarioi is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0262614">PLOS One</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Spinosaurid found in Portugal had a crocodile-like skull

A research team led by the NOVA School of Science...

Frozen,Reflection,Lake,And,Mount,Rainier,At,Sunrise,,Mount,Rainier

For centuries, the beautiful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-warming-will-have-major-consequences-for-lakes-worldwide/">lakes</a> of Madison, Wisconsin (especially Lake Monona and Lake Mendota) have been important winter attractions for a large number of locals and tourists interested in outdoor pursuits such as ice fishing, ice skating, ice boating, or simply strolling along the lakes’ frozen surfaces. However, while it was once common for the lakes to freeze in mid-December and hold ice until April, climate change is recently driving later freeze dates and earlier thaws across the Northern Hemisphere.



Scientists have been keeping track of these lakes’ <a href="https://www.aos.wisc.edu/~sco/lakes/Mendota-ice.html">freezing and thawing dates</a> for over 170 years – long enough to see trends in “lake ice seasons.” The data shows that, over this period, the number of days the lakes spend covered in ice each winter has shrunk by a month.



According to the Wisconsin State Climatology Office’s <a href="https://www.aos.wisc.edu/~sco/lakes/msnicesum.html">Madison Lakes Ice Summary</a>, this year both Lake Monona and Lake Mendota froze only in January. While these dates (January 3rd and January 7th) don’t rank in the top ten latest freeze dates on record, they are more than two weeks beyond the median freeze date of December 20th.&nbsp;



Since record keeping was initiated in 1852, the median freeze date of the Madison lakes is five days before Christmas. However, while in the first several decades, the majority of freeze dates were earlier than December 20th, the last few decades reveal a highly different picture of what a “normal” ice season looks like.



In the last thirty years, half of Lake Mendota’s freeze dates have been in January, and over the last decade, eight of them have been after the December 20th median, and seven of those were in January. Considering the fact that, before 2010, there was no single decade in the lake ice dataset when a majority of freeze dates were in January, the current situation is worrisome.&nbsp;



As larger <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-018-0393-5">studies</a> suggest, climate change is driving loss of lake ice all around the Northern Hemisphere, with 14,800 lakes currently experiencing intermittent winter ice cover.&nbsp;



Scientists estimate that, within the next generation, an even more extensive loss of lake ice will occur, a phenomenon which highlights the importance of climate change mitigation strategies in order to preserve ecosystem structure and function, as well as local winter cultural heritage and traditions, such as those associated with the Madison Lakes for over two centuries.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

North American lakes are freezing later, thawing earlier

For centuries, the beautiful lakes of Madison, Wisconsin (especially Lake...

A new study has identified structural connectivity changes that "rewire" the brains of cosmonauts during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-hibernating-squirrels-can-teach-space-travelers/">space</a> missions. To study the changing of the human brain due to spaceflight, the scientists studied brain images created using fiber tractography.&nbsp;



The research was a collaboration between the European Space Agency (ESA) and Roscosmos led by Dr. Floris Wuyts.



“Fiber tractography gives a sort of wiring scheme of the brain. Our study is the first to use this specific method to detect changes in brain structure after spaceflight,” explained Wuyts.&nbsp;



“From previous studies, we know that these motor areas show signs of adaptation after spaceflight. Now, we have a first indication that it is also reflected at the level of connections between those regions,”



The research team studied images of the brains of 12 male cosmonauts before and immediately after spaceflight, as well as eight scans seven months after the flight. All of the cosmonauts were on long flights, averaging 172 days.&nbsp;



Motor function control in the brain seemed to adjust over time, to compensate for weightlessness. Even seven months after a return to earth, these changes in the brain were still visible. There were also changes in anatomy seen immediately after spaceflight that the researchers were able to explain.&nbsp;



“We initially thought to have detected changes in the corpus callosum, which is the central highway connecting both hemispheres of the brain,” explained Wuyts. “The structural changes we initially found in the corpus callosum are actually caused by the dilation of the ventricles that induce anatomical shifts of the adjacent neural tissue."



"Where initially it was thought that there are real structural changes in the brain, we only observe shape changes. This puts the findings in a different perspective.”



The research shows one small piece of how humans change during spaceflight, something important to understand if we continue to explore space into the future.&nbsp;



“These findings give us additional pieces of the entire puzzle. Since this research is so pioneering, we don’t know how the whole puzzle will look yet. These results contribute to our overall understanding of what’s going on in the brains of space travelers," said Wuyts.



"It is crucial to maintain this line of research, looking for spaceflight induced brain changes from different perspectives and using different techniques."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/neural-circuits">Frontiers in Neural Circuits</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Cosmonaut brains are "rewired" during long spaceflights

A new study has identified structural connectivity changes that "rewire"...

A paper published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/17596831">Journal of Systematics and Evolution</a> describes two&nbsp; new species of fossil birds discovered near the Great Wall of China in a place called Changma. Over a period of twenty years, paleontologists excavated more than 100 individual birds that lived more than 120 million years ago. Many of the fossils were crushed or incomplete, making them impossible to identify. Six of the specimens, however, were useful enough to identify two new species.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



“It was a long, painstaking process teasing out what these things were,” said study lead author Jingmai O’Connor, the associate curator of vertebrate paleontology at Chicago’s <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/">Field Museum</a>. “But these new specimens include two new species that increase our knowledge of Cretaceous bird faunas, and we found combinations of dental features that we’ve never seen in any other dinosaurs.”



O’Connor’s work focuses on birds and explores why some went extinct with the other dinosaurs, while others survived and gave rise to the species we have today.&nbsp;



“These fossils come from a site in China that has produced fossils of birds that are pretty darned close to modern birds, but all the bird fossils described thus far haven’t had skulls preserved with the bodies,” said co-author Jerry Harris of Utah Tech University. “These new skull specimens help fill in that gap in our knowledge of the birds from this site and of bird evolution as a whole.”



The new genera and species were named Meemannavis ductrix and Brevidentavis zhangi. Meemannavis is named for Meemann Chang, a pioneering female Chinese paleontologist. The birds were similar to modern birds, with Brevidentavis having the small difference of being toothed and having a unique jaw.



“Brevidentavis is an ornithuromorph bird with teeth, and in ornithuromorphs with teeth, there’s a little bone at the front of the jaw called the predentary, where its chin would be if birds had chins,” explained O’Connor. “In this earlier study, we were able to tell that the predentary was capable of being moved, and that it would have been innervated – Brevidentavis wouldn’t just have been able to move its predentary, it would have been able to feel through it,”



It’s possible that Brevidentavis used its strange moveable jaw to catch insect prey, although we’ll probably never know for sure. Either way, it seems paleontologists have found a treasure trove of bird fossils in Changma.



“These discoveries strengthen the hypothesis that the Changma locality is unusual in that it is dominated by ornithuromorph birds, which is uncommon in the Cretaceous,” said O’Connor. “Learning about these relatives of modern birds can ultimately help us understand why today’s birds made it when the others didn’t.”



Image Credit: Illustration by Cindy Joli, Julio Francisco Garza Lorenzo, and René Dávila Rodríguez



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Fascinating fossil birds discovered in China

A paper published in the Journal of Systematics and Evolution...

By pooling and analyzing data from dozens of experiments, a new study led by the <a href="https://www.pitt.edu/">University of Pittsburgh</a> has found that exercise can help older adults retain their episodic memory. This refers to the capacity to recollect personal experiences which contain detailed information about what happened, when, and where.



When asked to describe the nature of episodic memory, “I usually like to talk about the first time you got behind the wheel of a car,” said study lead author Sarah Aghjayan, a doctoral student at the University of Pittsburgh. “So you might remember where you were, how old you were, who was in the passenger seat explaining things to you, that feeling of excitement.”



While experiments in mice have already shown that exercise improves <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-finds-strong-correlation-between-heart-and-brain-health/">brain health</a> and memory, studies investigating this link in humans had mixed results. In order to seek more clarity, Aghjayan and her colleagues pored over 1,279 studies, eventually narrowing them down to 36 which met specific criteria. By using specialized software to analyze the data, the researchers shown that a comparison of the 36 studies suggests that, for older adults, exercise has clear benefits for episodic memory.



Although the studies in themselves could not find clear correlations between exercise and improvements in memory, examining the whole body of research and comparing individual studies brought this pattern into focus. “When we combine and merge all this data, it allows us to examine almost 3,000 participants,” Aghjayan said. “Each individual study is very important: They all contribute to science in a meaningful way.”



The scientists found that there were greater improvements in episodic memory among participants who were 55 to 68 years old, compared to those with ages between 69 and 85. Moreover, the greatest effects of exercise were found in those who hadn’t yet experienced any cognitive decline and exercised about three times a week for at least four months.



Although further research is needed to clarify how the intensity of exercise affects the memory benefits, this study’s implications for public health are clear: exercise is an accessible way for older adults to mitigate cognitive decline, benefiting not only themselves but also their caretakers and the healthcare system in general.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s43856-022-00079-7">Communications Medicine</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Exercise helps you hold on to cherished memories

By pooling and analyzing data from dozens of experiments, a...

Rare earth elements are a group of 17 metal oxides that are difficult to acquire and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-waste-can-be-recycled-into-construction-materials/">recycle</a>. They are widely used in the manufacturing of various electronic devices. A group of researchers at <a href="https://www.rice.edu/">Rice University</a> recently made a groundbreaking discovery that could revolutionize rare mineral extraction.



Professor James Tour reported that his team has recovered valuable rare earth elements (REE) from garbage at yields high enough to help manufacturers address problems while increasing profitability.



The lab's flash Joule heating process, which was first used to produce graphene from any solid carbon source several years ago, is now being used to retrieve rare metals that have magnetic and electronic properties from three sources: coal fly ash, bauxite residue, and electronic waste. These metals are critical to modern electronics and green technologies.



The researchers claim that this method is better for the environment because it uses significantly less energy and reduces the amount of acid necessary to recover the elements to a trickle.



Rare earth elements are not all that uncommon. Cerium, for example, is more plentiful than copper, and they all outnumber gold. However, together with yttrium and scandium, these 15 lanthanide elements are widely scattered and tough to extract from mined minerals.



“The U.S. used to mine rare earth elements, but you get a lot of radioactive elements as well. You’re not allowed to reinject the water, and it has to be disposed of, which is expensive and problematic. On the day the U.S. did away with all rare earth mining, the foreign sources raised their price tenfold.” explained Professor Tour.



There's plenty of incentive to recycle what's previously been mined, said Tour. Much of it is heaped up or buried in fly ash, a coal-fired power plant waste. Bauxite residue, sometimes known as red mud, is a harmful byproduct of aluminium manufacture, whereas electronic waste comes from old computers and phones.



“We have mountains of it. The residue of burning coal is silicon, aluminium, iron and calcium oxides that form glass around the trace elements, making them very hard to extract," said Professor Tour.&nbsp;



The Rice lab heats fly ash and other materials (combined with carbon black to enhance conductivity) to about 3,000 degrees Celsius (5,432 degrees Fahrenheit) in a second, whereas industrial extraction from these wastes typically involves leaching with strong acid, a time-consuming and non-green process. The waste is converted into highly soluble "activated REE species" during the process.



"Breaking the glass that encases these elements and converting REE phosphates to metal oxides that dissolve much more easily," Tour said of treating fly ash with flash Joule heating. To extract the components, industrial techniques utilize a 15-molar concentration of nitric acid. The Rice method uses a much softer 0.1-molar concentration of hydrochloric acid, which nonetheless provides more output.



The researchers discovered that flash Joule heating coal fly ash (CFA) more than doubled the production of most rare earth elements when compared to leaching untreated CFA in strong acids in studies headed by postdoctoral researcher and primary author Bing Deng.



"The method is general for various wastes.By using the same activation procedure, we were able to enhance REE recovery yields from coal fly ash, bauxite residue, and electronic wastes," said Bing.



The process's generality makes it particularly promising, according to Bing, because millions of tons of bauxite residue and electronic trash are created each year.



“The Department of Energy has determined this is a critical need that has to be resolved. Our process tells the country that we’re no longer dependent on environmentally detrimental mining or foreign sources for rare earth elements," said Professor Tour.&nbsp;



In 2020, Tour's lab pioneered flash Joule heating to convert coal, petroleum coke, and waste into graphene, a single-atom-thick form of carbon that is now commercialized. Since then, the group has improved the procedure to recover precious metals from electronic waste and turn plastic waste into graphene.



The research was supported by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research and the Department of Energy. The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/journal/sciadv">Science Advances</a>.



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By <a href="http://mailto:ashikha92@gmail.com">Ashikha Raoof</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Rare earth elements are waiting to be discovered in waste

Rare earth elements are a group of 17 metal oxides...

The ability to recognize a reflection in a mirror as an image of self is considered a hallmark of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-disorders-cognition-problems/">cognition</a> in animals. And the classic way of testing this self-awareness involves passing the ‘mark’ test. This test, also known as the mirror self-recognition (MSR) test, involves marking an individual animal in a place on the body that is only visible when the individual sees it in a mirror reflection. If the animal then investigates or touches the mark, it is considered to have demonstrated that it recognizes the image in the mirror as belonging to itself.&nbsp;



Very few species have passed the mark test. These include chimpanzees and other great apes, a single Asian elephant, some rays, dolphins, orcas and Eurasian magpies. A 2019 research paper that claimed cleaner wrasses&nbsp;(Labroides dimidiatus) also passed the mark test was criticized by some members of the scientific community, including the test's inventor, American psychologist&nbsp;<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_G._Gallup">Gordon G. Gallup</a>. In response, the authors of the 2019 paper have undertaken new and more extensive experiments with cleaner wrasses to determine the validity of the criticisms.



The new research, published today in the journal PLOS Biology, was led by Professor Masanori Kohda from the Graduate School of Science, <a href="https://www.osaka-cu.ac.jp/en">Osaka City University</a>. It tackled the methodological criticisms levelled at the initial experiments and has provided further evidence to suggest the fish do have the capacity for MSR.



One of the criticisms related to the small sample of cleaner wrasses used in the mark test. “Previously, using a brown marking on the throat area of&nbsp;L. dimidiatus, we had shown three out of four cleaner fish to scrape their throats several times after swimming in front of a mirror, a number on par with similar studies done on other animals like elephants, dolphins, and magpies," explained Professor Kohda.



However, in response to the issue of small sample size, the researchers managed to increase the number of fish in the study to 18. They teamed up with scientists from the Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior in Germany, and the University of Neuchâtel in Switzerland, and observed that 17 of the 18 cleaner fish (94 percent) demonstrated the same scraping behavior that was recorded for fish that had been marked in the 2019 study.



The critics of the initial study had also questioned the researchers’ use of a brown mark on the throat of the cleaner wrasses, when the classic mark test employs a bright red spot or sticker.&nbsp;



“After looking at similar studies done on monkeys, pigs, dogs, cats, etc. that clearly tested negative, we wondered if the reason these animals didn’t attend to the mark was because it didn’t represent something in their natural environment that they would be concerned about,” said Professor Kohda. “In our previous study, we used a brown mark as it may look like a small parasite that is a main food source for&nbsp;L. dimidiatus.”&nbsp;



At the time, critics had asserted that the physical sensation of the mark, together with seeing the brown mark in the mirror, may possibly have triggered behavior that didn’t conclusively suggest MSR. To address this, the team now tested how the fish would respond to a physical stimulus in their throat by injecting the brown mark 3 mm deep (as opposed to 1mm). At such a depth the mark was hardly visible, yet they found that fish with the deeper insertion scraped their throat at similar rates, whether a mirror was absent or present.&nbsp;



To further support their choice of a brown mark that was ecologically relevant to the cleaner fish, the team tested fish with green or blue marks and found that no fish injected with green or blue marks demonstrated the scraping behavior.



A further criticism of the initial research was that the experiments had not proven that L. dimidiatus&nbsp;recognized the mirror image as itself and not another fish. When training a fish to look at the image of itself in a mirror, three steps are involved. Initially, when faced with a mirror image, a fish will express aggressive behavior, probably because it perceives the image as another fish. Then, after some time, fish presented with the image in the mirror show some unnatural behavior but are not aggressive as they realize that there is no other fish associated with the mirror. And lastly the fish repeatedly looks at itself in the mirror, with no aggression. At this stage, MSR is possible as the fish can look intently at the image and can potentially see the mark and then respond by going to scrape it off.



“Our previous study demonstrated MSR in&nbsp;L. dimidiatus,” said Professor Kohda, “however studies with other animals have shown that simply moving a mirror reignites aggressive behavior, suggesting the animal has only learned a spatial contingency, not MSR.” To address this, the team transferred mirror-trained cleaner fish to a tank with a mirror on one side of the tank and then, three days later, to a different tank with a mirror on the other side. They found that the fish showed no aggression towards their mirror image in either of the tanks.



To further support the conclusion that the L. dimidiatus&nbsp;are actually capable of recognizing themselves during the mark test, the researchers placed mirror-trained fish in adjacent tanks that were separated by transparent glass. After two to three days, when fish largely reduced their aggressive behavior towards each other, they were all marked with a brown mark the following night. When they were exposed to the fish in the adjacent tank for 120 minutes the following morning, none of them scraped their throat.&nbsp;



“This result suggests that a visual ecologically relevant stimulus on another fish is not enough to induce throat scraping on marked subjects,” said Professor Kohda. The evidence arising from these new experiments supports the conclusion of the 2019 study that found cleaner wrasses show behavioral responses that can be interpreted as passing the mark (or mirror) test and could therefore be attributed with a sense of self-awareness.&nbsp;



“We still have much work to be done, especially quantitatively, to show that fish, as well as other animals have the capacity for MSR, however as a result of this study we reiterate the conclusion of our previous study that either self-awareness in animals or the validity of the mirror test needs to be revised,” concluded Professor Kohda.



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Study confirms that fish can recognize themselves in a mirror

The ability to recognize a reflection in a mirror as...

A unique eight-year study has found common and frequent lead poisoning in bald and golden eagles. According to the research, frequent lead poisoning has a negative effect on eagle populations by slowing reproduction rates.&nbsp;



The study was carried out by researchers at the <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/">US Geological Survey</a> (USGS), Conservation Science Global Inc., and the US Fish &amp; Wildlife Service.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“Studies have shown lethal effects to individual birds, but this new study is the first to show population-level consequences from lead poisoning to these majestic species at such a wide scale," said Anne Kinsinger, USGS Associate Director for Ecosystems.&nbsp;



To carry out the study, the scientists used samples from 1,210 eagles across 38 states, including Alaska. The results show that lead poisoning has slowed the reproduction rate of bald eagles by 3.8 percent and golden eagles by 0.1 percent each year. This is the first study to look at lead poisoning across such a broad scale.



“This is the first study of lead poisoning of wildlife at a nationwide scale, and it demonstrates the unseen challenges facing these birds of prey. We now know more about how lead in our environment is negatively impacting North America's eagles,” said Todd Katzner, USGS wildlife biologist and lead USGS author. 



Nearly half the birds in the study showed evidence of repeated exposure to lead. The experts report that frequency of lead poisoning was influenced by age and, for bald eagles, by region and season.



In birds, lead poisoning is often caused by bullet fragments found in carcass remains or "gut piles" left by hunters. It’s for reasons like this that there was a now repealed<a href="https://addup.sierraclub.org/campaigns/restore-the-ban-on-lead-in-wildlife-refuges"> ban on lead ammunition in wildlife refuges</a>.&nbsp;



“The study’s modeling shows that lead reduces the rate of population growth for both of these protected species," said Brian Millsap, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service National Raptor Coordinator.



"That is not as impactful for bald eagles since this endemic species population is growing at 10 percent per year across the U.S. In contrast, the golden eagle’s population is not as stable, and any additional mortality could tip it towards a decline."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/">Science</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lead poisoning in eagles is common and widespread

A unique eight-year study has found common and frequent lead...

A new species of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flesh-eating-theropods-were-extremely-fast/">dinosaur</a>, named Guemesia ochoai, has recently been discovered in the Los Blanquitos Formation near Amblayo, in the north of Argentina. It is a species of abelisaurid theropods, a clade of carnivorous dinosaurs that lived 70 million years ago and roamed what is now South America, Africa, and India. As most abelisaurids, this dinosaur had very short front limbs, a feature which probably made it rely on its extremely powerful head and jaws to capture and devour prey.



Abelisaurids were a group of top predatory dinosaurs that may have fed on larger dinosaurs such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/enormous-titanosaur-discovered-in-the-pyrenees/">titanosaurs</a>. While they resembled in general appearance more famous species such as Tyrannosaurus rex, they had even shorter front limbs than T. rex, as well as unusually short, deep skulls that often bore crests, bumps, and horns.



Argentina is well known for its abelisaurid fossils, with 35 species already discovered on its territory. However, most of the fossils have been found in Patagonia, in the south of the country. Guemesia ochoai - named after General Martin Miguel de Güemes, a hero of the Argentine War of Independence, and Javier Ochoa, a museum technician who discovered the fossils –&nbsp;shows marked differences from other species of abelisaurids discovered in Argentina, adding new evidence that north-western Argentina had a unique set of prehistoric creatures, unlike those found in other parts of the world in the Late Cretaceous.



“This new dinosaur is quite unusual for its kind. It has several key characteristics that suggest that is a new species, providing important new information about an area of the world which we don't know a lot about,” said study senior author Anjali Goswami, a researcher at the <a href="https://www.nhm.ac.uk/">Natural History Museum</a> in London.&nbsp;



“It shows that the dinosaurs that live in this region were quite different from those in other parts of Argentina, supporting the idea of distinct provinces in the Cretaceous of South America. It also shows us that there is lot more to be discovered in these areas that get less attention than some of the more famous fossil sites.”



One unique feature of this specimen are the rows of small holes in the front of its skull called “foramina,” which scientists believe that may have played an important role in allowing the animal to cool down, with blood being pumped into the thin skin from the front of the skull to release heat. Moreover, its cranium is about 70 percent smaller than any of its relatives, and, unlike most other abelisaurid skulls, it lacks horns. These differences suggest that this new species is near the bottom of the family tree of abelisaurids or closely related to ancestors of this group.



A detailed description of G.ochoai is published in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02724634.2021.2002348?journalCode=ujvp20">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dinosaur discovered in Argentina was armless but fierce

A new species of dinosaur, named Guemesia ochoai, has recently...

A new report from the <a href="https://www.unep.org/">UN Environmental Program</a> (UNEP) has named three major environmental threats. First is the increasing threat of wildfires, which are becoming more frequent and severe as a result of climate change. Next, the report describes the growing threat of noise pollution and the problems that come with it. Lastly, the experts highlight the issue of phenological mismatches, or the disruption of timing in natural systems and life cycles.



“The Frontiers Report identifies and offers solutions to three environmental issues that merit attention and action from governments and the public at large,” said Inger Andersen, Executive Director of UNEP. “Urban noise pollution, wildfires and phenological shifts – the three topics of this Frontiers report – are issues that highlight the urgent need to address the triple planetary crisis of climate change, pollution and biodiversity loss.”



Fires burned up an average of 423 million hectares of land between 2002 and 2016. Approximately 67 percent of the area consumed by all types of fires was in Africa. Wildfires, despite being natural, are on the rise due to climate change. Smoke from fires causes health problems for humans and other animals. Fires also release carbon, making them a contributor to climate change in a sort of positive feedback loop.&nbsp;



"The report calls for greater investment in reducing the risks of wildfires; development of prevention and response management approaches that include vulnerable, rural, traditional and indigenous communities; and further refinements in remote sensing capabilities, such as satellites, radar and lightning detection," said UNEP.



Noise pollution is often overlooked as an environmental threat. Prolonged noise can harm human health and well-being and disrupt other animals as well. Unwanted human noises can disrupt communications between insects, amphibians, birds and other animals. It is estimated that noise pollution already leads to 12,000 premature human deaths every year in the EU alone. Natural sounds have a positive impact on human health, however, and it is recommended that urban planners focus on prioritizing natural sounds over unwanted human disturbances.&nbsp;



Climate change is also disrupting the natural life cycle changes in animals and plants. Critical processes such as reproduction, migration, and hibernation are all impacted by climate change. The problem arises when there is a mismatch in the timing among plant and animal species that are dependent on each other.&nbsp;



"Phenology is the timing of recurring life cycle stages, driven by environmental forces, and how, within an ecosystem, interacting species respond to the changing conditions," wrote the experts.&nbsp;



"Phenological shifts occur when species shift the timing of life cycle stages in response to changing environmental conditions altered by climate change. The concern is that interacting species in an ecosystem do not always shift the timing in the same direction or at the same rate.



These phenological shifts are increasingly disturbed by climate change, pushing plants and animals out of sync with their natural rhythms and leading to mismatches, such as when plants shift life cycle stages faster than herbivores."



"Long-distance migrants are particularly vulnerable to phenological change. Local climatic cues that normally trigger migration may no longer accurately predict conditions at their destination and resting sites along the route."



According to the experts, the full impacts of these looming environmental threats require further research. With proper planning, it is possible that we can get a handle on many aspects of these issues before it is too late.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



The latest edition of the <a href="https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/press-release/deadly-wildfires-noise-pollution-and-disruptive-timing-life-cycles">Frontiers Report</a> has been released days before the resumed fifth session of the UN Environment Assembly (UNEA).



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

UNEP report identifies the biggest emerging environmental threats

A new report from the UN Environmental Program (UNEP) has...

Scientists from the <a href="https://www.riken.jp/en/research/labs/r-ih/guard_robo_proj/">RIKEN Guardian Robot Project</a> have recently built an android child named Nikola that can successfully convey six basic emotions – happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise, and disgust – by changes in facial expression. In a new study published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.800657/full">Frontiers in Psychology</a>, the researchers tested how well people could identify the six facial expressions and found that the recognition accuracy was quite impressive.



Nikola’s face is animated by 29 pneumatic actuators which control the movements of artificial muscles, and other six actuators in charge of head and eyeball movements. To find the proper location for the actuators in the android’s face, the scientists followed the <a href="https://www.paulekman.com/facial-action-coding-system/">Facial Action Coding System</a> (FACS), a comprehensive, anatomically-based system which has been used extensively to study and describe all visually discernible facial movements. Since the actuators are controlled by air pressure, the movements are silent and smooth.



In order to test whether Nikola’s facial expressions were understandable, the researchers first enrolled a person certified in FACS scoring. This person was able to identify each facial action unit, indicating that Nikola’s facial movements accurately mimicked those of a real human.



In a second step, the scientists enrolled a group of non-specialist, “naïve” participants, who were asked to identify the emotions expressed by the android’s face. While the recognition accuracy of all emotions was significantly higher than chance level, participants had trouble identifying emotions like disgust, since Nikola’s silicone skin was less elastic than real human skin and could not properly form wrinkles, such as the nose wrinkles characteristic for the facial expression of disgust.



“In the short term, androids like Nikola can be important research tools for social psychology or even social neuroscience,” said study lead author Wataru Sato, a neuroscientist at RIKEN. “Compared with human confederates,&nbsp;androids are good at controlling behaviors and can facilitate rigorous empirical investigation of human social interactions.”



Although Nikola still lacks a body, the ultimate goal of the Guardian Robot Project is to build androids that could help people, particularly those who live alone and are in need of physical assistance. “Androids that can emotionally communicate with us will be useful in a wide range of real-life situations, such as caring for older people, and can promote human wellbeing,”&nbsp;Dr. Sato concluded.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Android kid "Nikola" can express basic emotions

Scientists from the RIKEN Guardian Robot Project have recently built...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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