Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

After wreaking havoc all over the world, pushing up the number of coronavirus cases to all-time records, the highly contagious <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/did-the-omicron-variant-jump-to-humans-from-mice/">Omicron</a> variant has already begun to subside in many countries, including the United States, the United Kingdom, or Spain. However, a new version of Omicron, called BA.2, has recently been detected in several countries. The new variant raises new doubts that the pandemic is near its end, and suggests that SARS-CoV-2 may soon turn into an <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2022/01/14/world/europe/coronavirus-europe-uk.html">endemic</a> virus.&nbsp;



Estimated to be 1.5 times more contagious than the original Omicron variant BA.1, the sister-variant BA.2 (which emerged from a common ancestor with BA.1) has already become dominant in <a href="https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/ba2-subvariant-omicron-appears-more-contagious-than-ba1-denmark-says-2022-01-26/">Denmark</a> and <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d0uGX4BMWD8&amp;ab_channel=ANINews">India</a>. However, according to Danish Health Minister Magnus Heunicke and scientists from Denmark’s top infectious disease authority, <a href="https://www.ssi.dk/">Statens Serum Institut</a> (SSI), the emergence of this sub-variant is no reason to panic.



“There is no evidence that the BA.2 variant causes more disease, but it must be more contagious,” Heunicke told a news conference on Wednesday, January 26, 2022.&nbsp;



“There is some indication that it is more contagious, especially for the unvaccinated, but that it can also infect people who have been vaccinated to a greater extent,” added SSI's technical director Tyra Grove Krause at the same news briefing.&nbsp;



Due to this sub-variant, Denmark’s Omicron peak may extend a bit further into February than previously estimated, but will not cause significantly more hospitalizations and deaths, said Krause.



During the past week, about one hundred BA.2 cases have also been detected in the United States, but this number is likely underestimated and is expected to skyrocket very soon. However, as in the case of Denmark, many U.S&nbsp; scientists are not very worried that BA.2 might become a serious game-changer.&nbsp;



“Variants have come, variants have gone,” said Robert Garry, a virologist at <a href="https://medicine.tulane.edu/">Tulane University School of Medicine</a>. “I don’t think there’s any reason to think this one is a whole lot worse than the current version of Omicron.”



Other scientists though, including those from the <a href="https://www.who.int">World Health Organization</a> (WHO), are more cautious, and refrain from making any sweeping statements regarding the nature and possible impact of BA.2.&nbsp;



Jacob Lemieux is an infectious diseases physician at <a href="https://www.massgeneral.org/">Massachusetts General Hospital</a> who is helping lead a state program studying coronavirus variants. He said that while we can already be certain that BA.2 will soon displace BA.1 as the dominant variant, what we don’t know, and still have almost no information on, is what impact this will have on case counts, on hospitalizations, on death.



“As of 24.01.2022, the BA.2 descendent lineage, which differs from BA.1 in some of the mutations, including in the spike protein, is increasing in many countries. Investigations into the characteristics of BA.2, including immune escape properties and virulence, should be prioritized independently (and comparatively) to BA.1,” urged WHO.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Omicron’s sister has arrived, and Covid may be here to stay

After wreaking havoc all over the world, pushing up the...

A British scientist from <a href="https://aru.ac.uk/">Anglia Ruskin University</a> has recently discovered a new species which belongs to a group of insects so rare that its closest relative was last spotted in 1969. During field work with his students in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/illegal-gold-mining-dumps-mercury-in-the-peruvian-rainforest/">rainforest</a> of the Kibale National Park in western Uganda, Dr. Alvin Helden, an expert in Animal and Environmental Biology, found a new type of leafhopper. Dr. Helden named the species Phlogis kibalensis and described it in the journal <a href="https://www.mapress.com/zootaxa/">Zootaxa</a>.



Leafhoppers are closely related to cicadas, but they are much smaller. These insects feed mainly on plant sap, which they suck directly from the phloem, and are preyed on by invertebrates such as spiders, parasitic wasps, and beetles, as well as some species of birds.



The newly discovered leafhopper is only 6.5 mm long, has a distinctive metallic sheen, pitted body, and – as most other leafhoppers – bizarre, leaf-shaped male sexual organs.



“It’s the first time I’ve ever discovered a newly described species. Personally, it’s one of those things you aspire to do as an entomologist and I’ve managed to do it now,” said Dr. Helden. “To find this new species is a once-in-a-lifetime achievement, particularly as its closest relative was last found in a different country over 50 years ago.&nbsp;I knew it was something very special as soon as I spotted it.”



“Phlogis kibalensis&nbsp;is a member of the leafhoppers. Most people are familiar with cicadas, and leafhoppers are related to cicadas. I usually describe them as much, much smaller. They all have the same overall structure; their head end is held slightly higher than their back end and they are quite colorful.”



“Leafhoppers of this genus, and the wider tribe, are very unusual in appearance, and are rarely found. In fact, they are so incredibly rare that their biology remains almost completely unknown. We know almost nothing about&nbsp;Phlogis kibalensis,&nbsp;the new species I found, including what plants it feeds on or its role in the local ecosystem.”



According to Dr. Helden, there are many other animal species waiting to be discovered. However, due to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coordinated-efforts-needed-to-slow-deforestation/">deforestation</a> and habitat loss, a large number of these species may sadly become extinct before we will even know they exist. Urgent measures to protect the rainforests and other endangered ecosystems are necessary in order to avoid the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-sixth-mass-extinction-is-currently-in-progress/">extinction</a> of numerous species.



Image Credit: Dr. Alvin Helden, Anglia Ruskin University



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Rare insect with leaf-shaped genitals discovered in Uganda

A British scientist from Anglia Ruskin University has recently discovered...

Winter snowstorms are increasingly frequent on the United States’ eastern coast and often cause major disruption to transportation, economy, and public safety. In order to study these extreme weather events, <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/">NASA</a> has initiated a program called <a href="https://espo.nasa.gov/impacts/content/IMPACTS">The Investigation of Microphysics and Precipitation for Atlantic Coast-Threatening Snowstorms</a> (IMPACTS).&nbsp;



With the help of an international group of experts and state-of-the-art technology, the project aims to clarify how storms develop and how snow bands can be used to predict snowfall. The research may ultimately help mitigate the natural, social, and economic impacts of snowstorms.



The team will be tracking storms with the help of two NASA planes equipped with top notch scientific instruments. One of them – the NASA Armstrong Flight Research Center’s<a href="https://airbornescience.nasa.gov/aircraft/ER-2_-_AFRC">&nbsp;ER-2</a> - will fly at 65,000 feet to get a top-down view of the storm clouds, and complement the measurements of cloud properties taken by ground-based radars.



“A project like IMPACTS can really complement those spacecraft measurements with aircraft measurements that are higher resolution, higher accuracy, sample an event more frequently, and provide additional parameters such as Doppler measurements,” explained John Yorks, one of the deputy principal investigators for IMPACTS.



The second aircraft - the<a href="https://airbornescience.nasa.gov/aircraft/P-3_Orion_-_WFF">&nbsp;P-3 Orion</a> – will fly at variable altitudes of up to 26,000 feet and will use probes hanging off its wings to measure the size, shape, and distribution of precipitation particles. Flying this aircraft at different altitudes will allow scientists measure snow particles throughout the clouds, as well as the temperature, water vapor, and other conditions in which they form.&nbsp;



Moreover, P-3 Orion will also drop small instruments called dropsondes over the ocean, which, together with weather balloons launched from the ground, will measure temperature, wind, and humidity, and provide crucial information about the atmospheric conditions before, during, and after a storm.



“Snowstorms are really complicated storms, and we need every piece of data – models, aircraft instruments, meteorological soundings – to really figure out what’s going on within these storms,” said Gerry Heymsfield, another deputy principal investigators for IMPACTS.



This data will help the scientists relate the properties of the snow particles and their environment to large-scale processes such as the structure of clouds and precipitation patterns, and thus improve meteorological models and complement the use of satellite data in order to predict how particular storms will develop and what their impact will be.&nbsp;



Today, residents of New England are bracing themselves for possible whiteout conditions, as a nor'easter has brought heavy snowfall and fierce winds to the region. More than 10 million people in coastal areas (all the way down to Virginia) are under blizzard warnings, and some areas may reach record snowfall totals. According to CNN, parts of eastern Massachusetts and Maine could get more than two feet of snow.&nbsp;



John Yorks, one of the deputy principal investigators for IMPACTS at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, explained that nor'easters travel up the East Coast and can dump several feet of snow, effectively shutting down cities. Being able to predict which areas will get hit the hardest, and with how much snow, could help cities better prepare for severe winter weather.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

NASA project aims to more accurately predict snowstorms

Winter snowstorms are increasingly frequent on the United States’ eastern...

A new study led by the <a href="https://www.ufl.edu/">University of Florida</a> has identified the genetic characteristics relevant to the behavior of two nuisance western honey <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-it-comes-to-bee-colonies-size-matters/">bee</a> subspecies. The “killer bee” or “Africanized honey bee” is a light-colored bee known for its highly defensive, territorial nature, and the “cape honey bee” is a darker colored social parasite, capable of colonizing bee hives of other subspecies.



Both species are invasive bees that can easily take over colonies of managed honey bees, with costly consequences for beekeepers. Although the cape bees appear to be more docile than the Africanized bees, they are capable of an extraordinary feature that helps them overtake bee hives: they can clone themselves, producing female eggs without mating.



“More amazing than the cape bee worker’s ability to clone itself is the rate at which it can take over other colonies,” said study senior author James Ellis, a professor of Entomology and Nematology. “We are working to ensure these bees do not make their way to the United States because in most cases, when these bees take over a colony, the colony is doomed.”&nbsp;



Professor Ellis and his colleagues analyzed genetic data related to these subspecies in order to better understand what genetic traits contribute to their appearance and behavior.&nbsp;



“We found really interesting variations in the genes of these bees that can help explain why they look and behave differently,” said study co-lead author Laura Patterson Rosa.



“There are a lot of implications to what we found. We have not yet been able to verify these new discoveries in additional populations, but if our findings stand the test of time, it could partially explain why we see behavioral changes, why they do not acknowledge the existence of queens of other subspecies and why they can clone themselves when other bees cannot.”



The research findings suggest that the darker color of cape bees could be genetically correlated to their cloning and colony takeover behavior. Further research is needed to assess whether this correlation holds for other subspecies of bees.



“There are potentially over 30 subspecies of honey bees. We investigated only two in the published study. Does this finding hold true for the other dark colored honey bee subspecies? It would be interesting to look for these mutations across all western honey bee subspecies to determine if this is the case,” Professor Ellis concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0260833">PLoS One</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dangerous bee behavior may be linked to appearance

A new study led by the University of Florida has...

It is not uncommon for people to develop symptoms of ‘long COVID’ after recovering from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pigs-are-highly-resistant-to-sars-cov-2-infection/">SARS-CoV-2</a> infection. Also known as PACS (post-acute COVID-19 syndrome), this condition is familiar to scientists and medical practitioners by now, with as many as 3 out of 4 people presenting with at least one lingering symptom in the weeks and months after initial infection.



The most common symptoms of PACS include fatigue, muscle weakness and sleep disturbance - but the potential causes of these symptoms are unknown. Some suggestions include an exaggerated immune system response, cell damage, or the physiological consequences of a critical illness, all of which may contribute to the development of long COVID. Furthermore, scientists do not yet understand why some people suffer persistent symptoms after clearing the initial infection whereas others do not.&nbsp;&nbsp;



In a new study published in the BMJ journal <a href="https://gut.bmj.com/">Gut</a>, researchers from the Chinese University of Hong Kong propose that the human gut microbiome may play a role in the development of long COVID. They set out to analyze which bacteria, fungi and other microbes are present in the intestines of people who have not had COVID, those who have had COVID, and those who have developed PACS.



There is evidence that gut microbes are important in the development and maintenance of major components of a person’s innate and adaptive immune system, and that imbalances in the populations of different gut microbes can contribute to auto-immune diseases and other illnesses. Given this evidence, it is possible that a disordered immune response to COVID-19 infection, induced by resident microbes, may affect the recovery process as well.&nbsp;



The researchers analyzed the gut microbiomes of 106 patients who had been admitted to one of three different hospitals in Hong Kong between February and August 2020. These patients had all tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 virus and subsequently developed varying levels of COVID symptoms.&nbsp;



For comparison, the gut microbiomes of a further 68 people, none of whom had COVID, were also analyzed. These non-COVID controls were recruited before the start of the pandemic (between September 2019 and November 2019) from the volunteer patients at the endoscopy center at the Prince of Wales Hospital. Stool samples were collected before these subjects underwent a normal colonoscopy.



Initial stool samples were collected from the sick people upon their admission to hospital, and from the control group just prior to their colonoscopies. Samples were collected again after one month and after six months. Samples were also collected from 11 patients after 9 months.&nbsp;



The researchers also checked all participants for the presence of the 30 most common long COVID symptoms, one, three, six and nine months after admission to hospital. Their aerobic capacity and endurance, an indicator of long COVID, was also measured in a 6-minute distance walk test.&nbsp;



Of the patients diagnosed with COVID, 86 (81 percent) of them had symptoms of PACS three months later, and 81 (76.5 percent) after six months. The most common symptoms reported at 6 months were fatigue (31 percent), poor memory (28 percent), hair loss (22 percent), anxiety (21 percent) and sleep disturbances (21 percent).&nbsp;



There were no significant differences in potentially influential factors, such as age, gender, prevalence of underlying conditions, use of antibiotics or antiviral drugs, or COVID-19 severity between patients with and without long COVID, six months after initial infection.



However, there were significant differences in the gut microbe populations found in those who developed PACS, and those who did not. While the microbiota were similar for people who did not develop PACS and those in the control group, those who suffered from long COVID had a less diverse and abundant community of gut microbes.&nbsp;



In particular, patients with long COVID had reduced populations of 28 different species of microbes, including the ‘friendly’&nbsp;Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, and&nbsp;Blautia obeum. These species are associated with anti-inflammatory effects. In addition, these patients also had increased numbers of 14 other ‘unfriendly’ gut bacterial species, such as Ruminococcus gnavus&nbsp;and&nbsp;Bacteroides vulgatus, both of which are associated with inflammation.&nbsp;



Interestingly, this dysbiosis (unbalance between gut microbe populations) was present at the time of admission to hospital, and it did not improve, even after six months. In contrast, patients who did not develop PACS had only 25 changes in bacterial species at the time of hospital admission, and this recovered completely after 6 months such that their gut microbes were similar to those of people who had not had COVID.



The researchers then looked in more detail at whether the composition of the gut microbiome was associated with specific symptoms of long COVID. They considered the following symptoms: respiratory; neuropsychiatric (headache, dizziness, loss of taste and smell, anxiety, poor concentration, disrupted sleep, low mood, poor memory, blurred vision); gastrointestinal; skin (hair loss); musculoskeletal; and fatigue.&nbsp;



Eighty-one bacterial species were associated with different categories of long COVID symptoms, and many species were associated with more than two categories of persistent symptoms. For example, after six months, persistent respiratory symptoms were strongly associated with the presence of several opportunistic ‘unfriendly’ microbes, including&nbsp;Streptococcus anginosus,&nbsp;Streptococcus vestibularis,&nbsp;Streptococcus gordonii&nbsp;and&nbsp;Clostridium disporicum.&nbsp;



Additionally, several species known to boost immunity, including&nbsp;Bifidobacterium pseudocatenulatum,&nbsp;F. prausnitzii,&nbsp;R. inulinivorans&nbsp;and&nbsp;Roseburia hominis, were depleted in those with long COVID at six months.



Similarly, several ‘unfriendly’ bacterial species were associated with poorer performance on the 6-minute walk test among those with long COVID.



Overall, the study found that, at the time of hospital admission, the diversity and richness of gut bacteria in patients who subsequently developed long COVID was significantly lower than that of patients who didn’t, suggesting that particular gut microbial profiles may indicate heightened susceptibility, say the researchers.



“In summary, altered gut microbiome composition is strongly associated with persistent symptoms in patients with COVID-19 up to six months after clearance of the SARS-CoV-2 virus."&nbsp;



The study authors propose that gut profiling may even help to identify people who are more vulnerable to developing serious long-term symptoms after having COVID.



“Considering the millions of people infected during the ongoing pandemic, our findings are a strong impetus for consideration of microbiota modulation to facilitate timely recovery and reduce the burden of post-acute COVID-19 syndrome," concluded the researchers.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Gut microbe diversity may predispose people to long COVID

It is not uncommon for people to develop symptoms of...

Migratory <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/song-sparrows-shuffle-and-mix-their-tunes/">songbirds</a> embark upon very long journeys to return to their breeding grounds. Although these trips can occasionally span several continents, the birds arrive each year at the same spots with remarkable precision. While much research has focused on understanding how birds learn migratory routes and navigate them, until recently it has remained a mystery how they know where and when to stop migrating.



According to new research led by the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/">University of Oxford</a>, migratory songbirds use cues derived from the Earth’s magnetic field, such as magnetic declination, inclination, intensity, and area-specific strength, in order to guide their arrival.&nbsp;



However, the Earth’s magnetic field slightly shifts each year, and thus the magnetic parameters that are used to define a bird’s natal and breeding site will occur in a slightly different location every year. Despite this, birds are often able to arrive within meters of their natal sites year after year.



“Although it is known that birds can return to their breeding grounds with exceptional precision, it has remained a mystery how they know when and where to stop migrating,” wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



“Using nearly a century’s worth of Eurasian reed warbler (Acrocephalus scirpaceus) ringing recoveries, we investigated whether fluctuations in Earth’s magnetic field predict variation in the sites to which birds return. Ringing recoveries suggest that magnetic inclination [the specific dip angle between the Earth’s magnetic field and the Earth’s surface] is learned before departure and is subsequently used as a uni-coordinate “stop sign” when relocating the natal or breeding site.”&nbsp;



Although several locations on the Earth’s surface have the same magnetic inclination, songbirds solve this problem by stopping at the first place where the correct inclination is encountered on the flight trajectory that they inherited. This amazing, instinctive capacity makes them able to return to their natal and breeding grounds after each migration.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.abj4210">Science</a>.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How do birds know when it's time to stop migrating?

Migratory songbirds embark upon very long journeys to return to...

A new study led by <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/">Stanford</a> researchers has revealed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/methane-emissions-are-higher-than-previously-estimated/">methane</a> leaking from natural gas burning stoves in the US has a similar climate impact as the carbon dioxide emissions from 500,000 gasoline cars. When compared to the carbon dioxide created from burning natural gas while the stove is in use, the contribution of these methane leaks to global warming is about one third.



“Surprisingly, there are very few measurements of how much natural gas escapes into the air from inside homes and buildings through leaks and incomplete combustion from appliances,” said study lead author Eric Lebel, who conducted the research as a graduate student in Stanford’s School of Earth, Energy and Environmental Sciences (Stanford Earth).&nbsp;



“It’s probably the part of natural gas emissions we understand the least about, and it can have a big impact on both climate and indoor air quality.”



Methane is about 86 times more potent as a greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide over the first twenty years and 25 times worse for one hundred years after emission. Methane also contributes to approximately one million premature deaths annually across the globe. Since the beginning of the industrial revolution, concentrations of methane have increased more than twice as fast as those of carbon dioxide.



Over 40 million homes in the US cook with natural gas, representing more than one third of households. Because people are close to the natural gas emissions coming from their kitchen, they are directly exposed to air pollutants.&nbsp;



These pollutants can include nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide and formaldehyde, which are all dangerous gasses. Some of these are known to trigger asthma, coughing and difficulty breathing, even occasionally leading to hospitalization.&nbsp;&nbsp;



“I don’t want to breathe any extra nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide or formaldehyde,” said study senior author Professor Rob Jackson. “Why not reduce the risk entirely? Switching to electric stoves will cut greenhouse gas emissions and indoor air pollution.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/journal/esthag">Environmental Science &amp; Technology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Natural gas stoves have greater impacts than expected

A new study led by Stanford researchers has revealed that...

Climate change is increasingly threatening the Winter Olympics and the future of snow sports in general, by making conditions more dangerous for athletes and participants. This is according to a new report published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13683500.2021.2023480?journal=&amp;src=">Current Issues in Tourism</a> one week before the start of the 2022 Beijing Winter Olympics Games.



While 21 venues all over the world have been used to host this event since 1924, the researchers suggest that by 2050, less than half of these venues will have the “climate suitability” and natural snowfall levels to be appropriate places for hosting the event.



The Beijing Games, set to start on February 4, 2022, will be the first Winter Olympics to use 100 percent artificial snow, deployed by over 100 snow generators and 300 snow-making guns. Since they are set in naturally arid climates, the two host cities, Beijing and Zhangjiakou will use an estimated 49 million gallons of chemically-treated water frozen by snow machines.



“This is not only energy and water intensive, frequently using chemicals to slow melt, but also delivers a surface that many competitors say is unpredictable and potentially dangerous,” wrote the report authors.



“The 2022 Winter Olympics will, no doubt, be an awesome spectacle watched and enjoyed by millions worldwide. But they should also provoke a debate about the future of snow sports, and the limits of engineering artificial natural environments. Slippery slopes lie ahead.”



Since natural snow is becoming less plentiful in many areas of the world due to climate change, the global snow sport industry will definitely be affected. 



“Navigating erratic snow seasons and rapid melt of low level resorts are now the norm for many competitors. The risk is clear: man-made warming is threatening the long-term future of winter sports. It is also reducing the number of climatically suitable host venues for the Winter Olympiad,” the researchers wrote.



Previous Winter Olympic venues, such as Chamonix (the city in France which hosted the first Olympics in 1924) and other cities in France, Austria, and Norway are now rated “high-risk,” while Vancouver in Canada, Sochi in Russia, and Squaw Valley in the United States are deemed “unreliable.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



“By mid-century the number of reliable hosts declines to four (Lack Placid, Lillehammer, Oslo, and Sapporo) and by the end of the century only one location remains reliable (Sapporo),” the authors concluded.&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The future is uncertain for Winter Olympics in a warmer world

Climate change is increasingly threatening the Winter Olympics and the...

When ground squirrels <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-food-bears-hibernate-age-faster/">hibernate</a> in the winter, they stop eating and survive solely on the fat reserves they have stored in their bodies. Such a prolonged period of fasting and inactivity should significantly reduce muscle mass and function. However, this is surprisingly not happening: the animals usually emerge from hibernation in the spring in a very good shape, ready for the intense physical activity associated with their mating season. Until recently, this phenomenon has been a mystery for scientists.&nbsp;



According to a new study led by the <a href="https://www.umontreal.ca/en/">University of Montreal</a>, hibernators harness a metabolic trick of their gut microbiome to recycle the nitrogen from urea (a waste compound eliminated as urine during periods of non-hibernation) and use it to build new tissue proteins.&nbsp;



By studying the urea salvage process in 13-lined ground squirrels, the scientists found that the incorporation of urea nitrogen into their tissue protein was highest during late winter - unlike most physiological processes during hibernation, which tend to be significantly reduced. Moreover, the gut microbes themselves seemed to be using the urea nitrogen to build their own proteins, thus making the relationship between squirrels and their microbiome a truly symbiotic one.



These findings have important potential implications for space travel. Since astronauts currently face muscle-loss problems caused by microgravity-induced suppression of protein synthesis, this discovery could open ways of augmenting their muscle protein synthesis processes using urea nitrogen salvage.



“Because we know which muscle proteins are suppressed during spaceflight, we can compare these proteins with those that are enhanced by urea nitrogen salvage during hibernation,” said study lead author Matthew Regan, an assistant professor of Animal Physiology at the University of Montreal. “If there is an overlap between the proteins in spaceflight and the ones from hibernation, then it suggests this process may have benefits to muscle health during spaceflight.”



Moreover, these discoveries could also help solve more pressing Earth-bound problems, such as muscle mass decline caused by starvation in underdeveloped countries or old age. “The mechanisms that mammals like the 13-lined ground squirrel have naturally evolved to maintain protein balance in their own nitrogen-limited situations may inform strategies for maximizing the health of other nitrogen-limited animals, including humans,” said Regan.&nbsp;



A possible solution would be the development of pre- or probiotic pills to promote a gut microbiome such as that of hibernating animals.



“To be clear, these applications, though theoretically possible, are a long way from delivery, and a lot of additional work is needed to translate this naturally evolved mechanism safely and effectively to humans. But one thing I find encouraging is that&nbsp;a study&nbsp;from the early 1990s provided some evidence that humans are capable of recycling small amounts of urea nitrogen via this same process. This suggests that the necessary machinery is in place. It just needs to be optimized,” Regan&nbsp;concluded.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.abh2950">Science</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

What hibernating squirrels can teach space travelers

When ground squirrels hibernate in the winter, they stop eating...

Domestic dogs show more variation in body size than any other mammal on Earth. There is a 40-fold difference in size between the smallest and largest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breeding-practices-threaten-the-health-of-french-bulldogs/">breeds</a> of dogs. Variations in size have been selected for by humans, particularly in the past 200 years, while wolves, from which dogs originated, have maintained a constant size.



Since wolves are fairly large, people believed that ancestral dogs were also this size at the start of domestication. It is commonly understood that small dogs, such as Pomeranians and Chihuahuas, were selectively bred after domestication because humans wanted cute little companions.&nbsp;



However, scientists from the <a href="https://www.nih.gov/">National Institutes of Health</a> (NIH) have recently identified a mutation in a gene that regulates the production of growth hormone in dogs. The researchers found that this genetic mutation is present in the genes of dogs with small bodies, but was also present in wolves more than 50,000 years – long before domestication took place.&nbsp;



By analyzing 200 different breeds of dogs, the experts identified around 20 genes that are associated with the regulation of body size in dogs. These genes are involved in regulating skeletal development, insulin processing and fatty acid metabolism, among other functions. Of these genes, insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) controls 15 percent of body size variation in different dog breeds and has a major role in determining body size.&nbsp;



However, after more than ten years of investigation, the researchers had not been able to identify a functional mutation associated with IGF-1. That was until Jocelyn Plassais, a postdoc student in geneticist Elaine Ostrander’s lab in Maryland, suggested that they search for sequences around the gene that were positioned backwards. She identified the mutated allele in this way and the researchers then analyzed the genomes of 1,431 individual canids from 13 different species, to track the history of this mutated form of the IGF1 gene.&nbsp;



The researchers also collaborated with evolutionary biologists Greger Larson, at Oxford University, and Laurent Franz, at Ludwig Maximilian University, to examine ancient wolf DNA to see when the&nbsp;IGF-1&nbsp;mutation first appeared. Scientists have theorized that dogs started out large and became smaller about 20,000 years ago, when they were domesticated, but this discovery presents the possibility of a new evolutionary narrative.



The analysis of ancient wolf DNA revealed that the mutated form of the IGF-1 gene was indeed present in the DNA of a 54,000-year-old Siberian wolf (Canis lupus campestris), long before domestication took place.&nbsp;



“It’s as though Nature had kept it tucked in her back pocket for tens of thousands of years until it was needed,” said Ostrander.



The mutated form was found not only in dogs and wolves, but also in other species of the canid family, including coyotes, jackals, and African hunting dogs.&nbsp;



“This is tying together so much about canine domestication and body size, and the things that we think are very modern are actually very ancient,” explained Ostrander.



It seems that the ancestral form of the gene is associated with small body size, while a derived form of the gene gave rise to larger body size and is currently commonly found in gray wolves and large dogs. The allele associated with small body size is thought to have almost become extinct during Pleistocene times when the wolves of the time vanished. But the allele made is reappearance more recently when humans began to selectively breed smaller dogs.&nbsp;



Ostrander and her team plan to continue to investigate the genes that regulate body size in dogs. “One of the things that is pretty cool about dogs is that because they have evolved so recently there aren’t actually a lot of body size genes."&nbsp;



Canids have only 25 known genes that regulate body size, compared to several hundred in humans. “I really want to understand the whole continuum - from Chihuahuas to Great Danes,” said Ostrander.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Small dogs have a gene mutation that existed in ancient wolves

Domestic dogs show more variation in body size than any...

Song sparrows are a widespread <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-song-of-the-east-african-sunbird-may-be-a-million-years-old/">songbird</a> in North America. Among them, only males sing in order to defend their territory and court mates. They usually have a “repertoire” of up to 12 different two-seconds songs, which can take nearly 30 minutes to get through, because they repeat the same song several times before starting another track. 



A new study led by <a href="https://duke.edu/">Duke University</a> and the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> has found that song sparrows deliberately shuffle and mix their song repertoire, probably as a way to keep it interesting for their female audiences.



The researchers recorded the songs of over 30 birds in the backwoods of northwest Pennsylvania and found that male sparrows can keep quite an accurate track of the order of their songs and how often each song is played for over half an hour, possibly in order to avoid repetition and build up hype and novelty.&nbsp;



The more a sparrow sang a particular song, the longer he took to get back to that song. For example, if Song A was played ten times in a row, the bird would sing more renditions of other songs before returning to Song A. However, if Song A was played just two or three times, the bird would usually recite a shorter rendition of the other songs in order to return faster to the relatively new and underplayed Song A.



These findings suggest that song sparrows are capable of “long-distance dependencies” – the ability to choose what to sing at a given point by taking into account what they sang up to half an hour before. According to the scientists, this is a 360 times larger memory capacity than the canary’s (the previous record holder), who can only juggle about five seconds of song information in this way, and makes male sparrow song much more similar to human language than any other animal’s vocal behavior.



Further research is needed to understand why this impressive trait emerged and evolved. The current hypothesis is that it may help keep females interested and less bored, much like shuffling a Spotify playlist keeps us entertained during a gym session. “You've got your playlist for running and the reason you've got that is because running is kind of boring,” said study senior author Stephen Nowicki, a professor of Biology at Duke University. “You know that these 10 songs are going to keep you motivated, but if you are going to run for 20 songs long, why not shuffle it so the next time you don't hear the same songs in the same order?”&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2021.2473">Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Song sparrows shuffle and mix their tunes

Song sparrows are a widespread songbird in North America. Among...

Many animals, such as salamanders, starfish, crabs, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lizards-regenerate-perfect-tails-through-stem-cell-therapy/">lizards</a>, have the capacity of full regeneration of at least some of their limbs. Other creatures, such as flatworms, can even be cut into pieces, and each piece will soon reconstruct an entire organism. However, in humans and other mammals, the loss of a large and structurally complex limb, like an arm or a leg, cannot be restored by any natural process of regeneration.



A research team led by <a href="https://www.tufts.edu/">Tufts University</a> and <a href="https://www.harvard.edu/">Harvard University</a> has recently managed to trigger regrowth of a lost leg in adult frogs by using a five-drug cocktail sealed in a silicone wearable bioreactor dome which they applied over the frog’s stump for a period of 24 hours. This is a crucial first step towards helping not only amphibians, but also mammals (including humans) regenerate lost limbs.



Each of the drugs fulfilled a different purpose, such as diminishing inflammation, inhibiting collagen production which would lead to scarring, and encouraging the growth of new nerve fibers, blood vessels, and muscles. This mixture of drugs combined with the use of the sealed, amniotic-like bioreactor created a perfect environment to inhibit the natural tendency to close off the stump, while promoting the regenerative process.



The scientists noticed a rapid, extraordinary growth of tissue in many of the treated frogs, re-creating an almost fully functional leg.&nbsp;



“It’s exciting to see that the drugs we selected were helping to create an almost complete limb,” said study lead author Nirosha Murugan, a research affiliate at Tufts University.&nbsp;



“The fact that it required only a brief exposure to the drugs to set in motion a months-long regeneration process suggests that frogs and perhaps other animals may have dormant regenerative capabilities that can be triggered into action.”



Within the first few days after treatment, Professor Murugan and her colleagues detected the activation of molecular pathways that are normally used in a developing embryo to help the body form. Instead of requiring prolonged therapeutic interventions, the activation of these pathways could allow the burden of growth and organization to be handled by the limb itself.



“Covering the open wound with a liquid environment under the BioDome, with the right drug cocktail, could provide the necessary first signals to set the regenerative process in motion,” said study corresponding author Michael Levine, a professor of Biology at Tufts.&nbsp;



“It’s a strategy focused on triggering dormant, inherent anatomical patterning programs, not micromanaging complex growth, since adult animals still have the information needed to make their body structures.”&nbsp;&nbsp;



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/sciadv.abj2164">Science Advances</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists can help frogs grow new limbs

Many animals, such as salamanders, starfish, crabs, or lizards, have...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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