Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Small, antibody-like proteins known as VNARs (Variable New Antigen Receptors) are derived from the immune systems of sharks, and appear to be extremely potent in preventing COVID-19. According to a new study published in the journal <a href="https://medicalxpress.com/news/2021-12-shark-antibody-like-proteins-neutralize-covid-.html">Nature Communications</a>, VNARs could effectively neutralize a large variety of coronaviruses, including SARS-CoV-2 and its most recent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/omicron-high-transmissibility-and-chance-for-reinfection/">variants</a>.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



The shark proteins are ten times smaller than human antibodies and can bind to infectious proteins in unique ways that bolster their ability to stop infection. 



"These small antibody-like proteins can get into nooks and crannies that human antibodies cannot access," said study senior author Aaron LeBeau, a professor of pathology at the <a href="https://www.wisc.edu/">University of Wisconsin-Madison</a>. "They can form these very unique geometries. This allows them to recognize structures in proteins that our human antibodies cannot."



Professor LeBeau and his colleagues tested a large variety of shark proteins against both infectious SARS-CoV-2 and a version of the virus that cannot replicate in cells, and identified three candidate VNARs that rapidly and effectively stopped the virus from infecting human cells. When tested against SARS-CoV-1 (the virus causing the 2003 outbreak), the three VNARs also appeared to be highly effective.



One of the VNARs, called 3B4, attached strongly to a groove on the viral spike protein that is very similar among genetically diverse coronaviruses, allowing it to successfully neutralize even the MERS virus - a relatively distant cousin of SARS that led to an outbreak in 2012. This ability makes 3B4 an excellent candidate to fight viruses yet to emerge.



"The big issue is there are a number of coronaviruses that are poised for emergence in humans. What we're doing is preparing an arsenal of shark VNAR therapeutics that could be used down the road for future SARS outbreaks. It's a kind of insurance against the future," said Professor LeBeau.



Future therapies will probably include a cocktail of multiple shark proteins in order to optimize their effectiveness against a large array of different and mutating viruses. These drugs will be cheaper and easier to manufacture than human antibodies and could be delivered into the body through different routes.&nbsp;



Although they have not yet been tested in humans, they show an extraordinary therapeutic potential, particularly for people who do not respond well to vaccines and may need alternative protective strategies.&nbsp; &nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Shark proteins can neutralize different coronaviruses

Small, antibody-like proteins known as VNARs (Variable New Antigen Receptors)...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/omicron-partial-immune-evasion-after-vaccination/">Omicron</a> is by far the most contagious variant of SARS-CoV-2 to date. It has already spread to 77 countries and is currently causing massive outbreaks in South Africa, United Kingdom, and Denmark. Although the levels of hospitalization and deaths have remained relatively low in South Africa, where the variant is dominant since almost three weeks, experts are not yet sure whether Omicron causes milder disease than previous strains.



In fact, according to a new <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/mrc-global-infectious-disease-analysis/covid-19/report-49-Omicron/">study</a> led by <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/">Imperial College London</a>, Omicron does not seem to have lower severity than Delta, judged by either the proportion of symptomatic infections or hospitalizations in the United Kingdom, where Omicron cases are expected to peak by the end of the year with daily numbers rising up to one million.



"We find no evidence (for both risk of hospitalization attendance and symptom status) of Omicron having different severity from Delta," the study authors wrote.&nbsp;



By analyzing a cohort of over 333,000 people who tested positive for the coronavirus between November 29th and December 11th, scientists estimated that the risk of reinfection with Omicron is 5.4 greater than that of the Delta variant. This implies that protection against reinfection after a previous infection may be as low as 19 percent.



The researchers also found that vaccine effectiveness against Omicron was significantly lower than in the case of other variants (between 0 percent and 20 percent after two doses of Pfizer or Astra Zeneca, and between 55 percent and 80 percent after a <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/news/232657/boosters-vital-mitigate-impact-omicron-lose/">booster</a> dose). However, vaccines still appear to offer a significant degree of protection against severe illness and death.



“This study provides further evidence of the very substantial extent to which Omicron can evade prior immunity given by both infection or vaccination. This level of immune evasion means that Omicron poses a major, imminent threat to public health,” said study lead author Neil Ferguson, a professor of Epidemiology at Imperial College London.



“Quantifying reinfection risk and vaccine effectiveness against Omicron is essential for modelling the likely future trajectory of the Omicron wave and the potential impact of vaccination and other public health interventions,” added study co-author Azra Ghani, the Chair in Infectious Disease Epidemiology at the same university.



Although this study appears rather pessimistic, it is still too early to clearly assess the virulence of Omicron. According to Dr. Clive Dix, former Chair of the UK Vaccine Taskforce, at least another month is needed to clarify the levels of vaccine efficacy.



"There is a huge amount of uncertainty in these modelled estimates and we can only be confident about the impact of boosters against Omicron when we have another month of real-world data on hospitalization, ICU numbers, and deaths," he said.&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer&nbsp;

Omicron: “No evidence” that it is milder than Delta

Omicron is by far the most contagious variant of SARS-CoV-2...

Horseshoe crabs are ancient creatures that emerged before the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/social-behavior-helped-early-dinosaurs-thrive/">dinosaurs</a> and have proven extremely successful in surviving various environmental stressors, such as mass extinctions and several ice ages, during their 450 years-long history. However, conservationists warn that these crustaceans may soon become extinct due to the fact that humans are using them to test a large variety of drugs and vaccines.



One of their most amazing and unique features is how their bright blue blood coagulates when exposed to harmful bacterial endotoxins which usually induce inflammation and fever, often causing anaphylactic shock and death. These toxins are responsible for venereal diseases, bacterial meningitis, cholera, bubonic plague, and many other diseases. The immune cells in the horseshoe crabs’ blood, containing immune cells called Limulus amebosyte lysates (LALs), trap and immobilize these endotoxins, rendering them inert.



Ironically, the same feature that helped them survive over the ages, may now bring the crabs to extinction. Since the 1960s, when scientists discovered this extraordinary defensive system, the crabs’ blood has been extensively used to test medications, vaccines (including the recent coronavirus ones), needles, and biomedical devices to ensure they are not contaminated.&nbsp;



To do this, scientists drain the crabs of their blood and, although they return them to the ocean afterwards, up to 30 percent of the creatures die.&nbsp;



“As it is now, the entire supply chain for endotoxin testing of drugs rests upon the harvest of a vulnerable or near extinct sea creature,” said Kevin Williams, a researcher at <a href="https://www.biomerieux.com/">bioMérieux</a>, a French multinational biotechnology firm.



According to a recent study published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmars.2020.607668/full">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>, “in the US, 525,000 horseshoe crabs per year were captured during 2013 to 2017 and the&nbsp;Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission estimates short-term bleeding-induced mortality to be 15 percent (4 percent to 30 percent), resulting in mortality of approximately 78,750 horseshoe crabs annually in recent years comprising a minor portion.”&nbsp;



Fortunately, many pharmaceutical companies in Europe and Asia have recently switched to a synthetic product called recombinant Factor C assay (rFC), which appears to be able to detect bacterial endotoxins as reliably as LAL. However, due to the fact that using this alternative is more costly and time consuming, in the United States the only major company that has switched to rFCs is Ely Lily. Only if many more companies take this road, will this magnificent ancestral creature have a chance to survive.



---



By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Horseshoe crabs could be wiped out by the pharmaceutical industry

Horseshoe crabs are ancient creatures that emerged before the dinosaurs...

Crowd,Of,Sports,Fans,Cheering,During,A,Match,In,Stadium.

Synchronization allows human spectators in a crowd to cheer together, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-hints-at-a-secret-musical-battle-between-fireflies-and-bats/">fireflies</a> to flash simultaneously, and metronomes to remain consistent when they are side by side. Now, researchers from <a href="https://www.tcd.ie/">Trinity College Dublin</a> have revealed new secrets behind the intriguing phenomenon of synchronization. 



The study, which is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.aps.org/prresearch/">Physical Review Research</a>,&nbsp; provides a mathematical model elucidating synchronization.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Scientists have long known that if one clock runs a bit faster than another, connecting the two physically can cause them to tick together. Making a large assemblage of clocks work together in this way was thought to be very hard, if not impossible. The current research shows how synchronization can work even with a large collection of clocks.&nbsp;



“The equations we have developed describe an assembly of laser-like devices – acting as our ‘oscillating clocks’ – and they essentially unlock the secret to synchronization," said Dr. Paul Eastham, Naughton Associate Professor in Physics at Trinity.



"These same equations describe many other kinds of oscillators, however, showing that synchronisation is more readily achieved in many systems than was previously thought.”



The phenomena that works with clocks works with many other systems as well, from people to insects to other machines. “Many things that exhibit repetitive behavior can be considered clocks, from flashing fireflies and applauding crowds to electrical circuits, metronomes, and lasers," explained Dr. Eastham.



"Independently they will oscillate at slightly different rates, but when they are formed into an assembly their mutual influences can overcome that variation.”



The research has some practical applications as well. It may be possible to use this new science of synchronization to create computer systems that use light signals as a way to process data.&nbsp;



The study was supported by the Irish Research Council and used resources supported by the Science Foundation Ireland. This is an example of basic research that could lead to advanced technological breakthroughs.&nbsp;



"We derive phase diagrams that classify the desynchronized and synchronized states, focusing on the behavior in one and two dimensions. This is achieved by outlining the connection of the oscillator model to the quantum description of localization of a particle in a random potential through a mapping to a modified Kardar-Parisi-Zhang equation," wrote the study authors.&nbsp;



"Our results indicate that synchronization in coupled polariton condensates and other examples of low-dimensional lattices of coupled oscillators is not destroyed by randomness in their natural frequencies."



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Scientists reveal the secrets of synchronization

Synchronization allows human spectators in a crowd to cheer together,...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/medicinal-cannabis-reduces-epileptic-seizures-by-86-percent/">Cannabis</a> plants - the source of medical marijuana, CBD oils and hemp - have a strange propensity to absorb heavy metals from soils. This ability makes them valuable for restoring contaminated soils, it can also lead to health problems in those consuming cannabis products.&nbsp;



A new meta-analysis led by scientists from <a href="https://www.psu.edu/">Penn State</a> looks at the absorption of heavy metals by cannabis and the ensuing health risks for consumers.&nbsp;



“Heavy metals, such as lead, mercury, cadmium and chromium, are known to be carcinogenic," said Professor Louis Bengyella. "The heavy-metal content of cannabis is not regulated; therefore, consumers could unknowingly be exposed to these toxic metals. This is bad news for anyone who uses cannabis but is particularly problematic for cancer patients who use medical marijuana to treat the nausea and pain associated with their treatments.”



Unfortunately, the problem is made worse by selective breeding of some strains, specifically for phytoremediation, that is the absorption of toxins from soil, air and water.&nbsp;



“The problem is if we use these strains that were developed for phytoremediation without considering why they were developed in the first place, we may unknowingly expose consumers to heavy metals,” explained Bengyella.



In the study, which is published in the journal <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/journal/Toxin-Reviews-1556-9551">Toxin Reviews</a>, Bengyella and colleagues looked at and analyzed previous research on phytoremediation, what happens to absorbed metals and the resulting health problems.&nbsp;



The researchers found that some commonly grown plants were used for phytoremediation because of their long stem length, fast growth, high root and leaf surface areas, all qualities that improve heavy metal absorption. The team also found that trichomes - hair like structures - are where heavy metals exit the plant.



“Trichomes are important because they store the CBD oil and the tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) that are desired by consumers," said Bengyella. "This led us to question if these heavy metals are there at the level of the trichome, what can they do to people?”



The scientists turned to the known health effects of heavy metals on people. They found that the metals absorbed by cannabis can cause a variety of health problems. Through reactions inside the human body, the metals can cause damage to enzymes, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. Heavy metal consumption can lead to cancer and neurological problems.&nbsp;



“Cannabis consumed in combustive form represents the greatest danger to human health, as analysis of heavy metals in the smoke of cannabis revealed the presence of selenium, mercury, cadmium, lead, chromium, nickel and arsenic," said Bengyella.



"It is disturbing to realize that the cannabis products being used by consumers, especially cancer patients, may be causing unnecessary harm to their bodies.”



---



By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Cannabis absorbs heavy metals that may harm human health

Cannabis plants - the source of medical marijuana, CBD oils...

We have all had the experience of gasping out loud when we hurt ourselves, or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breathing-exercises-improve-focus-in-children-with-adhd/">breathing</a> faster when we get a fright. But the reason why our breathing rate increases when we are anxious or in pain was not previously understood.&nbsp;



In recent research, however, a team of scientists from the <a href="https://www.salk.edu/">Salk Institute</a> has found that a neural network in the brain coordinates breathing rhythm with feelings of pain and fear. They propose that this finding could lead to the development of an analgesic that would prevent opioid-induced respiratory depression (OIRD), the disrupted breathing that can cause death in those who overdose on opioid drugs.



Opioid medications are often used as painkillers, and they are effective at reducing pain. However, they also reduce breathing rate, sometimes to the extent that the user stops breathing and dies. There was clearly a need to understand the mechanism whereby breathing rate is coordinated with the experience of pain.&nbsp;



In the study, published today in the journal&nbsp;<a href="https://www.cell.com/neuron/home">Neuron</a>, the Salk scientists focused on a group of neurons in the brainstem called the lateral parabrachial nucleus. Nerve cells in this region are arranged in the form of a core, which is surrounded by a shell. They found that, whereas neurons in the core project to the amygdala, an area of the brain that processes fear and the emotional experience of pain, neurons in the shell project to the pre-Bötzinger complex, a region that generates breathing rhythm.&nbsp;



The core and shell neurons influence each other according to inputs from these areas, making us breathe faster when we experience pain or anxiety.



“We are the first group to demonstrate how the lateral parabrachial nucleus coordinates breathing and pain,” said study senior author Professor&nbsp;<a href="https://www.salk.edu/scientist/sung-han/">Sung Han</a>. “By understanding the circuits in this brain region, we may be able to tease apart breathing regulation and pain regulation to develop a medication that inhibits feelings of pain without repressing breathing, like OIRD.”



Researchers in Professor Han’s lab had previously shown that opiates like morphine repress breathing by triggering specific receptors, called mu opioid receptors (MORs). This leads to the inhibition of neurons that express these receptors. They also showed that reactivating the cells that express MORs can reverse OIRD. Their current research suggests there may be different approaches to preventing OIRD, possibly by inhibiting neurons in the region’s core (blunting fear/anxiety) while exciting similar neurons in the shell (supporting breathing).



In order to show how the core and shell neurons coordinate breathing with pain and emotions, the researchers first used light and chemical agents to prove that manipulating the MOR-expressing neurons in the lateral parabrachial nucleus alters breathing rate in mice. They then used fluorescent tracers to map the inputs and outputs to the MOR-expressing neurons.&nbsp;



The results showed that nerve cells in the core project to the central amygdala, while neurons clustered in the surrounding shell project to the pre-Bötzinger complex. When they recorded electrical activity in neurons from one of the regions (core or shell), while stimulating activity in the other region, they found that the two groups of nerve cells were connected to one another by means of an excitatory network of neurons. It is through this network that signals of fear and pain are coordinated with breathing rhythm.&nbsp;



“We have found very intricate circuits involving upstream and downstream input to these neurons. By uncovering this circuit mechanism, we can better explain why breathing can often be coordinated with pain and anxiety,” said first author Shijia Liu, a graduate student in Han’s lab.



Professor Han is eager to see the team’s discovery have a functional application. “The biggest problem these days is that opioids reduce pain but also reduce breathing, so people die."



"By understanding those two mechanisms in our research, maybe we can manipulate certain populations of neurons by pharmacological intervention so that we can control pain without changing the breathing.”



The researchers in Han’s group are now undertaking genetic analyses of the core and shell neurons to identify specific functional markers that regulate pain or breathing.



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Why does our breathing rate increase when we feel pain?

We have all had the experience of gasping out loud...

Since the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/over-half-of-the-worlds-vertebrates-reside-in-the-tropics/">tropics</a> are becoming hotter due to climate change and deforestation, the ability of outdoor workers to perform their jobs safely is increasingly reduced. This is the conclusion of research led by <a href="https://duke.edu/">Duke University</a> and published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2021.11.016">OneEarth</a>.



The study suggests that in recently deforested locations, almost five million people lost at least half an hour of safe outdoor work time per day.



“There is a huge disproportionate decrease in safe work hours associated with heat exposure for people in deforested locations versus people in forestated locations just over the past 15 or 20 years,”&nbsp;said study lead author Luke Parsons, a climate expert at Duke.



“There is a small amount of climate change that has happened over the same 15-year period, but the increase in humid heat exposure for people living in deforested relative to forested locations was much larger than that from recent climate change.”



Since trees block out the sun’s radiation and cool down the air through evapotranspiration (a process when plants transport water from the soil and evaporate it through the leaves), deforestation is associated with an increase in local temperatures.



“The trees in the tropics seem to limit the maximum temperatures that the air can reach. Once we cut those trees down, we lose that cooling service from the trees, and it can get really, really hot,” explained Parsons.&nbsp;



“In the Brazilian Amazon, for example, where huge swaths of the rainforest have been cleared in the last 15 or 20 years, the afternoons can be up to 10 degrees Celsius warmer than forested regions.”



Using satellite data and meteorological observations, Parson and his colleagues tracked the temperature and humidity levels in 94 countries with tropical forests in America, Africa, and Asia, from 2003 to 2018. They estimated that, in recently deforested areas, approximately five million people lost about half an hour, and 100,000 lost up to two hours of safe outdoor work time per day.



“I think the research has a positive message and a negative message. The negative message is that if we cut down trees, we not only cause problems for the ecosystem and global carbon emissions, but we also lose local cooling services that provide a comfortable and safe place to work.”&nbsp;



“But the positive message is that if we can prevent forest loss, we can maintain cooling services along with all the other benefits forests provide. Importantly, the relationship between the health of the forests and nearby people offers an additional, locally relevant reason to prevent tree loss,” Parsons concluded.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Deforestation made outdoor work unsafe for millions

Since the tropics are becoming hotter due to climate change...

Worldwide, the proportion of people over the age of 60 is predicted to double in the next three decades. An aging population brings with it many attendant health issues, not least of which is type 2 diabetes. This disease is characterized by insulin resistance, or an inability of the body cells to respond to insulin, and its treatment places a burden on public <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vitamin-d-is-essential-for-heart-health/">health</a> systems globally.&nbsp;



Insulin resistance is often associated with reduced physical activity and so, as we age and become less active, we are more prone to developing type 2 diabetes. However, the precise mechanism whereby physical inactivity leads to the development of insulin resistance has not been demonstrated.



Now, in a study led by Professor Tony Tiganis of <a href="https://www.monash.edu/">Monash University</a>, researchers have discovered the metabolic mechanism whereby physical activity levels and insulin resistance are connected in laboratory mice.&nbsp;



According to Professor Tiganis, skeletal muscle cells constantly produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) and this process increases during physical exercise. Moderate exposure to these oxygen-derived free radicals is essential for normal cellular function in our bodies, and also induces the body’s adaptive response to produce antioxidants in defense. Regular exercise benefits health by enhancing antioxidant defenses against high levels of ROS, and this is one of the ways in which doing exercise makes us feel better.



“Exercise-induced ROS drive adaptive responses that are integral to the health-promoting effects of exercise,” said Professor Tiganis.&nbsp;However, a reduction in generation of ROS in skeletal muscle, brought on by decreasing physical activity as we age, is instrumental in the development of insulin resistance.&nbsp;



The research team found that, in mice, an enzyme called NOX-4 is essential for producing exercise-induced ROS and therefore for the adaptive responses that drive metabolic health. They found that levels of NOX-4 increased in skeletal muscle after the mice exercised and that this led to increased ROS, which elicited the adaptive responses that protect mice from the development of insulin resistance.



Importantly, the scientists have shown that the levels of NOX-4 in skeletal muscle are directly related to age-associated decline in insulin sensitivity.&nbsp;“In this study we have shown, in animal models, that skeletal muscle NOX-4 abundance is decreased with aging and that this leads to a reduction in insulin sensitivity,” said Professor Tiganis.



These findings help explain how physical activity actually enhances insulin responses and promotes metabolic health. In addition, the enzyme that is key in this mechanism has the potential to be targeted by drugs in order to promote its activity, thereby protecting against the consequences of aging, such as diabetes.&nbsp;



“Triggering the activation of the adaptive mechanisms orchestrated by NOX-4&nbsp;with drugs, might ameliorate key aspects of aging, including the development of insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes,” said Professor Tiganis.&nbsp;



“One of these compounds is found naturally, for instance, in cruciferous vegetables, such as broccoli or cauliflower, though the amount needed for anti-aging effects might be more than many would be willing to consume.”&nbsp;



The study is published today in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/journal/sciadv">Science Advances</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Enzyme produced during exercise protects against aging

Worldwide, the proportion of people over the age of 60...

Gasadalur,Village,And,Beautiful,Waterfall,,Sunny,Day,,Vagar,,Faroe,Islands,

The Faroe Islands are a small archipelago located midway between Norway and Iceland, about 200 miles off Scotland. Their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-landscapes-found-beneath-the-north-sea/">landscape</a> is rocky, with towering cliffs dominating the sea, and the weather is inclement, strong winds continuously buffeting the shores. There is no evidence that the islands ever sheltered indigenous populations, thus making them one of the planet’s few lands that remained uninhabited until historical times.



While past archeological excavations have indicated that the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-vikings-reached-america-long-before-columbus/">Vikings</a> were the first to reach the Faroe Islands around 850 AD, a new study led by Columbia University’s&nbsp;<a href="https://www.ldeo.columbia.edu/">Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory</a> has found evidence that domestic sheep suddenly appeared on these islands around 500 AD, well before the Norse occupation, suggesting that an unknown band of humans settled there around that period.&nbsp;



The researchers sailed out to a lake near the village of Eiði, the site of an ancient Viking locale on the island of Eysturoy, and collected and analyzed sediment samples containing traces of over 10,000 years of environmental history. They discovered identifiable fragments of sheep DNA, as well as two distinctive types of lipids produced in the digestive systems of sheep, starting at 20 inches down into the sediment, suggesting that large numbers of sheep may have arrived there between 492 and 512 AD.



“We see this as putting the nail in the coffin that people were there before the Vikings,” said study lead author Lorelei Curtin, who did the research as a graduate student at the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory.



According to Curtin and her colleagues, these early settlers could have been Celts from present-day Scotland and Ireland, since many Faroese place names derive from Celtic words, and ancient, Celtic grave markings have been found in many places around the islands. Moreover, DNA studies of the modern Faroese show that, while their paternal lineages are Scandinavian, the maternal ones are largely Celtic.&nbsp;



While other North Atlantic regions also show this asymmetry - a possible sign that male Viking settlers had brought Celtic wives with them, the Faroese have the highest level of maternal Celtic ancestry, suggesting that a Celtic population might have preceding the Vikings.



More research is needed to assess whether Celtic populations may have reached other North Atlantic regions too during that period.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s43247-021-00318-0">Nature Communications: Earth and Environment</a>.



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By <a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com">Andrei Ionescu</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Humans reached the Faroe Islands much earlier than expected

The Faroe Islands are a small archipelago located midway between...

According to a study published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/srep/">Scientific Reports</a>, the Brazilian wildfires in the Pantanal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coastal-wetlands-are-a-powerful-weapon-against-flooding/">wetland</a> in 2020 potentially killed almost 17 million vertebrates, including lizards, birds, and primates.



Wildfires blazed in the Pantanal Wetland from January to November 2020, wreaking havoc on the world's largest tropical wetland. Walfrido Moraes Tomas, Ronaldo Morato, and fellow researchers estimated the wildfire animal fatalities by counting carcasses in burned areas. In the early aftermath of the fire, the experts sampled corpses at intervals along tracts of the marsh (a total of 114.43 kilometers).



The researchers discovered 302 carcasses and were able to identify the species in the majority of cases, despite their poor state. The experts estimated the total number of animal deaths by multiplying their figures for small vertebrates (those weighing less than 2kg) and medium-to-large vertebrates (those weighing more than 2kg).



From January to November 2020, the authors estimate that between 13,206,700 and 18,811,300 small vertebrates were killed across the 39,030 km2 charred area of the Pantanal wetlands. Small lizards, birds, and rodents were among the small vertebrates that suffered fatalities.&nbsp;



The scientists also calculated that between 691,090 and 1,196,570 medium-to-large creatures, including ungulates and primates,&nbsp; perished instantly during the Brazilian wildfires. Overall, the study estimates that a total of 16,952,000 vertebrates were lost in the fires.



According to the study authors, some species known to have been killed by the fires, including&nbsp; jaguars, pumas, and tapirs, were likely overlooked in their survey. They also point out that their estimate does not take into account the whole impact of the flames, which would have resulted in animal mortality as a result of habitat destruction.



The researchers concluded that their study demonstrates the devastating impact of wildfires in the Pantanal wetlands in 2020, as well as the need of preventing similar calamities.



"Our estimates indicate that at least 16.952 million vertebrates were killed immediately by the fires in the Pantanal, demonstrating the impact of such an event in wet savanna ecosystems," wrote the study authors.



"The Pantanal case also reminds us that the cumulative impact of widespread burning would be catastrophic, as fire recurrence may lead to the impoverishment of ecosystems and the disruption of their functioning."&nbsp;



"To overcome this unsustainable scenario, it is necessary to establish proper biomass fuel management to avoid cumulative impacts caused by fire over biodiversity and ecosystem services."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-02844-5">Scientific Reports</a>.



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By <a href="http://mailto:ashikha92@gmail.com">Ashikha Raoof</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nearly 17 million animals perished in Brazilian wildfires

According to a study published in Scientific Reports, the Brazilian...

New research published in the journal <a href="https://cgejournal.biomedcentral.com/">Canine Medicine and Genetics</a> highlights the health risks associated with French bulldogs caused by poor <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-have-a-high-risk-of-disease-due-to-inbreeding/">breeding</a> practices. According to the study, the well-being of French bulldogs is particularly threatened by breeding them for a shorter muzzle and flat head.



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.rvc.ac.uk/">Royal Veterinary College in Hertfordshire</a> collected 2016 medical records from across the UK stored in the VetCompass database. They analyzed records from 2,781 French bulldogs.



The research team, led by Dan O’Neill, compared 43 disorders that French bulldogs and other breeds were suffering from. The scientists found that the French bulldogs had a 42.14 times greater risk of narrowed nostrils, 30.89 times higher risk of obstructive airways disorder, 14.4 times greater risk of ear discharge, and 11.18 times higher risk of skin dermatitis.&nbsp;



Looking at the French bulldogs in the study, the scientists found interestingly that only 63.4 percent were diagnosed with a disorder compared to 66.1 percent of other breeds. This suggests that French bulldogs as a whole are slightly less likely to be diagnosed with an unspecified disorder, it’s possible that it could also indicate owners are more able to identify disorders in other breeds.&nbsp;



Despite having a higher risk of diagnosis with 20 disorders, French bulldogs had a smaller likelihood of being diagnosed with 11 out of 43 common disorders, including lameness and obesity. This propensity towards health in some categories shows the possibility of the breed being improved health wise.&nbsp;



The researchers suggest that better breeding practices, such as those that are not focused on risky traits such as shorter muzzles and skin folds, could help improve the overall well-being of the breed.&nbsp;



“Achieving meaningful changes to the typical look of French bulldogs over time requires buy in from breeders and kennel clubs who publish breeding standards, but the biggest responsibility lies with owners who ultimately can demand dogs with more moderate features," said O'Neill.



"The Kennel Club have recently updated the breed standard for the French ulldog to move further away from elements of extreme conformation with evidence of health ill-effects. This is a very positive step to prioritise the health of dogs over human desires for how these dogs look and we must now continue this evolution of the breed towards a more moderate conformation.”



The scientists point out that their research relies on a snapshot of data and does not indicate how long a dog may suffer from a particular disorder or how badly the dog may suffer. They also suggest that traits such as snoring may not be seen as an indicator of a disorder and many French bulldogs may not require veterinary services. However, with better breeding practices emphasizing animal health over arbitrary aesthetics, French bulldogs could be a healthier breed.&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Breeding practices threaten the health of French bulldogs

New research published in the journal Canine Medicine and Genetics...

After certain U.S. states introduced <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lockdowns-disrupted-work-leisure-balance-especially-for-moms/">lockdowns</a> and stay-at-home orders in March, 2020, there were anecdotal reports that people bought and consumed more alcohol than usual. However, data-driven research into whether this was the case produced mixed results.



Scientists at the <a href="http://www.buffalo.edu/">University of Buffalo</a> set out to clarify this situation by analyzing data on sales of alcohol in 16 U.S. states during the first few months of the COVID-19 pandemic. They used monthly sales figures reported by the <a href="https://www.niaaa.nih.gov/">NIAAA</a> for the period from March to June 2020, and compared these with sales in the same period in 2018 and 2019. In some states (but not all), separate sales figures were available for wine, beer and spirits.&nbsp;



In addition, the researchers used anonymized mobility data from over 45 million smart mobile devices (mostly smartphones) indicating people’s visits to businesses where alcohol is sold. In this way they could assess any changes in the relationship between alcohol sales and people’s visits to businesses that sell alcohol.&nbsp;



“Anonymized human mobility data and geospatial analysis help us understand how people’s visiting behavior to alcohol outlets changed during the stay-at-home period of COVID-19, and how such behavior change varied across different geographic regions,” says Yingjie Hu, PhD, an assistant professor of geography in the UB College of Arts and Sciences.



“Understanding how alcohol purchase behavior is changed by events such as COVID is important because heavy alcohol use is known to be associated with numerous social problems, especially within the home,” says Bria Quigley, PhD, research assistant professor of medicine in the Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences at UB and the UB Clinical and Research Institute on Addictions.



The results of the analyses showed that the overall sales of spirits and wine increased in the early months of the pandemic – by as much as 20–40 percent in some states. The sales of beer declined overall, compared to sales during the same period in previous years. Meanwhile, people’s visits to bars and pubs declined, but visits to liquor stores increased.



The trends did vary significantly between states. For example, while beer sales decreased in most states, they increased in Kansas, Arkansas and Texas. Furthermore, Texas, Kentucky and Virginia showed sustained increases in their sales of both spirits and wine, which the authors suggest “can be alarming signals for problematic alcohol use.”



“If data can provide information about geographic areas in which alcohol use increases during certain types of events such as during severe weather, high unemployment, or events such as the COVID pandemic, this information can be useful to help prepare law enforcement, medical professionals and substance use disorder treatment providers to address alcohol-related issues associated with such times,” said Quigley.



Machine-learning assessments in the study point to a significant shift in the relationship between alcohol sales data and visits to various alcohol outlets. The researchers suggest the possibility that people turned increasingly to online alcohol purchases or to panic buying of spirits and wine. More research will be necessary to understand the exact changes in people’s purchasing behavior.&nbsp;



The research team notes that the study has some limitations: For example, many states were not included in the NIAAA dataset, and the human mobility data was not able to capture sales at places such as grocery stores, where sales of alcohol are mixed with sales of other items.&nbsp;



Nevertheless, these results provide insights into the potential effects of lockdown policies on alcohol use and could inform future public health policies to address alcohol-related social issues, the researchers say.



The results of this study were published today in the open-access journal&nbsp;<a href="https://plos.org/">PLOS ONE</a>.



---



By <a href="mailto:bosman@truewan.co.za">Alison Bosman</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Many turned to alcohol during early pandemic lockdown

After certain U.S. states introduced lockdowns and stay-at-home orders in...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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