Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Beneath the forest floor lies a vast and vital network of life - underground fungi that help regulate Earth’s climate and sustain ecosystems by transporting nutrients to plants and locking carbon deep in the soil.



Among these are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-distribute-enormous-amounts-of-co2-to-mycorrhizal-fungi/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mycorrhizal fungi</a>, especially ectomycorrhizal species, which form intricate symbiotic relationships with trees and plants. But as scientists try to understand and protect these essential organisms, they’re running into a surprising obstacle: the majority of these fungi remain unknown.



A new study reveals that up to 83% of ectomycorrhizal fungi belong to “dark taxa” - species that have never been formally named or described. Scientists only know these organisms through fragments of their DNA, and their anonymity poses a significant challenge for conservation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invisible-fungal-diversity">Invisible fungal diversity</h2>



Only about 155,000 fungal species have been officially documented, while scientists estimate that between two and three million exist. In recent years, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/airborne-dna-can-track-wildlife-diseases-and-even-drugs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental DNA</a> (eDNA) sampling - extracting genetic material directly from soil and roots - has helped researchers detect many more species. 



However, for most of these mysterious fungi, there’s no existing match in the scientific record.



Laura van Galen is lead author of the study and a microbial ecologist working with the <a href="https://www.spun.earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Society for the Protection of Underground Networks</a> (SPUN) and <a href="https://ethz.ch/en.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ETH Zurich</a>.



“We are a long way out from getting all fungal DNA sequences linked to named species,” she said. "Environmental DNA has enormous potential as a research tool to detect fungal species, but we can’t include unnamed species in conservation initiatives. How can you protect something that hasn’t yet been named?”



Traditionally, scientists assign described species Latin binomials - names that help them track and study these organisms. Without these identifiers, dark taxa remain excluded from conservation frameworks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungi-drive-forest-health">Fungi drive forest health</h2>



Ectomycorrhizal fungi are more than obscure soil residents - they’re powerhouses of planetary health. 



These fungi partner with roughly a quarter of all plant life and play an outsized role in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-plankton-play-a-big-role-in-the-global-carbon-cycle/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth’s carbon cycle</a>, drawing down over nine billion tons of carbon dioxide each year.



That’s more than 25% of the CO2 released annually by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/more-warnings-fossil-fuels-are-causing-climate-health-and-biodiversity-crises/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fossil fuels</a>. They also help regulate nutrient flows in forests, support plant resilience, and even break down pollutants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tropics-hold-untapped-fungi">Tropics hold untapped fungi</h2>



Despite their importance, most ectomycorrhizal research focuses on the Global North, leaving tropical fungal communities overlooked.



According to the study, hotspots for dark taxa are especially concentrated in tropical forests and shrublands in Southeast Asia, Central and South America, and parts of Africa. They also occur in montane forests above Mongolia.



“Mid-latitude and southern-hemisphere regions show signs of being home to many unknown species," said van Galen. 



“This means there is a mismatch in resources and funding. We need to facilitate more tropical researchers and those from southern-hemisphere regions to focus on identifying these super-important fungi.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-naming-the-nameless"><a></a>Naming the nameless</h2>



To bring these fungi into the scientific spotlight, the researchers suggest two main strategies: fieldwork and museum science. Collecting and sequencing new fungal samples is vital, but revisiting existing collections is equally important.



 Camille Truong is co-author of the study and a mycorrhizal ecologist at SPUN and the <a href="https://www.rbg.vic.gov.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Botanic Gardens Victoria in Australia</a>.



“One way to reduce the dark taxa problem is to collect, study and sequence mushrooms and other fungi,” said Truong. 



“Conversely, there are mushrooms that have been sitting for decades in collections of botanical gardens. These should be urgently sequenced so that we can, hopefully, start matching them up with some of these dark taxa.”



The stakes are high. Many of these unknown fungi are linked to plant species that are themselves endangered. If those <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-and-fungi-communicate-using-a-silent-language/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> disappear, their fungal partners - possibly with vital ecological functions - could vanish without ever being documented.



“We're at risk here,” van Galen warned. “If we lose these host plants, we might also be losing really important fungal communities that we don’t know anything about yet.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-prioritizing-underground-fungal-species">Prioritizing underground fungal species</h2>



The tools to explore fungal diversity already exist. What’s missing is widespread recognition of the fungi’s role in climate and biodiversity, and a coordinated push to study and protect them.



“We really need to pay so much more attention to fungi in the soil so that we can understand the species and protect them and conserve them before we lose them,” van Galen said.



The authors hope their research will help steer conservation organizations toward prioritizing regions rich in underground fungal diversity - even if the species found there are still nameless.



After all, in the quiet depths of the soil, scientists may discover the foundations of forests, climate stability, and even our future.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(25)00426-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



Image Credit: Adriana Corrales/SPUN



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Why millions of fungal species still remain unknown

Beneath the forest floor lies a vast and vital network...

The human body is a busy place, carrying out vital tasks that keep us lively and capable of patching up everyday wear and tear. With up to 37 trillion cells whirling about, each unit of life must sense and respond to signals in ways that maintain balance.



Scientists have long recognized that cells respond to <a href="https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/physrev.00020.2004" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">electric fields</a>. However, the intricate details of how sensitive they are have recently sparked renewed interest. This growing curiosity inspired new research led by Professor Yashashree Kulkarni at the <a href="https://uh.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Houston</a>.



The project was guided by graduate student, Anand Mathew, who took the lead in pushing the boundaries of what we know about cellular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-did-the-first-cells-life-form-on-earth-scientists-think-they-finally-figured-it-out/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">responses</a> to electrical signals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-cells-react-to-electric-signals">How cells react to electric signals</h2>



Cells have often been compared to tiny units that rely on a host of triggers to keep everything running. Some triggers come in the form of chemicals, while others involve electrical cues that influence growth and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cells-called-astrocytes-help-human-brains-store-massive-amounts-of-information/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">repair</a>.



For decades, many believed there was a theoretical floor that limited how weak an electric field a cell could detect. 



This belief stemmed from a concept known as thermal noise, a background hum from random activity linked to temperature inside living systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breaking-from-older-theories">Breaking from older theories</h2>



Professor Kulkarni noticed evidence that cells might be detecting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-debunks-understanding-of-what-brain-cells-axons-look-like-pearl-structure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">signals</a> once dismissed as too faint - a small departure from older ideas.



"Our research challenges long-held assumptions about the limits of cellular electrical sensing and explains how cells detect electric fields with remarkable sensitivity,” noted Kulkarni.



Much of the standard thinking relied on the notion that heat-based fluctuations set a limit. This is where <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-conmatphys-070909-104101" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">active matter</a> enters the picture, providing an alternative explanation for how cells handle subtle inputs in ways that defy earlier predictions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cells-tune-into-faint-electrical-signals">Cells tune into faint electrical signals</h2>



The traditional noise floor assumption was built on the idea that random thermal movements blur out any weak incoming signal. But this model treats the cell as a passive <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cell-division-discovery-challenges-a-century-of-textbook-biology/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">object</a>, floating in a bath of static interference.



By shifting focus to how internal energy use shapes response, Kulkarni and Mathew's work adds a dynamic layer to that view. The research shows that cells aren’t just struggling to hear through noise - they’re actively tuning their ears.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cell-membranes-and-electrical-signals">Cell membranes and electrical signals </h2>



“Biological membranes are not passive,” said Kulkarni. Even though, traditional models viewed membranes as fairly passive. This idea points to the presence of proteins and other energy-consuming processes that operate in a <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/nonequilibrium" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nonequilibrium</a> state, enabling behaviors that go beyond a simple, static barrier.



An internal model recently proposed by Mathew and Kulkarni helps explain how a membrane can detect much tinier electrical signals than many initially assumed. 



This theoretical approach uses nonequilibrium statistical mechanics to describe how membranes respond when they are constantly using <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-cells-react-to-sounds-we-cant-even-hear/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">energy</a> rather than remaining idle.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-impact-on-medicine">Potential impact on medicine</h2>



“Our findings show that these active processes can fundamentally change the way cells respond to mechanical and electrical stimuli,” noted Professor Kulkarni. These active processes may give living membranes an extra boost in electrical awareness.&nbsp;



The increased sensitivity observed could prompt new approaches in designing medical devices or technologies that mimic biological systems. 



“Insights into how cells actively respond to their environment may guide the development of advanced biosensors, medical tools, and treatments for a range of diseases,” said Mathew.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cell-signals-inspire-better-tech">Cell signals inspire better tech</h2>



This new understanding of cellular sensitivity could reshape how engineers think about interfaces between biological tissue and electronics. 



Devices that must monitor nerve signals, heart rhythms, or wound healing responses could become smaller, smarter, and more energy-efficient.



Researchers are now considering how to design materials that act more like active membranes. By mimicking this natural energy-consuming behavior, future technologies might detect environmental changes that are currently too subtle for today’s tools.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-cells-maintain-their-awareness">How cells maintain their awareness </h2>



Designers of future implants, wound-healing strategies, and targeted therapies may draw from this enhanced sensitivity. The dream is to engineer systems that detect subtle changes in the body the same way cells notice signals once deemed unreasonably weak.



“I am truly grateful to have received the NSF BRITE Pivot award which has supported my group’s research in understanding the mechanics of active matter,” said Professor Kulkarni. 



This emphasis on continued exploration highlights a growing interest in bridging theory and practice to help patients and advance scientific knowledge.



Research on membranes that thrive in an active state opens up exciting possibilities. With a deeper understanding of how cells maintain their awareness, we might see new approaches to diagnostics and treatments in the future.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2427255122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Cells detect electrical signals with remarkable sensitivity

The human body is a busy place, carrying out vital...

Two notorious hybrid termite species have found a surprising way to become even more destructive. Researchers in Florida report that these wood-eating insects are forming hybrids that might spread into many parts of the world.



Both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/termites-play-an-unexpected-role-in-rainforest-revival/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a> are known for their ability to damage timber and invade new places with ease. The research was led by Thomas Chouvenc at the <a href="https://www.ufl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Florida</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hybrid-termites-may-survive-in-more-places">Hybrid termites may survive in more places</h2>



Invasive termites have already caused massive economic losses, with <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev-ento-120710-100634" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">estimated</a> worldwide damage of $40 billion each year.



This figure covers structural repairs, preventive treatments, and other costs tied to these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/termites-are-natures-architects-building-well-ventilated-nests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insects</a>. Experts worry that combining two invasive species might produce termites that thrive in more environments than either parent.



These interbreeding pests are believed to hail from <a href="https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN278" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Coptotermes formosanus</a> (the Formosan subterranean termite) and <a href="https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN285" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Coptotermes gestroi</a> (the Asian subterranean termite).



Hybrids could open doors to new areas if they tolerate different climates better than either <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/enormous-desert-structure-termite-mound-built-by-insects-can-be-seen-from-space/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">species</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hybrid-traits-from-both-parent-termites">Hybrid traits from both parent termites</h2>



Some hybrid termites have been found to carry traits from both parent species, including the ability to tolerate a wider range of temperatures.



Edouard Duquesne at the Free University of Brussels in Belgium, who was not involved with the research, elaborated on the significance of the study.



“The findings are interesting and alarming. Viable hybrids of these two species would likely lead to a super-invasive termite that could potentially have a huge suitable range worldwide, and that could do important damages,” said Duquesne.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hybrid-termites-could-spread-through-boats">Hybrid termites could spread through boats</h2>



Hybrid termites are not just concerning because of what they are, but because of how easily they could travel. With both parent species already established in southern Florida, opportunities for hybridization increase every year.



“It’s just a matter of time before they get a chance to hybridise,” said Chouvenc. Ships and leisure boats might carry them from infested areas to new coastal regions, making Florida’s global boat traffic a major risk factor for future outbreaks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-this-hybrid-unique">What makes this hybrid unique</h2>



The hybrid termites don't just survive - they reproduce. The researchers confirmed that hybrid females can mate with either parent species, forming second-generation <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chimpanzees-select-the-best-materials-for-termite-fishing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">colonies</a>.



This genetic flexibility may allow the hybrids to evolve quickly and adapt to new challenges. Early studies show that while some of these colonies struggle, others can grow and mature over time.



In one case, a second-generation colony reached over a thousand workers in under three years, showing surprising resilience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-florida-the-perfect-launchpad">Florida: The perfect launchpad</h2>



Florida isn’t just a mixing zone for these two termite species, it’s a global hub for their spread. With nearly a million privately owned leisure boats <a href="https://www.statista.com/statistics/1155988/us-recreational-boating-vessels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">registered</a> in the state, the potential for unnoticed transport is sky-high.



The first confirmed hybrid colony was found just over half a mile from a dense marina district. That proximity makes it likely that flying <a href="https://www.orkin.com/pests/termites/colony/termite-alates" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">alates</a> could settle onto boats and travel to distant coastlines without ever being detected.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-problems-for-pest-control">Problems for pest control</h2>



Most termite treatments are tailored to specific species. Pest management companies often adjust their methods depending on whether they’re dealing with C. formosanus or C. gestroi.



But hybrids could blur that line. Their mixed traits might respond unpredictably to current treatments, making control efforts more complicated and potentially less effective.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-early-detection-matters">Why early detection matters</h2>



Spotting these hybrids early could prevent bigger problems later. The longer they go unnoticed, the more likely they are to spread through infested wood, soil, or boats.



Unfortunately, identification isn’t always straightforward. Some hybrid termites show features that fall between the two parent species, making them hard to classify without genetic testing or detailed knowledge of termite morphology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-practical-steps-ahead">Practical steps ahead</h2>



In some cases, local authorities try to prevent termite travel by inspecting cargo, but private vessels often escape such checks. Researchers advise owners of docked vessels to inspect wooden parts carefully and seek professional help if they find signs of infestation.



Public agencies might focus more resources on monitoring, because identifying hybrids early could be key to containment. Yet the process of telling these insects apart can be tricky, since their features can blend.



Early identification often involves a close inspection of alates (the winged caste) that appear in warmer months. Scientists note that hybrid alates can show subtle differences in body color or size.



By staying vigilant, communities may slow the spread of these insects to new regions. Many hope that targeted strategies will limit hybrid termite expansions before they become unstoppable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-risks-for-ecosystems">Long-term risks for ecosystems</h2>



The hybrid termites don’t just threaten buildings - they could also affect forests and natural habitats. Their ability to feed on a wide range of wood sources makes them a potential danger to native trees and vegetation.



As they spread, they may disrupt local ecosystems by outcompeting native decomposer species. Over time, this could affect nutrient cycles in the soil and alter the balance of natural communities.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2025.0413" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the Royal Society B</a>.



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Hybrid termites could spread worldwide from Florida boats

Two notorious hybrid termite species have found a surprising way...

In the forests of Madagascar, small lizards do more than sunbathe on rocks or snap at insects. In fact, they may be shaping the future of Madagascar’s forests, one seed at a time.



Madagascar has long fascinated scientists, naturalists, and explorers alike. This large Indian Ocean island is home to some of the world’s rarest species. More than 80% of its wildlife can’t be found anywhere else. Lemurs leap through treetops. Baobabs rise like ancient towers. Orchids bloom in forests untouched for centuries. The island is a living archive of evolution’s creativity.



Its uniqueness stems from a deep, ancient break. Around 88 million years ago, Madagascar drifted away from India. Once separated, its ecosystems evolved in isolation. As generations passed, this seclusion led to extraordinary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-provide-different-health-benefits-based-on-their-structure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>. But amid all the celebrated species and stories, silent helpers have gone unnoticed for too long: the lizards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-lizards-spread-seeds-in-forests">How lizards spread seeds in forests</h2>



Many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/many-forests-that-benefit-people-also-shelter-endangered-birds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> don’t just drop seeds nearby. They depend on animals to move them across the land. This natural process, called endozoochory, involves an animal eating fruit or seeds. Later, those seeds get expelled in the animal’s droppings. Carried far from the parent plant, the seeds land in fresh ground, ready to sprout.



Most of what we know about endozoochory comes from studying mammals and birds. Lemurs, for example, are known for their role in this cycle in Madagascar. Birds also help, flying great distances and spreading seeds with every flight. But reptiles, particularly lizards, haven’t received the same attention.



That’s a mistake, say researchers at <a href="https://www.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kyoto University</a>. They argue that lizards have an important part to play too. These animals may not be classic fruit-lovers, but a few species do consume fruits and other plant parts. Their habits, movement, and resilience may allow them to serve as crucial seed dispersers in ways we’ve only just begun to understand.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-lizards-matter-in-forest-ecosystems">Why lizards matter in forest ecosystems</h2>



Unlike lemurs or fruit bats, most lizards don’t depend on fruit. Less than 10% of lizard species are considered frugivores. Yet those that do eat fruit may influence plant life in ways researchers are only now beginning to measure. Some species even serve as primary seed dispersers for specific plants, especially in areas where larger animals have disappeared.



"Lizards are under-appreciated as seed dispersers in many forest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-are-still-fighting-climate-change-against-all-odds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystems</a>, but we hypothesized that they may play a more important role across a broader range of regions than previously recognized," said corresponding author Ryobu Fukuyama.



To test this idea, Fukuyama and his colleagues designed a study focused on three lizard species in Madagascar. These were the Malagasy Giant Chameleon, Cuvier's Madagascar Swift, and the Western Girdled Lizard. 



All three species are omnivorous and known to eat fruit occasionally. However, their potential as seed spreaders had never been seriously evaluated.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-observing-lizard-behavior">Observing lizard behavior</h2>



The team set up camp in a tropical dry <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protecting-forests-helps-birds-and-humans-in-many-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forest</a> in Madagascar. They watched the lizards carefully, recorded their feeding behavior, and collected fecal samples. 



They also ran germination tests to see if the seeds could still grow after passing through a lizard’s gut. This detailed approach helped them track not just what lizards eat, but what they contribute to the ecosystem.



Their findings surprised them. The lizards consumed fruits from more than 20 different plant species. Even more interesting, these plants were often not the same ones favored by lemurs. This suggested that lizards might not just support the same trees as other animals. They might help expand the forest’s botanical diversity.



Fecal analyses confirmed that many seeds remained viable. The lizards were not just accidental consumers. They acted as functioning carriers in the seed cycle, allowing new plants to take root away from their original source.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-lizards-help-forests-recover">How lizards help forests recover</h2>



Madagascar’s forests face serious threats. Logging, slash-and-burn farming, and habitat destruction have left scars across the landscape. As forests shrink, large fruit-eaters like lemurs lose their homes. When they vanish, the trees that rely on them struggle to reproduce.



But lizards are survivors. They adapt to disturbed environments. Where lemurs falter, these reptiles often continue to thrive. That adaptability may give them a vital role in the regrowth of damaged forests. As long as they keep consuming fruit and dispersing seeds, they could help heal the land.



Their contributions might not replace larger animals completely. But they offer hope for certain plant species that would otherwise vanish. In places where biodiversity is already under pressure, every small helper matters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-we-still-don-t-know">What we still don’t know</h2>



The Kyoto University team views this study as only the beginning. They’ve revealed that lizards do eat fruit and spread seeds. But many questions remain. How far do these lizards travel? Do they prefer certain plants over others? Can they truly support forest restoration over time?



"Although lizards in Madagascar consume fruits from many plant species, other aspects of their role as seed dispersers, such as dispersal distances, remain poorly understood," commented Fukuyama.



Future research will explore these unknowns. Understanding dispersal distance, for instance, will help determine how effective lizards really are in forest regeneration. Scientists also want to study whether lizard seed dispersal supports tree diversity, or whether it favors only a few resilient species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-way-to-look-at-old-forests">A new way to look at old forests</h2>



Madagascar’s ecological story is still unfolding. Its forests, once dense and vibrant, now face an uncertain future. Conservation efforts often focus on charismatic animals, the ones we notice first. Lemurs, chameleons, and rare orchids get headlines. But the lizards, often silent and unnoticed, may be doing more than we imagined.



They offer us a chance to rethink how forests work. Even in the most unexpected corners of nature, there are creatures playing vital roles. By understanding them better, we can protect not only individual species but the living systems that keep our planet healthy.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/btp.70052" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biotropica</a>.



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How lizards help keep Madagascar's forests alive

In the forests of Madagascar, small lizards do more than...

Bumble bees are among the planet’s most valuable pollinators. Their colonies power ecosystems and agriculture alike. But few people know how much pressure rests on a single queen during the earliest stage of colony life. 



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Riverside</a> have found that bumble bee queens deliberately pause and take breaks from egg laying. These pauses are not random - they follow a rhythm, possibly tied to the future success of the colony.



This discovery challenges our understanding of eusocial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pesticides-affect-bumble-bee-health-in-complex-ways/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insect behavior</a>. It shows that even in nature’s most cooperative systems, rest and recovery have a place. The queen bee’s pause might be one of the most important strategies in her survival playbook.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-queen-starts-alone-then-takes-a-pause">Queen starts alone, then takes a pause</h2>



At the start, the queen does everything. She builds the nest, collects food, warms the brood using her wing muscles, and lays eggs. 



But researchers noticed a pattern: queens lay eggs in bursts, then pause for several days. This pause seems universal and isn’t caused by stress or lab conditions.



“I saw these pauses early on, just by taking daily photos of the nests,” said Blanca Peto, the study’s lead author. “It wasn’t something I expected. I wanted to know what was happening during those breaks.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-queen-s-pause-supports-brood-timing">Queen’s pause supports brood timing</h2>



In a controlled experiment with 62 Bombus impatiens queens, every queen paused egg-laying after an initial burst. 



On average, the pause began around 4 days after the first eggs and lasted 7 to 8 days. These breaks were not random. They matched brood development stages.



Additional tests showed that when researchers added pupae or older larvae to nests, queens resumed egg-laying sooner. With no brood, queens took 12.5 days to restart. With pupae, they resumed in just 1.5 days.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-purpose-of-the-queen-pause">Purpose of the queen pause</h2>



“There’s something about the presence of pupae that signals it’s safe or necessary to start producing again,” Peto explained. 



This suggests that queens are responding to the developmental status of their brood. The pause may allow queens to avoid producing more eggs than they can support.



Older larvae and pupae in the brood act as signals that help is coming. Once these brood members mature, they become workers and take over care duties. This frees the queen to focus on egg-laying.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biological-and-social-cues">Biological and social cues</h2>



Ovarian resorption adds another layer. During the pause, queens not only stop laying eggs, they also resorb oocytes, redirecting resources away from reproduction. This likely helps the queen focus on caring for the existing brood.



After the pause, oocyte production increases again, especially when late-stage brood or workers are present.



Even when well-fed in lab conditions, queens paused. That suggests an internal biological or social cue, not environmental stress, drives the behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breaks-seen-in-other-species-too">Breaks seen in other species too</h2>



The research did not stop at one species. Queens from three other bumble bee species (B. vosnesenskii, B. mckayi, and B. frigidus) also paused during early nest founding. That hints at a common strategy across solitary-founding eusocial <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bumblebee-queens-have-an-odd-preference-for-contaminated-soil/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bees</a>.



The researchers propose that this pause represents a life history strategy. It allows queens to time egg-laying with the emergence of helpers. This helps them balance care for current brood with future colony expansion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-workers-keep-the-momentum-going">Workers keep the momentum going</h2>



The study also found that workers are critical to keeping queens productive. In experiments where newly emerged workers were removed, queens laid fewer eggs than those with workers present. Egg cup numbers and total brood size dropped significantly in nests without workers.



This shows that queen egg-laying isn’t only internally controlled. It is also socially regulated. Once workers appear, they relieve the queen of caregiving, which enables her to focus on reproduction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-conservation">Implications for conservation</h2>



With bumble bee <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-climate-change-is-buzzing-off-bumblebee-senses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">populations</a> in decline due to pesticide use, habitat loss, and climate change, understanding queen behavior becomes crucial. 



Conservation efforts that support queens during the vulnerable solo-founding phase may boost colony survival.



“Without queens, there’s no colony. And without colonies, we lose essential pollinators,” said Peto. “These breaks may be the very reason colonies succeed.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-colonies-depend-on-flexible-queen-pauses">Colonies depend on flexible queen pauses</h2>



This study challenges the long-standing belief that social insect queens are constantly reproductive. For bumble bees, at least, reproduction is more flexible. Queens adjust their output based on nest conditions, brood development, and social signals.



By focusing on the solitary nest founding stage, this work offers fresh insight into how social structures shape reproductive strategies. And it all starts with a queen bee taking a pause.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://bmcecolevol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12862-025-02364-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BMC Ecology and Evolution</a>.



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Bumble bee queens take strategic 'breaks' while forming their colonies

Bumble bees are among the planet’s most valuable pollinators. Their...

Scientists at McMaster University have unlocked new possibilities in sustainable material design using fungi. Specifically, the common split gill mushroom (Schizophyllum commune) shows immense potential. It contains over 23,000 mating types, making it a genetic goldmine for innovation.



These mushrooms form mycelium, a dense network of fibers. This structure, once processed, can become biodegradable replacements for plastics, leather, and foams. But even when grown identically, the resulting materials vary. Strength, flexibility, and water resistance often differ.



To address this, researchers studied 16 strains - four monokaryons and 12 of their dikaryotic offspring. These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-species-of-glowing-mushrooms-discovered-mycena-crocata/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">strains</a> were carefully bred and tested for material yield and quality. They revealed that both nuclear and mitochondrial DNA influence the traits of resulting films.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mushrooms-biodegradable-leather-and-plastic-nbsp">Mushrooms, biodegradable leather, and plastic&nbsp;</h2>



The team used a liquid fermentation method to grow mats of mycelium over 12 days. They applied two chemical crosslinkers: polyethylene glycol (PEG) and glycerol. These helped turn the fluffy mats into solid films.



“It's possible to use natural genetic variation that already exists in nature and to make combinations that will potentially fit into all kinds of materials, not just one,” said Jianping Xu, a professor of biology at <a href="https://www.mcmaster.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McMaster University</a>.



Each film showed distinct features. Glycerol made soft, pliable sheets. PEG made films that were stiffer and stronger, but also more brittle. For instance, the αδ strain treated with PEG had a ductility over 41%, while others broke quickly.



Statistical analysis revealed something key: mitochondrial and nuclear genotypes interact with crosslinkers in complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mushroom-compound-linked-to-better-health-and-longer-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ways</a>. Some combinations absorbed water better, others yielded higher strength or elasticity. No single strain or treatment outperformed all others.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-mushroom-films-were-stronger">Some mushroom films were stronger</h2>



The researchers used electron microscopes to study the films’ fiber structure. PEG-treated films preserved more aerial hyphae and had rougher surfaces. 



Glycerol-treated films were smooth and gelatinous. This roughness may influence where and how the film breaks.



When they tested tensile strength, PEG films often reached higher stresses but lacked flexibility. Glycerol films stretched more before breaking. Some films from the γ family had excellent <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nuclear-fusion-milestone-brings-clean-energy-closer-to-reality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">energy</a> absorption, especially βγ and βδ combinations.



Water behavior differed between treatments. PEG films became highly absorbent, rapidly soaking up water through superwicking properties. 



Glycerol films showed consistent water attraction with 77-degree contact angles, making them ideal for packaging applications and wearable material uses due to their predictable moisture interaction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eco-friendly-mushroom-materials">Eco-friendly mushroom materials</h2>



This study is not just a lab exercise. It presents a real strategy for producing environmentally friendly materials using biology. Rather than engineer every trait from scratch, scientists can mix and match natural genetics.



The work also emphasizes scalability. Liquid-state surface fermentation is easier to replicate and scale than older methods. The researchers propose using protoplast fusion or selective mating to further expand <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/first-total-synthesis-of-mushroom-compound-could-transform-medicine/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">material options</a>.



Crosslinker selection adds another layer. PEG boosts stiffness but at the cost of flexibility. Glycerol preserves stretchiness but lowers strength. 



The future lies in customizing the process for different industrial needs - fabrics, construction, or biodegradable wraps.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sustainable-materials-from-mushrooms">Sustainable materials from mushrooms</h2>



The study does have limitations. The untreated control films disintegrated, making them impossible to test. Also, the team couldn’t explore every genetic combination possible, which opens the door for more research. 



Standardizing how strains are selected and linking genetic traits to material qualities still pose major hurdles. But despite these gaps, the work lays a strong foundation for future advances.



It proves that material properties can be shaped not only through processing or chemical treatments, but also by selecting specific <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mushroom-magic-new-species-discovered-in-africa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mushroom</a> genes. 



This approach could shift how we think about designing sustainable materials. Instead of forcing nature to adapt to our needs, we can now search within nature’s own library of genetic variation.



The split gill mushroom, with its wide diversity, gives scientists a rich resource to explore. The message is simple: nature already provides the recipes. 



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2369969825000374?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Bioresources and Bioproducts</a>.



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How mushrooms could replace materials like plastic and leather

Scientists at McMaster University have unlocked new possibilities in sustainable...

Teenagers who sleep early and follow regular sleep routines may build better heart health for adulthood. A new study, presented at SLEEP 2025, links adolescent sleep health to cardiovascular well-being in early adulthood. The findings focus on when and how teens sleep - not just how long.



At age 15, teens who fell asleep and woke up earlier, had more efficient sleep, and maintained a consistent sleep schedule were more likely to score higher in cardiovascular health at age 22. 



These associations remained even after adjusting for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-prepares-the-brain-for-the-future-while-protecting-memories-of-the-past/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lifestyle</a> factors like physical activity, diet, and body mass index.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-sleep-patterns">The power of sleep patterns</h2>



While total <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-quality-could-be-the-key-to-better-metabolic-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep time</a> is often emphasized, this study showed it did not predict future cardiovascular health. Instead, factors like bedtime consistency and sleep quality made a measurable difference. 



The researchers analyzed data from 307 adolescents from the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study.



“Given the importance of sleep health for physical health and well-being in the short-term, we were not surprised to see a lasting association between adolescent sleep timing, sleep maintenance efficiency, and sleep variability with cardiovascular health in young adulthood,” said Gina Marie Mathew, senior post-doctoral associate at <a href="https://www.stonybrookmedicine.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stony Brook Medicine</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-early-sleep-linked-to-healthier-heart">Early sleep linked to healthier heart</h2>



The analysis showed that earlier sleep onset (β = −.12) and earlier waking time (β = −.12) both predicted better cardiovascular scores. Teens with higher sleep maintenance efficiency (β = +.14) also had better outcomes.



Greater variability in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-new-mothers-feel-exhausted-despite-getting-sleep/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep</a> duration and bedtime predicted poorer cardiovascular scores. Even slight instability in sleep maintenance efficiency suggested a trend toward lower heart health scores, although not as strongly.



“Future research and recommendations should emphasize the importance of multiple dimensions of sleep health, including earlier sleep timing, higher sleep maintenance efficiency, and lower sleep variability as protective factors for long-term heart health,” noted Mathew.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-teen-sleep-and-adult-heart-health">Teen sleep and adult heart health</h2>



When participants turned 15, they wore wrist actigraphs for a full week to monitor their natural sleep patterns. 



These wearable devices allowed researchers to gather continuous, real-time data on how long the teens slept, what time they went to bed and woke up, how well they stayed asleep, and how consistent their sleep schedules were throughout the week.



The goal was to capture objective measurements of sleep timing, quality, and variability rather than rely on self-reported <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/one-night-of-lost-sleep-can-trigger-hidden-health-issues/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sleep</a> habits. 



Seven years later, when the participants reached age 22, the researchers evaluated their heart health using the American Heart Association’s Life’s Essential 8 framework, with the sleep component intentionally excluded.



This comprehensive health assessment included diet quality, physical activity levels, nicotine use, body mass index, blood pressure, blood glucose, and cholesterol levels. 



These factors were compiled into a single composite cardiovascular health score, ranging from 0 (indicating poor heart health) to 100 (indicating ideal heart health).



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moving-beyond-sleep-duration-in-guidelines">Moving beyond sleep duration in guidelines</h2>



Current health guidelines suggest that teenagers between the ages of 13 and 18 should aim for 8 to 10 hours of sleep each night to support healthy growth and development. 



However, findings from this new research suggest that the duration of sleep may not be the only - or even the most important - factor when it comes to long-term heart health. What seems to matter more is how consistent, well-timed, and high-quality that sleep is across the week. 



This perspective is part of a broader shift in sleep science, which now views sleep as a multi-dimensional behavior rather than a simple matter of hours logged. Interventions aimed at improving adolescent well-being should reflect this shift. 



Rather than focusing solely on getting teens to sleep longer, strategies should also prioritize bedtime stability, fewer night-time awakenings, and routine consistency. Helping teens sleep better - not just more - may be key to protecting their health now and in the years to come.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-better-sleep-now-healthier-hearts-later">Better sleep now, healthier hearts later</h2>



The study received funding from several grants provided by the National Institutes of Health, particularly those centered on child health, growth, and long-term development.



The key takeaway is straightforward yet powerful: by helping adolescents establish healthier sleep habits now - through better timing, consistency, and quality - we may significantly reduce their risk of heart problems in adulthood.



The research abstract was formally published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/sleep/article/48/Supplement_1/A128/8135714" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SLEEP</a>.



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Teens who sleep early have healthier hearts as young adults

Teenagers who sleep early and follow regular sleep routines may...

A violin the size of a speck of dust might sound like a joke - but it’s real. It can’t be played, yet it’s crafted with precision, humor, and high-tech skill.



This tiny violin, smaller than a single strand of human hair, isn’t just a novelty. It’s a clever demonstration of how far technology has come - and an unexpected gateway to future computing breakthroughs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tiny-violin-with-a-big-purpose">A tiny violin with a big purpose</h2>



Scientists at <a href="https://www.lboro.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Loughborough University</a> have created a violin so small it measures just 35 microns long and 13 microns wide. A micron is one-millionth of a meter.



For comparison, even the famously tiny <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discovered-a-16-million-year-old-tardigrade-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tardigrades</a>, or “water bears,” are much larger - typically measuring between 50 and 1,200 microns.



Why a violin? It’s a nod to a popular phrase used to mock overly dramatic complaints: “Can you hear the world’s smallest violin playing just for you?” 



The saying, often paired with a pinched-finger gesture mimicking violin playing, dates back to 1970s TV and has since reappeared in shows like SpongeBob SquarePants and cultural commentaries.



But this microscopic violin isn’t just a cultural wink. It’s the product of serious research and sophisticated technology. The violin was created to demonstrate the capabilities of the university’s new nanolithography system - a laboratory-scale platform designed to work at the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-can-now-put-nanoscale-tattoos-onto-individual-cells-inside-your-body/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nanoscale</a>.



“Though creating the world's smallest violin may seem like fun and games, a lot of what we've learned in the process has actually laid the groundwork for the research we're now undertaking,” said Professor Kelly Morrison, head of the Physics Department.



<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/xsnqYDVSUTM?si=-i66BFJnygHUZhV7
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Physicists at Loughborough University have used advanced nanotechnology to create what may be the world’s smallest violin.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-era-of-nano-sculpting">A new era of nano-sculpting</h2>



At the heart of this effort is a machine called the NanoFrazor. It uses thermal scanning probe lithography - a process where a heated, needle-like tip “writes” detailed designs at the nanoscale. 



First, a tiny chip is coated with two layers of a gel-like material called a resist. The NanoFrazor then burns the violin design into the top layer.



Once the pattern is set, the exposed areas are dissolved, leaving a violin-shaped cavity. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/magnetar-flares-create-gold-platinum-uranium-in-seconds/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Platinum</a> is then applied in a thin coat, and the remaining material is rinsed away to reveal the miniature instrument.



This entire process happens in a tightly controlled environment. The lab uses gloveboxes and sealed chambers to avoid contamination by dust or moisture. Moving a chip from one stage to another is done using robotic arms operated from outside the enclosure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-creating-the-tiny-violin">Creating the tiny violin </h2>



Each violin takes about three hours to make. But the final version took months to perfect as the team tested and refined their process.



“Our nanolithography system allows us to design experiments that probe materials in different ways - using light, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/altermagnetism-third-form-of-magnetism-existence-confirmed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">magnetism</a>, or electricity - and observe their responses,” Professor Morrison explained.



“Once we understand how materials behave, we can start applying that knowledge to develop new technologies, whether it's improving computing efficiency or finding new ways to harvest energy. But first, we need to understand the fundamental science and this system enables us to do just that.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turning-heat-into-an-ally">Turning heat into an ally</h2>



The team is already using the nanolithography system in several research projects. One project explores how controlled heating could help create faster, more energy-efficient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/digital-devices-can-actually-improve-our-memory-skills/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">digital devices</a>.



Dr. Naëmi Leo, a UKRI Future Leaders Fellow, is using the system to examine how precisely managed heat can be used in data storage. 



Most modern electronics lose energy as heat, reducing efficiency and even damaging components. But when heat is unevenly distributed - hot on one side, cooler on the other - it can generate useful physical effects.



Dr. Leo’s work aims to harness these effects by combining magnetic and electric materials with nanoparticles that convert light into heat. The nanolithography system is key to this effort, allowing these complex structures to be patterned with extreme precision.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-generation-of-memory-devices">Next generation of memory devices</h2>



Another project led by Dr. Fasil Dejene focuses on magnetic data storage. Current hard drives store data using nanometer-sized magnetic bits read by a tiny magnetic sensor. As devices get smaller and more efficient, these magnetic bits become harder to maintain reliably.



Dr. Dejene is exploring whether emerging <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lasers-make-quantum-materials-reveal-their-hidden-properties/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">quantum materials</a> could create better memory devices - smaller, faster, and more stable. His research could even contribute to “neuromorphic” computing, where systems mimic the human brain.



Using the nanolithography system, he can build nanoscale prototypes of magnetic sensors and test how they compare to today’s technology.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-the-violin-what-s-next">Beyond the violin: What's next?</h2>



“I’m really excited about the level of control and possibilities we have with the set-up,” Professor Morrison said. “I’m looking forward to seeing what I can achieve - but also what everyone else can do with the system.”



While the tiny platinum violin may be a fun footnote, the research it sparked is anything but trivial. In fact, it might just play a big part in the future of computing.



Image/ Video Credit: Loughborough University



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Scientists create a violin smaller than a human hair

A violin the size of a speck of dust might...

In a major step toward open science, an international team of researchers has released what is now the largest and most detailed map of the universe ever created.



The project is called COSMOS-Web, and it captures nearly all of cosmic history in one expansive dataset. Created using data from the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), the newly released map includes images and a catalog of nearly 800,000 galaxies.



The scientists behind this effort are from <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Santa Barbara</a> and the Rochester Institute of Technology. The team has constructed a panoramic view of the universe that challenges long-standing ideas about how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-galaxy-formation-occurred-much-faster-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">earliest galaxies formed</a>.



"Our goal was to construct this deep field of space on a physical scale that far exceeded anything that had been done before," said Professor Caitlin Casey, who co-leads the COSMOS-Web collaboration alongside Jeyhan Kartaltepe of the Rochester Institute of Technology.



"If you had a printout of the Hubble Ultra Deep Field on a standard piece of paper, our image would be slightly larger than a 13-foot by 13-foot-wide mural, at the same depth. So it's really strikingly large."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-peering-into-the-early-universe">Peering into the early universe</h2>



The image captures the universe as it appeared roughly 13.5 billion years ago. Given that the universe itself is about 13.8 billion years old, this map spans approximately 98% of cosmic history.



The team wanted to do more than spot distant galaxies. The goal was to place these objects within their environments. The researchers hoped to understand where and how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/odd-galaxy-may-hold-clues-to-the-first-stars-of-the-universe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">first stars</a>, galaxies, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/milky-ways-black-hole-formed-through-a-merger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">black holes formed</a> and evolved.



"The cosmos is organized in dense regions and voids," Casey explained. "And we wanted to go beyond finding the most distant galaxies; we wanted to get that broader context of where they lived."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-galaxies-than-anyone-expected">More galaxies than anyone expected</h2>



Before <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/jwst-celebrates-one-year-anniversary-with-stunning-new-image-of-rho-ophiuchi/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JWST</a> began its observations, astronomers had made predictions based on older instruments like the Hubble Space Telescope. They thought galaxies within the first 500 million years after the Big Bang would be extremely rare.



"It makes sense - the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/if-the-big-bang-theory-is-correct-what-exactly-happened/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Big Bang</a> happens and things take time to gravitationally collapse and form, and for stars to turn on. There's a timescale associated with that," noted Professor Casey.



"And the big surprise is that with JWST, we see roughly 10 times more galaxies than expected at these incredible distances. We're also seeing supermassive black holes that are not even visible with Hubble."



"And they're not just seeing more," she added. "They're seeing different types of galaxies and black holes."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-questions-than-answers">More questions than answers</h2>



The new data may be one of the most detailed views of the early universe ever made, but it doesn't tie up loose ends. In fact, according to Professor Casey, it’s raising more questions than it answers.



"Since the telescope turned on we've been wondering 'Are these JWST datasets breaking the cosmological model?'" 



"Because the universe was producing too much light too early; it had only about 400 million years to form something like a billion solar masses of stars." 



"We just do not know how to make that happen. So, lots of details to unpack, and lots of unanswered questions," said Professor Casey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharing-the-universe-map">Sharing the universe map</h2>



This project marks more than just a scientific milestone - it signals a shift in how astronomy is done. By releasing the largest map of the universe and making its data public, the team hopes to spark new discoveries by astronomers worldwide.



"A big part of this project is the democratization of science and making tools and data from the best telescopes accessible to the broader community," Casey said.



While the data was released almost immediately after collection, it was initially in raw form. That format was only useful to experts with the skills - and computing power - to process it. 



Over the past two years, the COSMOS collaboration has worked to convert that raw information into accessible images and catalogs. Now, even undergraduate students and independent researchers can explore the early universe.



"Because the best science is really done when everyone thinks about the same data set differently," Casey said. "It's not just for one group of people to figure out the mysteries."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



But the exploration doesn’t end here. The COSMOS team is returning to the deep field to continue mapping and studying what lies beyond.



"We have more data collection coming up," noted Professor Casey. "We think we have identified the earliest galaxies in the image, but we need to verify that."



The researchers will use spectroscopy, a method that breaks light into its component colors, to determine just how far away - and how ancient - these galaxies truly are.



"As a byproduct, we'll get to understand the interstellar chemistry in these systems through tracing nitrogen, carbon and oxygen," said Professor Casey. "There's a lot left to learn and we're just beginning to scratch the surface."



The COSMOS-Web image is available to <a href="https://cosmos2025.iap.fr/fitsmap.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">browse interactively</a>.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://phys.org/journals/astrophysical-journal/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astrophysical Journal</a>&nbsp;and&nbsp;<a href="https://phys.org/journals/astronomy-astrophysics/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Astronomy &amp; Astrophysics</a>.



Image Credit: ESA/ NASA/ JWST



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Largest-ever map of the universe reveals 800,000 galaxies

In a major step toward open science, an international team...

Two centuries ago, naturalists thought they had reptile hearing figured out. Animals like lizards and snakes, they said, relied mostly on their senses of sight and smell, while their inner ears handled balance and little else. 



That tidy picture just got a shake-up - literally. Fresh research finds that a gecko’s balance organ also acts as a sensitive microphone for ground-borne vibrations, giving the animal a stealthy extra sense.



That discovery matters because it rewrites part of the evolutionary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-hawks-evolved-super-hearing-abilities-to-locate-prey/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">story of hearing</a>. It hints that an ancient vibration pathway never vanished when vertebrates crawled onto land; it merely slipped below the scientific radar.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-the-tokay-gecko">Studying the tokay gecko</h2>



The new study zeroed in on the tokay gecko, a hardy lizard famous for its loud bark. Deep inside its skull sits the saccule, a fluid-filled pouch long tagged as a balance sensor. 



Researchers gently recorded nerve signals while delivering low-frequency shakes - think deep rumbles between 50 and 200 Hz. The saccule lit up. 



Those frequencies fall well below the range the gecko’s eardrum usually detects, showing that the animal runs two parallel sound channels: one for airborne squeaks, one for tremors underfoot.



“The ear, as we know it, hears airborne sound. But this ancient inner pathway, which is typically linked to balance, helps geckos detect vibrations that travel through media such as ground or water,” explained study co-author Catherine Carr, a Distinguished University Professor of Biology at the <a href="https://umd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maryland</a>. 



“This pathway exists in amphibians and fish, and now it has been proven to be preserved in lizards as well. Our findings shed light on how the auditory system evolved from what you see in fish to what you see in land animals including humans.”



Carr and her colleagues published their findings in Current Biology, under the title “Auditory pathway for detection of vibration in the tokay gecko.” Leading the bench work was postdoctoral researcher Dawei Han, who first explored the idea during his graduate studies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-some-animals-sense-vibrations">How some animals sense vibrations</h2>



Electrical traces told only part of the story. The team also mapped the gecko brain and found a relay station called the <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39368471/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nucleus vestibularis ovalis</a>. 



This pocket receives input solely from the saccule, then forwards the information to higher auditory centers. It behaves like a dedicated vibration highway, separate from the regular hearing roadbed. 



Similar brain nuclei turned up in snakes and the ancient New Zealand reptile Sphenodon, hinting at a shared blueprint across the reptile family tree.



“Many snakes and lizards were thought to be ‘mute’ or ‘deaf’ in the sense that they do not vocalize or hear sounds well,” Han explained. 



“But it turns out they could potentially be communicating via <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/treehoppers-secretly-communicate-by-making-plants-vibrate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vibrational signals</a> using this sensory pathway instead, which really changes the way scientists have thought about animal perception overall.” 



Desert sand-diving snakes, burrowing skinks, and even turtle hatchlings thumping inside their nests may all trade information by shaking their surroundings rather than shouting through the air.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolution-of-this-new-animal-sense">Evolution of this new animal sense</h2>



Fish rely on inner-ear organs to feel pressure waves in water, while amphibians straddle both water and land. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/geckos-can-recognize-their-own-scent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">gecko</a> work suggests that early tetrapods carried a vibration sense ashore and kept it alongside eardrum-based hearing. 



Over millions of years, some lineages dialed it down, but others - like the tokay - held on. That persistence reminds biologists that evolution often repurposes old tools instead of discarding them.



“Think about when you’re at a live rock concert. It’s so loud that you can feel your whole head and body vibrate in the sound field. You can feel the music, rather than just hearing it," Carr continued.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/animals_sixth-sense_auditory-saccule_illustration_credit-Cell_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/06/animals_sixth-sense_auditory-saccule_illustration_credit-Cell_1s.webp" alt="University of Maryland biologists have discovered that geckos use a part of their inner ear, the saccule, to detect low-frequency vibrations, offering a new understanding of reptilian hearing. This finding may extend to other reptiles and changes how scientists view animal communication and perception. It also hints at possible connections between hearing and balance in humans. A tokay gecko. Credit: Duncan Leitch" class="wp-image-1973168"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">University of Maryland biologists have discovered that geckos use a part of their inner ear, the saccule, to detect low-frequency vibrations, offering a new understanding of reptilian hearing. This finding may extend to other reptiles and changes how scientists view animal communication and perception. It also hints at possible connections between hearing and balance in humans. A tokay gecko. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Duncan Leitch</figcaption></figure>



"That feeling suggests that the human vestibular system may be stimulated during those loud concerts, meaning our senses of hearing and balance may also be closely linked.” 



Her point: our own balance organs might pitch in when sounds get strong enough, blurring the line between feeling and hearing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-does-any-of-this-matter">Why does any of this matter?</h2>



“The implications of this research extend beyond the world of reptiles,” Han said. “As we uncover these hidden mechanisms, we’re also gaining a richer and more nuanced picture of how animals perceive and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nature-has-its-own-internet-and-were-only-beginning-to-understand-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interact with their environments</a> - and potentially, new insights into our own sensory experiences.” 



If the vestibular system partners with the cochlea at extreme volumes, it could influence therapies for balance disorders or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cicadas-deafening-noise-can-cause-ear-ringing-worsen-tinnitus/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tinnitus</a>. 



Engineers designing earthquake sensors or underwater microphones might also borrow tricks from the saccule’s elegant hair cells.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-never-ceases-to-amaze">Nature never ceases to amaze</h2>



Geckos clinging to cave walls are now known to sense the faint shiver of approaching footsteps. Snakes gliding through leaf litter likely feel the scurry of prey. And humans, rocking out in packed arenas, might engage an ancient inner circuit we rarely acknowledge. 



The new research opens a wider conversation about how vertebrates keep tabs on their world - through both ears and bones.



By tuning into the quiet language of vibrations, scientists are uncovering a sensory mosaic that stretches back hundreds of millions of years.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/abstract/S0960-9822(24)01227-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a>.



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Animals found to have a 'sixth sense,' changing some evolutionary theories

Two centuries ago, naturalists thought they had reptile hearing figured...

Astronomers studying the young star HD 100453 have discovered an astronomical first: rare isotopes of methanol. These molecules, which are linked to the origin of life, were found floating in the warm gas around the star where new planets are forming.



The discovery offers an unprecedented look at the organic inventory available to build <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/comets-may-have-delivered-water-to-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">comets</a> and, eventually, to seed newborn worlds with life-friendly chemistry.



HD 100453 sits about 330 light-years from Earth in the southern constellation Centaurus. Weighing roughly one-and-a-half Suns, the star is only about a million years old - a toddler by cosmic standards - and still swaddled in a broad, dusty disk.



The disk is a natural laboratory. Its chemistry today hints at the ingredients that future planets, moons, and comets will inherit.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-these-isotopes-matter">Why these isotopes matter </h2>



Chemists use the term “isotope” for versions of a molecule whose atoms carry extra or fewer neutrons.



In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/is-methanol-the-next-green-power-player-clean-energy-source/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">methanol</a>’s case, the team managed to detect variants that are between ten and a hundred times rarer than the ordinary form. Spotting these elusive variants required the sharp vision of the <a href="https://www.almaobservatory.org/en/home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array</a> (ALMA) in Chile.



Alice Booth is the lead author of the study and an astrophysicist at the <a href="https://www.cfa.harvard.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Astrophysics | Harvard &amp; Smithsonian</a>.



“Finding these isotopes of methanol gives essential insight into the history of ingredients necessary to build life here on Earth,” she said.



Because isotopes act like chemical fingerprints, their ratios tell scientists about the conditions - temperature, radiation, ice content - that prevailed when the molecules formed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-makes-the-difference"><a></a>Heat makes the difference</h2>



Previous searches had picked up ordinary methanol in disks around lower-mass stars like our Sun, but only indirectly. The alcohol stayed locked in icy grains, invisible to telescopes tuned to gas.



HD 100453 changed the game. Its higher mass warms the surrounding disk, pushing the “snow line” for methanol farther out. At one and a half billion miles out, the alcohol sublimates to gas - 16 times farther than Earth’s orbit. That gaseous state lets ALMA capture the molecule’s telltale radio signatures.



“Finding out methanol is definitely part of this stellar cocktail is really a cause for celebration,” said co-author Lisa Wölfer, an astrophysicist at the <a href="https://www.mit.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a>. “I’d say that the vintage of more than a million years, which is the age of HD 100453, is quite a good one.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-mirror-to-our-own-beginnings"><a></a>A mirror to our own beginnings</h2>



One of the study’s most intriguing results is how closely the methanol-to-other-molecule ratio in HD 100453 matches that in comets from our own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seven-new-dark-comets-discovered-in-our-solar-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Solar System</a>.



Such comets are frozen time capsules: they preserve the chemistry of the early Sun’s disk and, according to many scientists, may have delivered a vital cargo of organics to the young Earth.



“This research supports the idea that comets may have played a big role in delivering important organic material to Earth billions of years ago,” explained co-author Milou Temmink from the <a href="https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/en/science/astronomy" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Leiden Observatory</a>. “They may be the reason why life, including us, was able to form here.”



Methanol is a stepping-stone molecule to more complex compounds, like simple sugars, that could seed future life. Its presence hints that amino acids and sugars might also exist in the disk, ready for detection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-building-blocks-for-planets-and-life"><a></a>Building blocks for planets - and life</h2>



Chemists know methanol as a reactive starting point: expose it to radiation on ice grains, and it can assemble into formaldehyde, ethylene glycol, or even rudimentary <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/synthetic-biowire-made-of-natural-amino-acids/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amino acids</a>.



The fact that the molecules reside in a region where solid material is clumping into comets means those bodies may lock away rich chemical “starter kits.” When comets strike rocky planets, they could deliver organic molecules, jumpstarting complex organic chemistry on pristine surfaces.



By measuring the ratio of methanol isotopes in the gas, the team could infer the methanol abundance frozen in ice. 



The researchers concluded that ices inside of planet-forming disks are not simple water-frost coatings but dense warehouses loaded with carbon-based molecules. They serve as fertile ground for prebiotic chemistry.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rare-isotopes-unlock-big-mysteries">Rare isotopes unlock big mysteries</h2>



Detecting uncommon isotopes isn’t just a technical badge of honor; it helps disentangle competing formation pathways.



When a molecule forms at low temperatures on dust-grain surfaces, it often carries more heavy isotopes than its gas-phase counterpart.



In HD 100453, the isotope ratios point to an icy-grain origin, reinforcing the idea that complex organics grow in the deep freeze before warming gas sets them free.



High methanol levels likely concentrate at the inner edge of a dusty ring that orbits the star. Radiation there evaporates ices, enriching the gas and lighting up ALMA’s detectors. 



Over time, some of that methanol may refreeze onto grains farther out, seeding multiple zones of the disk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-molecules-in-star-systems">Life molecules in star systems</h2>



ALMA’s sensitivity is poised to improve, and future arrays - along with the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-telescope-may-reveal-how-fast-the-universe-is-expanding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Webb Space Telescope</a> - will hunt for bigger organic prey. This discovery is an important stepping stone because where methanol goes, more complex molecules may follow.



Astronomers catalog molecules in young star systems to refine estimates of life’s potential beyond Earth. HD 100453 gives astronomers real-world evidence that even around stars unlike our Sun, familiar ingredients exist in space.



Whether those ingredients bake into living chemistry depends on many factors, but one thing is clearer than ever: the recipe starts early, in the swirling gas and dust where planets are born.



The study is published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/adc7b2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal Letters</a>.



Image Credit: CfA/M. Weiss



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Life-building molecules discovered in the disk of a young star

Astronomers studying the young star HD 100453 have discovered an...

Imagine a narrow, invisible firehouse stretching thousands of miles through the sky, carrying more water than the Amazon - meteorologists call these features atmospheric rivers. They form over warm oceans, sweep poleward, and unleash their cargo as intense rain or snow.



In the Arctic and mid-latitudes, these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rapid-antarctic-sea-ice-loss-is-causing-severe-storms-around-the-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">storms</a> already shape flood and drought cycles. But over Antarctica - a continent that locks up enough ice to raise global seas by nearly 200 feet (60 meters) - their role has been harder to pin down.



A new study delivers the most detailed forecast of Antarctic atmospheric rivers to date. An international team led by Michelle Maclennan of the British Antarctic Survey analyzed a high-resolution climate model and a worst-case greenhouse-gas scenario. 



The results suggest that the number of atmospheric rivers hitting Antarctica could double by 2100. The amount of moisture they deliver could also rise by two and a half times.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-moisture-in-a-warmer-world"><a></a>More moisture in a warmer world</h2>



The engine behind this change is simple physics: warmer air can hold more water vapor. As global temperatures climb, the Southern Ocean and lower atmosphere load up like a sponge.



The model uses 40 ensemble members to capture year-to-year swings. It shows an exponential rise in atmospheric moisture over Antarctic coastal waters. In some months late in the century, integrated water vapor could be three times higher than today’s values.



With more moisture available, the narrow jet-stream corridors that funnel air toward the pole become supersized rivers in the sky.



By applying present-day detection thresholds, the researchers find a continent-wide doubling of atmospheric-river days each year.



Even when the detection algorithm is “scaled” to account for the moister background (a tougher hurdle for qualifying as a river), certain hot-spot regions - especially Dronning Maud Land and parts of West Antarctica - still see clear increases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rain-snow-tipping-point">Rain-snow tipping point</h2>



Antarctic atmospheric rivers are a mixed blessing for the ice sheet. Under cold conditions they produce heavy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snowfall-drops-in-hindu-kush-himalayas-water-crisis-may-follow/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">snowfall</a>, adding mass and temporarily slowing sea-level rise.



Under warmer conditions they bring rain or above-zero air that can melt and weaken ice shelves - the floating ledges that buttress grounded glaciers. If those shelves fracture, inland ice can flow faster into the ocean.



Using surface-temperature criteria to separate snow from rain, the study reveals an intriguing twist. Rainfall will increase, but atmospheric rivers will mostly bring more snowfall to the ice sheet this century.



This could temporarily compensate for some of the mass that Antarctica loses elsewhere through ocean-driven melting and iceberg calving. Under the high-emissions pathway (known as SSP3-7.0), total atmospheric-river precipitation nearly triples, but most of that falls as snow.



Even so, rainfall spikes in vulnerable places like the Antarctic Peninsula and coastal ice shelves. The model suggests up to 40 millimeters of extra rain-water-equivalent each year on the Bellingshausen coast and Larsen C Ice Shelf.



Rain can soak porous firn, refreeze, and leave an ice lens that promotes further runoff and surface collapse - a process implicated in the disintegration of Larsen B in 2002.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-antarctic-atmospheric-rivers-and-sea-levels">Antarctic atmospheric rivers and sea-levels</h2>



One striking result is the sheer variability atmospheric rivers impose on Antarctica’s “surface mass balance,” the ledger of snow gained versus ice lost.



Today, a single storm offsets weeks of melting. In a warmer world, these storms grow larger and more frequent. Thus, yearly variations in atmospheric river frequency creates significant fluctuations in Antarctica’s contribution to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-much-will-antarctica-contribute-to-sea-level-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sea-level rise</a>, with that volatility appearing set to grow.



Because sea-level projections often rely on multi-decadal averages, this swing factor has been under-represented.



The new simulations indicate that by 2100, extreme-event years - those once considered rare - could become the norm. This shift would complicate efforts to forecast coastal risk for cities and small-island nations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wind-shifts-and-ice-loss">Wind shifts and ice loss</h2>



The model also captures how circulation changes amplify the story. As greenhouse forcing strengthens the temperature contrast between tropics and pole, the polar jet stream shifts eastward in segments and intensifies.



That wind realignment steers more atmospheric rivers toward the Amundsen Sea and Ross Sea sectors - regions already destabilized by warm ocean water undercutting ice shelves.



Meanwhile, sea-ice extent retreats, exposing open water that feeds extra moisture back into the storms. The authors warn that these coupled atmosphere–ice–ocean feedbacks could accelerate once thresholds are crossed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-atmospheric-rivers-and-climate-predictions">Atmospheric rivers and climate predictions</h2>



“This is the first study to consider how these extreme weather events in Antarctica might change in response to human-induced warming this century,” Maclennan said.



“Because atmospheric rivers deliver massive precipitation to Antarctica and significantly impact snowfall variability, understanding their future patterns is crucial to projecting Antarctica’s contribution to sea level rise.”



Her team’s findings highlight a fresh source of uncertainty in global sea-level budgets. Most projections bracket the 21st-century rise between half and one meter. If Antarctic atmospheric rivers add more snow than rain, they could shave a few centimeters off the high end.



However, if warming outpaces snowfall gains, they could hasten ice-shelf collapse and push sea levels higher. Either way, policy planners need more precise tools that resolve these weather-driven swings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predictions-of-atmospheric-rivers">Predictions of atmospheric rivers </h2>



The study emphasizes that predictions hinge on both emissions pathways and the technical choice of how researchers detect atmospheric rivers in models. 



When adjusted for moister air, continent-wide doubling disappears. Instead, regional increases and decreases appear. This sensitivity highlights the need for multiple modelling approaches, finer-scale regional simulations, and continuous satellite monitoring.



Antarctica is sometimes portrayed as a silent, immutable block of ice. In reality it is poised to host ever-stronger that can both cushion and threaten the world’s coastlines.



Future research will determine which outcome dominates - but the message is clear: choices made this century about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenhouse-gas-emissions-reach-another-all-time-high/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse-gas emissions</a> will reverberate in every atmospheric river that sweeps across the coldest continent.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-025-02333-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Antarctic atmospheric rivers set to double by the end of the century

Imagine a narrow, invisible firehouse stretching thousands of miles through...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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—–

Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



-----



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



-----



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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