Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

People value nature more during COVID-19 pandemic. The COVID-19 <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/the-covid-19-pandemic-has-caused-severe-sleep-disruptions/">pandemic</a> has changed the relationship that many Americans have with nature, according to a new study from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/">University of Vermont</a>. The researchers found that more than 25 percent of people who visited parks during the early months of the pandemic had rarely, and in some cases had never, gotten out and explored nature in the previous year.

"Like many people, we noticed a large increase in the number of visitors to urban forests and parks in the early days of the pandemic," said study senior author Brendan Fisher. "We wanted to understand how people are using local nature to cope with the physical and mental challenges of the COVID-19 pandemic." People value nature more during COVID-19 pandemic

For the investigation, the researchers surveyed visitors to 25 parks and natural areas around Burlington, Vermont. This region is home to 214,000 residents, which is about one third of the state's population. The UVM team surveyed over 400 people around the time that businesses and schools closed and travel restrictions were issued.  

More than 81 percent of the survey respondents reported that having access to parks and nature areas had become more important to them after COVID-19 health protocols were introduced. Many people said that these natural areas provided them with safe spaces to socialize during COVID-19.

The most common reasons for visiting parks were getting outside, exercising, connecting with nature, finding peace and quiet, birding, dog walking, and spending time with children. The survey revealed that 66 percent of park visitors used natural areas to find peace and quiet, while 32 percent reported using outdoor areas as spaces for contemplation.

"Access to urban natural areas may be delivering mental health benefits during a time when they are most needed," said Fisher. "People need more space for peace and contemplation and safe spaces to be social when so many other outlets are closed to them."

The researchers noted that demand for green space is increasing at a time when many urban communities are losing natural areas.

"Infectious disease experts predict that viruses, like those causing COVID-19, will increase in frequency in the future," said study lead author Nelson Grima. "Natural areas and their budgets should be safeguarded and, if possible, enhanced to maintain and improve human wellbeing especially in times of crises, even during a declining economy."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://plos.org/">PLOS ONE</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

People value nature more during COVID-19 pandemic

People value nature more during COVID-19 pandemic. The COVID-19 pandemic...

A team of geoscientists at the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Sydney">University of Sydney</a> has discovered why Australia's east coast is such a hotbed of volcanic activity. The findings may help to explain patterns of volcanic activity in other regions as well. 

The remnants of hundreds of volcanoes can be found across the east coast of Australia, and scientists have struggled to explain why so many eruptions have occurred over the past 80 million years.

"We aren't on the famous Pacific 'Ring of Fire' that produces so many volcanoes and earthquakes," said study co-author Dr. Ben Mather. "So, we needed another explanation why there have been so many volcanoes on Australia's east coast."

Dr. Mather explained that many of the volcanoes that form in Australia are one-off events. "Rather than huge explosions like Krakatoa or Vesuvius, or iconic volcanoes like Mount Fuji, the effect is more like the bubbles emerging as you heat your pancake mix."

The remnants may look like regular hills or like notable structures such as Cradle Mountain in Tasmania or the Organ Pipes in Victoria. Many of the remnants are yet to be identified, said Dr. Mather.

"Under our east coast we find a special volatile mix of molten rock that bubbles up to the surface through the younger, thinner east coast Australian crust."

The researchers analyzed how hundreds of eruptions occurred along the east coast, focusing mostly on "recent" peaks of volcanic activity in the last two to 20 million years. 

"Most of these eruptions are not caused by Australia's tectonic plate moving over hot plumes in the mantle under the Earth's crust. Instead, there is a fairly consistent pattern of activity, with a few notable peaks," explained study co-author Dr. Maria Seton.

The team noticed that these peaks coincided with increased volume of seafloor material being pushed under the continent from the east by the Pacific plate.

"The peaks of volcanic activity correlate nicely with the amount of seafloor being recycled at the Tonga-Kermadec trench east of New Zealand," said Dr. Mather. 

Based on their findings, the team has constructed a new model that unifies the observations of eruptions occurring over millions of years along Australia's east coast. "The most recent event was at Mount Gambier in Victoria just a few thousand years ago," noted Dr. Mather.

In a process known as subduction, the seafloor of the Pacific plate is being pushed under the Australian plate. The material is literally shoved under the Australian continental shelf.

"From there it is being slammed into the transition zone between the crust and the magma at depths of about 400 to 500 kilometers. This material is then re-emerging as a series of volcanic eruptions along Australia's east coast, which is thinner and younger than the center and west of the continent," said Dr. Mather.

He explained that this subduction process is not unique to the Australian east coast, but what sets the east Australia-Zealandia region apart is that the seafloor being pushed under the continent from the western Pacific is highly concentrated with hydrous materials and carbon-rich rocks. "This creates a transition zone right under the east coast of Australia that is enriched with volatile materials."

The model may also be applied to other intraplate volcanic regions in the Western United States, Eastern China, and near Bermuda, according to the researchers.

"We now need to apply this research to other corners of the Earth to help us understand how other examples of enigmatic volcanism have occurred," concluded study co-author Professor Dietmar Müller.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/">Science Advances</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Why Australia's east coast is a hotbed of volcanic activity

A team of geoscientists at the University of Sydney has...

A new study from <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca/">McGill University</a> has identified a neural signature in the <a href="http://www.earth.com/video/playing-brain-games-before-surgery-improves-recovery-time/">brain</a> that seems to reflect feelings of loneliness and social isolation. The researchers say that this signature is distinctive based on variations in the volume of different brain regions, and also based on how these regions communicate with each other across a specific network.

Previous studies have shown that older people who experience loneliness have a higher risk of cognitive decline and dementia. Experts may be able to help mitigate this risk by understanding how loneliness manifests itself in the brain.

"We are just beginning to understand the impact of loneliness on the brain. Expanding our knowledge in this area will help us to better appreciate the urgency of reducing loneliness in today's society," said study senior author Danilo Bzdok.

The study was focused on the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data, genetics, and psychological self-assessments of approximately 40,000 adults who are included in the UK Biobank. For the investigation, the researchers compared the brain images of participants who reported loneliness and those who did not. 

In the brains of lonely people, the analysis revealed several differences centered around the default network. The interconnected brain regions that make up the default network are involved in introspective processes such as reminiscing, planning for the future, and imagination.

The default networks of lonely people were not only more strongly connected, but also shared a greater volume of grey matter. Loneliness was also found to coincide with better preservation of the fornix - a bundle of nerve fibres that carries signals from the hippocampus to the default network. The brain regions that belong to this network are active when we remember the past, envision the future, or think about the present hypothetically. 

According to the researchers, changes in the structure and function of the default network associated with loneliness may be explained by the fact that lonely people are more likely to use imagination, memories of the past, or hopes for the future to cope with feelings of social isolation.

"In the absence of desired social experiences, lonely individuals may be biased towards internally-directed thoughts such as reminiscing or imagining social experiences. We know these cognitive abilities are mediated by the default network brain regions," said study lead author Nathan Spreng. "So this heightened focus on self-reflection, and possibly imagined social experiences, would naturally engage the memory-based functions of the default network."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/">Nature Communications</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Loneliness strengthens the brain's focus on imagination and planning

A new study from McGill University has identified a neural...

In a new study, experts describe how drinking water can protect against metabolic syndrome. The researchers discovered that while fructose stimulates the release of vasopressin, a hormone linked to <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/limiting-tv-commercials-could-help-reduce-childhood-obesity/">obesity</a> and diabetes, water can suppress the hormone and alleviate these conditions in mice.

Study lead author Dr. Miguel A. Lanaspa is an associate professor at the <a href="https://www.cuanschutz.edu/">University of Colorado School of Medicine</a> who specializes in renal disease and hypertension.

"The clinical significance of this work is that it may encourage studies to evaluate whether simple increases in water intake may effectively mitigate obesity and metabolic syndrome," said Dr. Lanaspa.

The researchers set out to investigate why vasopressin, which maintains the body's water levels, is elevated in people with obesity and diabetes. 

In an experiment based on a mouse model, the experts fed mice sugar water - specifically fructose - and noticed that it stimulated the brain to make vasopressin. As a result, the vasopressin stored the water as fat, causing dehydration that triggered obesity. When the mice were treated with non-sugary water, their obesity was reduced.

According to Dr. Lanaspa, this is the first time scientists have shown how vasopressin acts on dietary sugar to cause obesity and diabetes.

"We found that it does this by working through a particular vasopressin receptor known as V1b. This receptor has been known for a while but no one has really understood its function. We found that mice lacking V1b were completely protected from the effects of sugar. We also show that the administration of water can suppress vasopressin and both prevent and treat obesity."

The researchers also discovered that dehydration can stimulate the formation of fat. "This explains why vasopressin is so high in desert mammals as they do not have easy access to water," noted study co-author Dr. Richard Johnson. "So vasopressin conserves water by storing it as fat."

The findings support previous observations that obese patients often exhibit signs of dehydration. The research also explains why high salt diets tend to cause obesity and diabetes.

The study revealed that water therapy effectively protects against metabolic syndrome, which is a collection of coexisting conditions including high blood pressure, high blood sugar, and high triglyceride levels. Metabolic syndrome greatly increases the risk of heart disease, stroke, and type 2 diabetes.

"The best way to block vasopressin is to drink water," said Dr. Lanaspa. "This is hopeful because it means we may have a cheap, easy way of improving our lives and treating metabolic syndrome."

"Sugar drives metabolic syndrome in part by the activation of vasopressin. Vasopressin drives fat production likely as a mechanism for storing metabolic water," concluded said Dr. Johnson. "The potential roles of hydration and salt reduction in the treatment of obesity and metabolic syndrome should be considered."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/journals/3101/">JCI Insight</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Water is a powerful weapon against obesity and diabetes

In a new study, experts describe how drinking water can...

Toxic algal blooms will become more frequent off the U.S. west coast. Rising ocean temperatures are increasing the frequency of algal blooms off the western coast of the United States, including one type of bloom that is extremely toxic, according to a new study published by <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/">Frontiers</a>. The algae produce domoic acid, a <a href="https://www.bing.com/search?q=neurotoxin&amp;cvid=6276f24e21734049bd798be2a26e0cea&amp;FORM=ANAB01&amp;PC=HCTS">neurotoxin</a> that is the cause of amnesic <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/shellfish-are-vanishing-from-the-gulf-of-maine/">shellfish</a> poisoning (ASP). 

In both humans and animals, domoic acid exposure can lead to short-term memory loss and brain damage, and severe cases can be fatal. 

"This study shows that climate change can influence the occurrence and intensity of some harmful algal blooms (HABs) by creating new seed beds for their survival and distribution," said lead author Dr. Vera L Trainer of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Toxic algal blooms will become more frequent off the U.S. west coast

"Coastal communities, including Native Tribes, will suffer from the effects of HABs more frequently in the future, illustrating the importance of early warning systems such as Harmful Algal Bloom Bulletins that are becoming operational in the U.S. and other parts of the world."

In 1998, Dr. Trainer and her colleagues began monitoring domoic acid, which is produced by Pseudo-nitzschia algae. The team collected shellfish and seawater samples along the West Coast.

A severe heatwave in the northeast Pacific Ocean in 2015 triggered a record-breaking Pseudo-nitzschia bloom that closed shellfish harvest and caused widespread marine mammal mortalities. Since then, a region in northern California near the Oregon border has become a new toxic hotspot that has prevented shellfish harvest.

Using multi-model datasets, the scientists found that the 2015 heatwave was five times more likely to have been caused by human influences rather than natural effects. 

Climate models that are based on several decades of relevant data predict that extreme marine heatwaves are now 20 times more likely to occur than they were before human-driven climate change. 

Ocean conditions in areas near the border of California and Oregon are favorable for recurring algal blooms, and the scientists have flagged them as what is known as "retentive regions." Across these sites, Pseudo-nitzschia can remain dormant in sediments for years until ocean upwelling brings the algal cells to the surface and temperatures become warm enough for the algae to multiply.

In response to the issue of more frequent algal blooms, NOAA, the University of Washington, and several government agencies have teamed up to create the Pacific Northwest Harmful Algal Bloom Bulletin to forecast these events. The warning system will inform local communities of when and where it is safe to collect shellfish. 

Dr. Trainer's team has found that these bulletins have become a cost-effective tool to help minimize the health and economic threats of the algal blooms.

"There is evidence that bacteria associated with seagrasses have algicidal properties, indicating that seagrass planting may be used to successfully control some HABs in Puget Sound," said Dr. Trainer. "But for large-scale marine HABs, early warning is our best defense and these HAB Bulletins will help preserve a way of life that includes wild shellfish harvest, on which coastal people depend."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/climate">Frontiers in Climate</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Toxic algal blooms will become more frequent off the U.S. west coast

Toxic algal blooms will become more frequent off the U.S....

Dog owners are more likely to develop type 2 diabetes if their dog has <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/hot-baths-help-lower-risk-factors-associated-with-type-2-diabetes/">diabetes</a>, according to research from <a href="https://www.uu.se/en">Uppsala University</a>. The researchers report that they found no evidence of a shared risk of diabetes among cats and cat owners. 

Previous studies have suggested a link between obesity in dog owners and their pets, which indicates that these pairs may share common health behaviors like physical activity levels. 

More than 400 million people have type 2 diabetes and this number is expected to increase in the coming decades. The projected increase is partly tied to rising rates of obesity.

The study was focused on Swedish veterinary insurance records combined with Swedish population and health registers. From this data, the researchers extracted information on pet owners throughout the country. Overall, more than 175,000 dog owners, nearly 90,000 cat owners, and all of their pets were included in the study.

The analysis revealed that owning a dog with diabetes was associated with a 38-percent higher risk of type 2 diabetes. This estimate did not significantly change after the team adjusted for a range of other risk factors.

The risk of developing diabetes was also 28 percent higher in dogs with an owner who had type 2 diabetes compared with dogs with an owner who did not have type 2 diabetes. 

"Our results indicate that a dog with diabetes in the household might signal an increased risk of the dog owner developing type 2 diabetes as well," said study co-senior author Beatrice Kennedy. 

"We have not had access to information about household lifestyle behaviours, but we think the association might be due to shared physical activity patterns and possibly also shared dietary habits as well as shared risk of adiposity. If shared exercise habits are indeed a key factor, it might further help explain why we don't see any shared diabetes risk in cat owners and their cats."

Because this was an observational study, the underlying cause between the shared risk of diabetes was not established. In addition, the analysis was limited to pet owners with the financial resources to obtained veterinary insurance and who received drug treatment for their diabetes.

Regardless, the researchers say this was a robust study showing that owning a dog with diabetes was associated with an increased risk of type 2 diabetes in the owner, which could not be explained by socioeconomic circumstances.

"Humans and dogs have lived together for at least 15,000 years, and continue to share their everyday lives for better or worse," said study co-senior author Professor Tove Fall.

"In this unique study, we show that there might be common lifestyle and environmental factors that influence the risk of diabetes in the household, both in the dogs and in their owners."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.bmj.com/">The BMJ</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Dogs share an increased risk of diabetes with their owners

Dog owners are more likely to develop type 2 diabetes...

Researchers have estimated that 31 percent of the world's oak tree species are threatened with <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/plankton-began-hunting-their-own-food-to-survive-a-mass-extinction-event/">extinction</a>. A new report, The Red List of Oaks 2020, provides unprecedented details on the distribution of oak trees, population trends, and the dangers that they face. 

Among the 430 oak species found worldwide, 32 species are threatened in Mexico, 36 in China, 20 in Vietnam, and 16 species in the United States. The proportion of endangered oak trees is higher than the global threat levels for mammals or birds. 

Dr. Murphy Westwood is the director of Global Tree Conservation at <a href="https://www.mortonarb.org/">The Morton Arboretum</a>. "As we were evaluating the extinction risk of these hundreds of species over the past several years, it became clear how dire the situation is for oaks," said Dr. Westwood.

"We finally have a complete picture of the state of the world's oaks, so conservationists worldwide can take informed action to save oaks from extinction."

The major threats to oak trees in the United States are invasive pests, diseases, and climate change, while the greatest hazards in Southeast Asia are deforestation and urbanization, according to the report.

The Arboretum and Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) have now established the Global Conservation Consortium for Oak (GCCO), partnering with botanical gardens, arboreta, universities and government agencies around the world to create a network of experts and institutions to protect threatened oaks globally. 

"More than 2,300 species of bird, mosses, fungi, insects, lichens and mammals are recorded as using native oaks for food and shelter in the U.K., and the same will be true for the 113 species of oak now threatened with extinction," said BGCI Secretary General Paul Smith. "The loss of just one of these tree species has catastrophic consequences for hundreds of other species."

The <a href="https://www.iucn.org/content/red-list-oaks">Red List of Oaks 2020</a> was derived from five years of analysis and consultation with more than 100 researchers, including experts at the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Global Tree Specialist Group.

"The comprehensive assessment of all oak species is a major achievement," said Craig Hilton-Taylor, Head of the IUCN Red List Unit. "Having this information about such an ecologically and economically important group of trees is vital for informing conservation efforts."

The initiative represents The Morton Arboretum's contribution to achieving one of the 16 targets of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation: to have an assessment of the conservation status of all known plant species by the end of 2020.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

One-third of oak tree species are threatened with extinction

Researchers have estimated that 31 percent of the world's oak...

Young <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/just-two-minutes-of-exercise-boosts-learning-in-young-adults/">adults</a> who are excessively exposed to social media are nearly three times more likely to develop depression, according to research from the <a href="https://www.uark.edu/">University of Arkansas</a>. The study is the first of its kind to expose a nationwide link between social media use and depression over time.

"Most prior work in this area has left us with the chicken-and-egg question," said study lead author Dr. Brian Primack, who is the dean of the College of Education and Health Professions. 

"We know from other large studies that depression and social media use tend to go together, but it's been hard to figure out which came first. This new study sheds light on these questions, because high initial social media use led to increased rates of depression. However, initial depression did not lead to any change in social media use."

In 2018, Dr. Primack collaborated with experts at the University of Pittsburgh to survey more than 1,000 U.S. adults between the ages of 18 and 30. 

The team measured depression using the validated nine-item Patient Health Questionnaire. Study participants reported on the amount of time they used social media platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram. 

The analysis revealed that young adults who used social media more than 300 minutes per day were 2.8 times as likely to become depressed within six months compared to those who visited the platforms less than 120 minutes per day.

"One reason for these findings may be that social media takes up a lot of time," said study co-author Dr. Cesar Escobar-Viera. "Excess time on social media may displace forming more important in-person relationships, achieving personal or professional goals, or even simply having moments of valuable reflection."

Another explanation, which has been implicated in previous studies, is that increased use of social media presents the opportunity for social comparisons that can undermine one's sense of satisfaction and well-being.

"Social media is often curated to emphasize positive portrayals. This can be especially difficult for young adults who are at critical junctures in life related to identity development and feel that they can't measure up to the impossible ideals they are exposed to," said study co-author Professor Jaime Sidani.

The World Health Organization recently declared depression as the leading global cause of disability, accounting for more disability-adjusted life years than all other mental disorders. Depression linked to loneliness and isolation has become an even greater public health concern during the COVID-19 pandemic this year.  

"These findings are also particularly important to consider in the age of COVID-19," said Dr. Primack. "Now that it's harder to connect socially in person, we're all using more technology like social media. While I think those technologies certainly can be valuable, I'd also encourage people to reflect on which tech experiences are truly useful for them and which ones leave them feeling empty."

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.ajpmonline.org/">American Journal of Preventive Medicine</a>.

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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Social media causes depression, not the other way around

Young adults who are excessively exposed to social media are...

In a new study, experts report that COVID-19 worsens the symptoms of mental illness and increases substance abuse. Furthermore, social <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/isolation-may-lead-to-years-of-depression-among-children/">isolation</a> can cause many different adverse psychiatric effects that are known to be linked to loneliness.

The potential neurological complications of COVID-19 are alarmingly concerning, but many of the details remain unclear. To investigate, the <a href="https://acnp.org/">American College of Neuropsychopharmacology</a> supported three separate workshops to examine the psychiatric consequences of the pandemic.

A workshop led by Dr. Mark Weiser, Chief Psychiatrist at the Sheba Medical Center and Professor of Psychiatry at the Sackler School of Medicine at Tel Aviv University, was focused on efforts to improve the psychiatric outcomes of COVID-19. 

The experts reviewed early studies of neurological complications in COVID-19 patients across China. They also discussed strategies that have been developed in Israel and Spain to safely treat hospitalized patients with both psychiatric illness and COVID-19 infection.

"The COVID19 pandemic has posed major difficulties in the treatment of severely ill psychiatric patients, some of whom present with challenging combinations of behavioral and respiratory symptoms, with difficulties keeping social distancing, hygiene and wearing masks," said Dr. Weiser. "In non-psychiatric patients we are beginning to learn about the long-term psychiatric sequelae of COVID-19 infection."

Dr. Nora Volkow, Director of the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA), led a group that discussed the specific vulnerabilities of individuals with substance abuse who contract COVID-19. For example, COVID-19 may interact with substance abuse to worsen the severity of illness. 

"The U.S. is now facing two intersecting health crises, the ongoing opioid overdose epidemic and the COVID-19 pandemic. Regrettably, each has the potential to exacerbate the effects of the other," said Dr. Volkow. 

"NIDA has swiftly responded to the COVID-19 crisis by supporting research in areas of basic science, prevention, treatment, epidemiology, and implementation, particularly at the intersection with SUD. I am hopeful that [this] will contribute to lessening the impact of the collision between the opioid and COVID-19 crises."

Dr. Dilip Jeste, the Senior Associate Dean for Healthy Aging and Senior Care at UC San Diego, led a team that examined the potential impact of social isolation on individuals with psychiatric illness, as well as the effects on the general population as a whole. 

Loneliness is known to cause physical health impacts that are similar to those caused by smoking and obesity. Loneliness is also associated with an increased risk of depression, substance abuse, suicide, and dementia."The Covid-19 pandemic has moved the already important need for research into neurobiology and interventions for loneliness and social isolation to the front burner," said Dr. Jeste.

The findings were presented at the 59th Virtual Annual Meeting of The American College of Neuropsychopharmacology.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The psychiatric impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic are far-reaching

In a new study, experts report that COVID-19 worsens the...

Current conservation practices that are aimed at restoring nature to its historical state will not be enough to resist climate change. In a new report, leading ecologists and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/urgent-climate-action-could-save-and-improve-millions-of-lives/">climate</a> scientists propose a more flexible and dynamic approach to nature conservation.

According to the experts, allowing species to migrate naturally, or even be moved to more suitable habitats, could help to reduce the negative impacts of climate change. The study authors also noted that genetic material could be preserved from species that are at the greatest risk of extinction so that the plants could eventually be re-established under more suitable conditions.

The study draws from previously published research which found that the home ranges of many plants and animals are shifting away from the equator and toward the poles as temperatures rise. 

Professor Bob Scholes is an ecologist in the Global Change Institute at the University of the Witwatersrand. He explained that the question of whether to intervene to protect species or not is a heated debate in conservation circles. 

"Interestingly, the animal people are much happier in moving things around than the plant people, who are rather conservative, so to speak. This paper, in a way, was intended to shock the conservationists out of the state of just continuing doing things as they have always done," said Professor Scholes.

The researchers argue that nature conservation strategies need to become more flexible and dynamic in how they address the impact of climate change on natural habitats, genetic resources of plants, the composition of species, and the functioning of ecosystems. Otherwise, any apparent short-term biodiversity gains could be lost in the decades to follow as a result of climate change.

Currently, none of the 2020 Aichi Biodiversity Targets of the Convention on Biodiversity Diversity explicitly address the urgency of climate change mitigation as a critical component of biodiversity conservation. 

For example, the study authors refer to Aichi Target 12, which aims to prevent the extinction of all known threatened species and improve their conservation status. A traditional approach to conservation seems to be unrealistic considering that climate change has already significantly altered the home ranges of many species. "Even very low levels of future climate change are projected to reduce the range size of a substantial fraction of species and put many species at high risk of extinction," wrote the researchers.

Professor Guy Midgley is an experts on global change and biodiversity in the Department of Botany and Zoology at Stellenbosch University. He noted that several prominent measures to slow the rate of rising CO2, such as planting more trees, can conflict directly with the aims of biodiversity conservation in Africa.

"Large-scale afforestation of rich grassland ecosystems in Africa will not only threaten their unique shade-averse biodiversity, but also limit livelihoods options and reduce vital ecosystem services, like the delivery of freshwater, from these ecosystems," said Professor Midgley.

There are complex interactions between ecosystem processes, atmospheric composition, and climate which we do not yet understand, explained the study authors. When this uncertainty is combined with human population growth, greater consumption, over-exploitation, and pollution, it becomes clear that there is cause for serious concern.

"Nature is clearly resilient to shocks like climate change, given enough time, and the earth's biological diversity has shifted and changed in response to global crises in the deep geological past, like meteorite strikes," said Professor Midgley. "It is therefore crucial for us to work with the natural forces that provide resilience rather than limiting conservation thinking to achieving fixed ideals based on our limited historical perspectives of natural ecosystems."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nature conservation must become more dynamic

Current conservation practices that are aimed at restoring nature to...

The Rocky Mountains are starting to recover from acid <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/some-parts-of-the-amazon-rainforest-will-thrive-in-a-warming-climate/">rain</a> caused by traffic and industry, according to a new study from <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/">UC Boulder</a>. The researchers found that nitric and sulfuric acid levels in the Green Lakes Valley region of Niwot Ridge have decreased over the past 30 years. 

Niwot Ridge is a high alpine area of the Rocky Mountains located west of Boulder and east of the Continental Divide. In the Rocky Mountain National Park to the north of Niwot Ridge, wildlife depends on limited levels of acidity in the water and soil to thrive. 

The mountains also serve as the main water source for surrounding communities, and the health of these alpine ecosystems influences both water quality and quantity.

"It looks like we're doing the right thing. By controlling vehicle emissions, some of these really special places that make Colorado unique are going back to what they used to be," said study co-author Jason Neff, who is the director of the Sustainability Innovation Lab at Colorado (SILC).

Over the last two centuries, most of the world has been exposed to increased acidic nutrients such as nitrogen through rain and snow. Nitrate and other nitrogen oxides are primarily emitted from vehicles and energy production. 

While nitrogen is considered to be the most important nutrient for plant growth, excessive levels can have negative consequences.

In the summer sun, hot air rises and carries up nitrogen from cars, industry, and agriculture. As this air cools, explained Neff, it forms clouds over the Rocky Mountains and falls back down as afternoon thunderstorms - depositing contaminants.

In the 1970s, this type of "acid rain" affected lakes throughout North America. One of the areas that was hit particularly hard was upstate NewYork, where entire fish populations were completely wiped out from the acidic water. 

Scientists are still working to understand how increased levels of acidic nutrients affected other habitats, such as the alpine region of the Rockies, and how long these ecosystems take to recover.

To investigate, the UC Boulder team analyzed data from 1984 to 2017 on atmospheric deposition and stream water chemistry from the Mountain Research Station located on Niwot Ridge. The researchers discovered that levels of nitric and sulfuric acid stopped increasing in the early 2000s and started decreasing by the mid-2000s.

On the other hand, the data showed that levels of ammonium from fertilizer have more than doubled in rainfall across the area between 1984 and 2017. This indicates a need for continued monitoring and further investigation into the effects of fertilizer on mountain ecosystems.

"We used water quality modeling and statistical approaches to analyze the long-term datasets that Niwot researchers have been collecting for decades," said study co-author Eve-Lyn Hinckley. "The data are available for anyone to download. Our modeling approaches allowed us to evaluate the patterns they hold in a rigorous way."

Bill Bowman is the director of the Mountain Research Station and a professor of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology. Since 1990, Professor Bowman has been studying how nutrients like nitrogen affect plants in mountain ecosystems. He has determined that alpine environments are unique in how they respond to these nutrients.

"It's a system that is adapted to low nutrients, as well as a harsh climate and a very short growing season - and frost in the middle of the season. These are very slow growing plants. And they just simply can't respond to the addition of more nitrogen into the system."

Professor Bowman has also found that these ecosystems recover quite slowly, even after acidic elements like nitrogen are no longer being introduced. 

Despite some bad news, the researchers see their findings as encouraging overall. Even if it's slow going, they said, the results show that the alpine ecosystem has a chance to recover.

"We still have air quality issues in the Front Range," said Neff. "But even with those air quality issues, this research shows that regulating vehicle and power plant emissions is having a big impact."

The study is published in the <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/21698961">Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences</a>. 

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The Rocky Mountains are gradually recovering from acid rain

The Rocky Mountains are starting to recover from acid rain...

As a result of conflict with hornets, some honey <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/measuring-pesticides-in-honey-may-help-protect-bees/">bees</a> have evolved a powerful defense mechanism that is contagious throughout the colony. Guard bees use an intimidating visual approach, known as an "I see you" (ISY) warning signal, to discourage hornets from launching an attack. 

The ISY signal involves guard bees shaking their abdomens sideways, and the movement speeds up as the threat intensifies. The alarm also alerts the bee colony to an urgent need for reinforcements.

Even the so-called murder hornets, or Asian giant hornets, recognize the ISY signal as a warning to back off. The hornets are aware that ISY can lead to a violent counter attack by a mass of honey bees that form a "heat ball," trapping the victims inside of a deadly combination of heat, carbon dioxide, and stinging.

A team of biologists at the <a href="https://ucsd.edu/">University of California San Diego</a> has investigated interactions between Asian honey bees and hornets. The study shows, for the first time, that the ISY signal is visually driven and contagious across the bee colony. 

"The beauty of the ISY signal is that hornets are only deterred if enough defending bees quickly gather to synchronously produce the signal, thereby showing the hornet that further attack is futile," said study senior author Professor James Nieh. He explained that the ISY signal is contagious and attracts other defenders who immediately copy the signal and rush towards the signaler, even if they cannot detect any danger. 

"Hornets give off smell and sound but we found that the visual of a hornet alone can elicit the signal, which was not known," said Nieh. Previously, experts had speculated that guard bees may produce a pheromone to alert the colony to an approaching predator. 

"Using just a contagious visual signal is better because guards who are too far away to smell or hear the hornet can immediately head towards the threat. In some ways, it's like a fast chain reaction," said Professor Nieh.

Since animal communication often contains errors, and a false ISY alarm could rapidly spread within the colony, Professor Nieh compares the concept of ISY to "fake news." Unlike many people, the honey bees are extremely selective about what they consider a true threat. Using an iPad to display videos, the researchers found that the visual appearance and motion of the hornet alone could trigger ISY signals. However, the honey bees did not respond to visual displays of a butterfly.

The bees turned out to be even more particular about what they considered to be a real ISY signal. "We played back videos of bees performing ISY signals at different speeds, but only the correct bee image at the right speed caused other bees to respond. This helps keep the signal spread honest," said Professor Nieh. He thinks that evolution has limited errors in communication among the honey bees because of how very costly such errors could become, and believes that the findings provide a cautionary tale about fake news.

"Individuals in a honey bee colony are completely interdependent. They can't go out and make it on their own. Cooperation is paramount, especially when faced with a large, heavily armored predator like hornets," said Professor Nieh. "A couple of hornets can kill thousands of bees in a single day. Yet through teamwork that correctly produces synchronized, massed ISY signals, they can get the hornet to back off without harming a single bee. Maybe that's a lesson for us all."

The study is published in the <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652656">Journal of Animal Ecology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Honey bees use a contagious warning signal to scare off hornets

As a result of conflict with hornets, some honey bees...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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