Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

A new study published by <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/">Frontiers</a> explains how music can flood your <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/motivation-to-learn-declines-as-a-specific-brain-circuit-ages/">brain</a> with positive emotions. When neuroscientists investigated the source of "chills" that many people get while listening to music, they linked the experience to multiple brain regions involved in activating reward and pleasure systems.

The study was focused on 18 participants with an average age of 40 who reported regularly getting the chills during their favorite songs. A team led by Thibault Chabin at the Université de Bourgogne Franche-Comté used electroencephalogram (EEG) scans to detect electrical activity in the brains of the individuals as they listened to music. The participants were asked to document when they experienced chills and to rate their degree of pleasure from them.

"Participants of our study were able to precisely indicate 'chill-producing' moments in the songs, but most musical chills occurred in many parts of the extracts and not only in the predicted moments," said Chabin.

At the exact times when the participants experienced chills, Chabin identified specific electrical activity in several brain regions including: the orbitofrontal cortex, which is involved in emotional processing; the supplementary motor area, which regulates the planning of complex movement; and the right temporal lobe, which is involved in auditory processing and musical appreciation.

These three brain regions coordinate their activity to process music, trigger the brain's reward systems, and to release the feel-good hormone dopamine. It is this series of events that produces the chills - a physiological response thought to indicate greater cortical connectivity.

"The fact that we can measure this phenomenon with EEG brings opportunities for study in other contexts, in scenarios that are more natural and within groups," said Chabin. "This represents a good perspective for musical emotion research."

The EEG scans revealed that when the individuals felt chills, low frequency electrical signals called "theta activity" either increased or decreased in the brain regions that are involved in musical processing. Theta activity is associated with successful memory performance in the context of high rewards and musical appreciation.

"Contrary to heavy neuroimaging techniques such as PET scan or fMRI, classic EEG can be transported outside of the lab into naturalistic scenarios," said Chabin. "What is most intriguing is that music seems to have no biological benefit to us. However, the implication of dopamine and of the reward system in processing of musical pleasure suggests an ancestral function for music."

As we wait for the chill-inducing parts of music, our brains are busy anticipating the future and releasing dopamine. Evolutionarily speaking, being able to predict what will happen next is essential for survival.

During the trials, the participants reported more than 300 chills which lasted an average of 8.75 seconds. The same brain regions associated with increased activity in this study have been previously linked to musical pleasure in PET and fMRI studies. Going forward, the researchers plan to continue to study the chills.

"We want to measure how cerebral and physiological activities of multiple participants are coupled in natural, social musical settings," said Chabin. "Musical pleasure is a very interesting phenomenon that deserves to be investigated further, in order to understand why music is rewarding and unlock why music is essential in human lives."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/neuroscience">Frontiers in Neuroscience</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Music can flood your brain with feelings of pleasure

A new study published by Frontiers explains how music can...

In a groundbreaking new study, Professor Derrick Wirtz of <a href="https://ok.ubc.ca/">UBC Okanaga</a> has examined the relationship between social media and life satisfaction. He explains that it is not if or when, but how we use social media that can negatively influence our overall sense of happiness and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/spiritual-experiences-linked-to-improved-overall-well-being/">well-being</a>.

"Social network sites are an integral part of everyday life for many people around the world," said Professor Wirtz. "Every day, billions of people interact with social media. Yet the widespread use of social network sites stands in sharp contrast to a comparatively small body of research on how this use impacts a person's happiness."

The study was focused on how people use three major social platforms - Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram. Professor Wirtz said that even before COVID-19 and self-isolation became standard practice, social media transformed how we interact with others. Online social interaction is quickly replacing conversations that take place in person.

While face-to-face interactions are associated with satisfaction and contentment, Professor Wirtz notes that many people come away from social media with negative feelings. There are a variety of underlying reasons for this, and one of the biggest issues is social comparison. For example, study participants said the more they compared themselves to others while using social networks, the less happy they felt.

"Viewing images and updates that selectively portray others positively may lead social media users to underestimate how much others actually experience negative emotions and lead people to conclude that their own life - with its mix of positive and negative feelings - is, by comparison, not as good."

Professor Wirtz explains that viewing other people's posts and images while not interacting with them lends itself to comparison without the mood-boosting benefits that ordinarily follow social contact, which can undermine well-being and lower self-esteem. 

"Passive use, scrolling through others' posts and updates, involves little person-to-person reciprocal interaction while providing ample opportunity for upward comparison."

For the study, individuals were asked about four specific functions of Facebook: messaging, checking a news feed, reading world news, and posting status updates. The analysis revealed that the most frequently used function is passively checking one's news feed without making contact with other users. The effects on happiness and well-being associated with this form of Facebook use were found to be consistently negative.

"The three social network sites examined - Facebook, Twitter and Instagram - yielded remarkably convergent findings. The more respondents had recently used these sites, either in aggregate or individually, the more negative effect they reported when they responded to our randomly-timed surveys over a 10-day period."

Through his research, which was conducted before the COVID-19 pandemic, Professor Wirtz found that people use social media more when they are lonely, but time spent on social media only increases feelings of loneliness. "Today, the necessity of seeing and hearing friends and family only through social media due to COVID-19 might serve as a reminder of missed opportunities to spend time together."

Despite the discouraging findings, the research showed that social media can also be used in positive ways. Professor Wirtz suggests that users avoid passively scrolling and resist comparing themselves to other people on social media. He says the sites should be used for direct interactions and social connectedness, such as chatting with others.

"If we all remember to do that, the negative impact of social media use could be reduced - and social networks sites could even have the potential to improve our well-being and happiness. In other words, we need to remember how we use social media has the potential to shape the effects on our day-to-day happiness."

The study is published in the <a href="https://www.springer.com/journal/10902">Journal of Happiness Studies</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

How you use social media affects your sense of happiness

In a groundbreaking new study, Professor Derrick Wirtz of UBC...

An international team of scientists has determined that global <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/melting-sea-ice-accelerates-global-warming-in-a-vicious-cycle/">warming</a> of two degrees Celsius would trigger the release of an estimated 230 billion tons of soil carbon.

The amount of carbon that is stored in soil is two to three times greater than the amount in the atmosphere. As temperatures rise, soil decomposition will be accelerated and the amount of time organic carbon is stored in the soil will be greatly reduced.

The new research substantially reduces the level of uncertainty regarding how future climate change models will represent the sensitivity of soil carbon turnover.

To put the magnitude of the findings into perspective, 230 billion tons of carbon is more than four times the total emissions from China and more than double the emissions from the United States over the last century.

"Our study rules out the most extreme projections - but nonetheless suggests substantial soil carbon losses due to climate change at only 2°C warming, and this doesn't even include losses of deeper permafrost carbon," said study co-author Dr. Sarah Chadburn of the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>.

The link between climate change and soil carbon turnover is an example of a reinforcing or positive feedback loop. Global warming will speed up the loss of carbon, and the subsequent increase in atmospheric CO2 levels will further accelerate global warming.

The loss of carbon from Earth's soils represents one of the greatest areas of uncertainty when it comes to modeling the carbon cycle in climate change projections.

In an effort to address this uncertainty, the researchers used a new combination of observational data and Earth System Models.

"We investigated how soil carbon is related to temperature in different locations on Earth to work out its sensitivity to global warming," said study lead author Rebecca Varney.

While current models indicate an uncertainty of about 120 billion tons of carbon at 2°C global mean warming, the new study reduces this uncertainty to about 50 billion tons of carbon.

We have reduced the uncertainty in this climate change response, which is vital to calculating an accurate global carbon budget and successfully meeting Paris Agreement targets," said study co-author Professor Peter Cox.

The research is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/ncomms">Nature Communications</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Warming of 2°C would unleash 230 billions tons of soil carbon

An international team of scientists has determined that global warming...

Just ahead of Election Day, near-Earth asteroid will make a close approach. As the anticipation builds for what is being called the most important U.S. election of our lifetime, scientists are eagerly awaiting an entirely different type of event. On November 2nd, an asteroid that was discovered in 2018 is expected to pass relatively very close to the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/fireball-meteor-that-fell-to-earth-contains-extraterrestrial-organic-compounds/">Earth</a>. 

Regardless of its close encounter, however, the space rock known as 2018VP1 does not pose a threat to our planet. According to NASA, the asteroid is too small to do any damage, even if it does reach Earth's atmosphere.

"Asteroid 2018VP1 is very small, approx. 6.5 feet, and poses no threat to Earth! It currently has a 0.41% chance of entering our planet’s atmosphere, but if it did, it would disintegrate due to its extremely small size," <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/asteroidwatch/">NASA Asteroid Watch</a> tweeted on August 23.

The asteroid was first discovered in 2018 by scientists at the Zwicky Transient Facility at Caltech's Palomar Observatory. During the two years that have followed, experts have struggled to monitor the space rock because it is so small. Just ahead of Election Day, near-Earth asteroid will make a close approach

Since 1998, NASA has tracked thousands of near-Earth objects, none of which are known to be potentially hazardous to our planet in the near future. 

Back in August, a car-size asteroid flew within about 1,830 miles of Earth, which is the closest flyby ever recorded. Because the asteroid was moving toward us from the direction of the sun, it went completely undetected until about six hours after its approach.

Paul Chodas is the director of NASA's <a href="https://cneos.jpl.nasa.gov/">Centre for Near Earth Object Studies</a>."There's not much we can do about detecting inbound asteroids coming from the sunward direction, as asteroids are detected using optical telescopes only (like ZTF), and we can only search for them in the night sky," Chodas told Business Insider.

"The idea is that we discover them on one of their prior passages by our planet, and then make predictions years and decades in advance to see whether they have any possibility of impacting."

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Just ahead of Election Day, near-Earth asteroid will make a close approach

Just ahead of Election Day, near-Earth asteroid will make a...

Teenagers who feel supported by their teachers experience benefits that extend far beyond the classroom. A study published by the <a href="https://www.apa.org/">American Psychological Association</a> has found a link between positive student-teacher relationships and long-term health benefits.

While friendships are obviously very important to adolescents, the researchers did not find the same positive health benefits associated with peer relationships.

"This research suggests that improving students' relationships with teachers could have important, positive and long-lasting effects beyond just academic success," explained study co-author Dr. Jinho Kim. "It could also have important health implications in the long run."

Dr. Kim said that previous research has also suggested that social relationships in adolescence may be linked to health outcomes in adulthood. This could be because poor relationships can lead to chronic stress, which increases the risk for developing diseases.

However, it has remained uncertain whether the link between teen relationships and lifetime health is causal. For example, other factors like different family dynamics could contribute to both relationship problems in adolescence and to poor health in adulthood. 

Furthermore, most relevant studies have focused on teens' relationships with their peers, and not their relationships with teachers.

To investigate, Dr. Kim analyzed data from nearly 20,000 participants who were involved in the Add Health study, which followed participants for 13 years from seventh grade into early adulthood. The volunteers included more than 3,400 pairs of siblings, who answered questions including: "How much do you agree that friends care about you?" and "How much do you agree that teachers care about you?" 

When they were adults, the study participants self-reported on their physical and mental health and were tested for various markers of physical health, such as blood pressure. 

As expected, Dr. Kim found that participants who had reported better relationships with both their peers and teachers in middle school and high school also reported better physical and mental health in their mid-20s. 

However, when he controlled for family background by looking at pairs of siblings together, only the link between teacher relationships and good health in adulthood remained significant.

The results suggest that teacher relationships are even more important than previously realized, and that schools should invest in training teachers on how to build warm and supportive relationships with their students, said Dr. Kim. "This is not something that most teachers receive much training in, but it should be."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.apa.org/ed/graduate/specialize/school">School Psychology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Positive student-teacher relationships improve long-term health

Teenagers who feel supported by their teachers experience benefits that...

So far this year, severe wildfires in the western United States have burned more than 8 million acres, which is an area larger than the size of Maryland. The affected areas are now facing the threat of destructive debris flows, and <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/">USGS</a> scientists are urgently working to gain a better understanding of how and when this type of slope failure occurs.

Debris flows are fast-moving rivers of water, rock, soil, and vegetation that are particularly dangerous because they usually happen with no warning. While landslides typically require prolonged periods of rain and saturated ground, a debris flow can be triggered after just a few minutes of intense rainfall on a dry slope.

The rivers of debris often gain enough power to level everything in their paths, including trees, vehicles, and homes. 

In 2018, soon after one of Southern California's largest wildfires, a half an inch of rain fell in a matter of five minutes across a deforested area of the Santa Ynez Mountains. Debris flows carried an avalanche of mud and boulders into Montecito, where 23 people were killed. Dozens of homes were buried and hundreds more were damaged.

To investigate the origin of debris and mud flows, the USGS team studied slope failure at two sites in the San Gabriel Mountains. The first site was burned in 2016 during the San Gabriel Complex fire, and the second site was burned during the 2014 Colby fire. 

The researchers found that there were major differences in slope failure between the first and the third years after the fires. The results will provide critical insight into when and where debris flows and other types of slope failure are most likely to occur.

"In the first year after each fire, we observed debris flows generated by rainfall runoff," explained study lead author Francis Rengers. "But as we continued monitoring, we were surprised to see that a storm with a higher rainfall intensity than the first year's storms, resulted in more than 280 shallow landslides, rather than debris flows, in the third year."

Rengers explained that severe wildfires make soils more water-repellent, and rainfall tends to run off burned ground. "If water is not soaking in, it's flowing over the surface." 

Wildfires remove ground cover that would normally serve as a barrier to slow the speed and momentum of a debris flow. According to Rengers, incineration can also allow rainfall on bare soil to create a "surface seal" that further increases runoff.

Landslides are less fluid than debris flows and glide as cohesive mass along a rupture plane.

Because they have much shorter runoffs than debris flows, landslides pose different hazards. 

"The landslides we observed would primarily impact local infrastructure in the forest, such as roads, transmission lines, and culverts," said Rengers. By contrast, he noted, debris flows move sediment much further downstream - posing a major threat beyond the hillslopes. 

The findings offer some indication that the threat of slope failure has a limited duration. The researchers found that within five years, the density of landslides on burnt slopes in the San Gabriels was nearly equal to the density in unaffected regions. The evidence suggests that vegetation can recover within half a decade.

"Our model suggests that debris flows will be the primary concern during the next one to two years, at least in the burn scars in Southern California, and after that the concern will shift toward shallow landslide hazards," said Rengers. "I hope our work offers land managers useful expectations regarding how these processes are likely to evolve and helps them prioritize post-wildfire mitigation and planning."

The research was presented at the annual meeting of the <a href="https://www.geosociety.org/">Geological Society of America</a>, GSA 2020 Connects Online.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Western U.S. wildfires will increase the threat of dangerous debris flows

So far this year, severe wildfires in the western United...

Researchers at the <a href="https://admissions.utexas.edu/">University of Texas at Austin</a> report that mutations may have made the <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-has-increased-covid-19-deaths-by-at-least-15-percent/">coronavirus</a> more contagious. As SARS-COV-2 evolved, the D614G mutation located in its spike protein made the virus more infectious, allowing it to spread more easily. 

The study involved more than 5,000 COVID-19 patients in Houston, and was focused on the various genetic mutations emerging in different strains of SARS-COV-2 since the time of the initial outbreak. 

According to the researchers, the spike protein is continuing to accumulate additional mutations with unknown abilities. Lab experiments revealed that at least one such mutation allows the protein to evade a neutralizing antibody that humans naturally produce to fight SARS-CoV-2 infections.

"The virus is mutating due to a combination of neutral drift - which just means random genetic changes that don't help or hurt the virus - and pressure from our immune systems," said study co-author Professor Ilya Finkelstein.

In collaboration with experts at Houston Methodist Hospital, the UT Austin team tested different genetic variants of the spike protein, which is used by the virus to gain entry into host cells. The experts measured the protein's stability by examining how well it binds to a receptor on host cells and to neutralizing antibodies. 

The researchers found that SARS-CoV-2 was independently introduced to the Houston area many times from diverse geographic regions, including virus strains from Europe, Asia, South America,  and elsewhere in the United States. 

During the initial wave, 71 percent of the coronaviruses identified in COVID-19 patients in Houston had the D614G mutation on the spike protein. When the second wave of the pandemic hit Houston during the summer, this variant was found in 99.9 percent of the patients.

The same trend has been observed worldwide. A study that was based on more than 28,000 genome sequences showed that SARS-COV-2 strains with the infectious mutation took over as the globally dominant form of SARS-CoV-2 in about one month.

In another study of more than 25,000 genome sequences in the U.K., experts have determined that the D614G mutation allowed viruses to transmit faster than those without it and caused larger clusters of infections.

Some scientists believe the D614G mutation may have simply been more common in the first viruses to arrive in Europe and North America, which would have given them a head start on other strains.

"The virus continues to mutate as it rips through the world," said Professor Finkelstein. "Real-time surveillance efforts like our study will ensure that global vaccines and therapeutics are always one step ahead."

Overall, the team found a total of 285 mutations across thousands of infections, most of which did not seem to affect the severity of COVID-19. Ongoing studies will continue to monitor the third wave of COVID-19 patients to understand how the virus is adapting to neutralizing antibodies that are produced by our immune systems. Each new infection gives SARS-CoV-2 an additional chance to develop more dangerous mutations.

"We have given this virus a lot of chances," study lead author James Musser told The Washington Post. "There is a huge population size out there right now."

The research represents the largest peer-reviewed study of SARS-CoV-2 genome sequences in one metropolitan region of the United States.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://mbio.asm.org/">mBio</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

A mutation made the coronavirus more contagious

Researchers at the University of Texas at Austin report that...

Environmental degradation will usher in an era of pandemics in which pandemics will occur more frequently, spread faster, kill more people, and will do even more damage to the global economy than <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-has-increased-covid-19-deaths-by-at-least-15-percent/">COVID-19</a> unless dramatic changes are made soon. Some of the biggest risk factors include the wildlife trade and deforestation, according to a new report released by the <a href="https://ipbes.net/">Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services</a> (IPBES).

The research was conducted by 22 leading experts from all over the world. After analyzing the link between environmental and increasing pandemic risks, the team agrees that it is still possible to avoid an "era of pandemics," but it will require transformative changes in the global strategies used for prevention and response.

COVID-19 is the sixth global health pandemic since the Great Influenza Pandemic of 1918. Even though the virus originated in animals, the outbreak has been entirely driven by human activities, according to the IPBES report.

There are currently an estimated 1.7 million "undiscovered" viruses present in mammals and birds. Of these mysterious viruses, up to 850,000 may have the ability to infect people.

"There is no great mystery about the cause of the COVID-19 pandemic - or of any modern pandemic," said Dr. Peter Daszak, President of EcoHealth Alliance. "The same human activities that drive climate change and biodiversity loss also drive pandemic risk through their impacts on our environment." 

"Changes in the way we use land; the expansion and intensification of agriculture; and unsustainable trade, production and consumption disrupt nature and increase contact between wildlife, livestock, pathogens and people. This is the path to pandemics."

The risk of pandemics can be reduced by slowing the human activities that drive biodiversity loss and greater conservation of protected areas.

The likely cost of COVID-19 is expected to reach up to $16 trillion globally by July 2020. By the end of 2021, costs could reach the same amount in the United States alone. The experts estimate that the cost of preventing pandemics is 100 times less than the cost of responding to pandemics.

"The overwhelming scientific evidence points to a very positive conclusion. We have the increasing ability to prevent pandemics - but the way we are tackling them right now largely ignores that ability," said  Dr. Daszak. 

"Our approach has effectively stagnated - we still rely on attempts to contain and control diseases after they emerge, through vaccines and therapeutics. We can escape the era of pandemics, but this requires a much greater focus on prevention in addition to reaction."

"The fact that human activity has been able to so fundamentally change our natural environment need not always be a negative outcome. It also provides convincing proof of our power to drive the change needed to reduce the risk of future pandemics - while simultaneously benefiting conservation and reducing climate change."

The full report from IPBES is available <a href="https://ipbes.net/pandemics">here</a>. 

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

&nbsp;

Environmental degradation could push us into an era of pandemics

Environmental degradation will usher in an era of pandemics in...

When <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/peatlands-become-fuel-for-wildfires-in-a-warming-climate/">peat</a> fires smolder underground during the freezing winter months, they sometimes persist for so long that they reignite after the ground warms and thaws in the spring. These "zombie fires" are known to release up to 100 times more carbon into the atmosphere than flaming fires.

In a new study, researchers at <a href="https://www.imperial.ac.uk/">Imperial College London</a> have demonstrated how soil moisture content affects the ignition and spread of smoldering peat fires. The team also used computer models to discover how several small peat fires can merge into one large blaze.

"Peat fires are a devastating yet chronically under-researched phenomenon that spurt millions of tons of carbon into the atmosphere every year," said study first author Dwi Purnomo. "If we can use scientific evidence to help people manage them more effectively, we can perhaps dampen their impact on people and the environment."

Peat fires are most common in regions like Southeast Asia, North America, and Siberia.  Peat is a natural reservoir of carbon, and zombie fires are fueled by soils that are rich in this and other organic content. 

Unlike the smoke from non-peat fires, which is ejected high into the atmosphere, smoldering peat fires burn close to the ground where they produce a haze that is very threatening to human health. 

Zombie fires are notoriously difficult to control. Even when the flames are extinguished, the fire can smolder up to several feet underground for weeks or months at a time, just waiting to flare back up.

These hazardous peat fires can be sparked naturally by lightning strikes or by human activities, such as controlled burns. 

"Although people have been using controlled burns in agriculture for centuries, starting them on peat soils can be particularly dangerous," explained study senior author Professor Guillermo Rein. 

"Peat draws the fire underground, which then hides there before coming back like zombies, making detection and extinction very challenging. The effects are felt in plantations, forests, homes, residents' health and the environment." 

The new study reveals that burning vegetation on peat soils with a higher moisture content is less likely to sustain smoldering, which means that fires will be less likely to burn uncontrollably. 

The research is the first of its kind to investigate the interaction between smoldering peat and flaming vegetation. The findings may ultimately inform land managers and scientists on the safest ways to clear the vegetation in peatlands. 

"It might seem trivial that drier soils sustain faster and larger smouldering fires, but this work can predict the critical moisture values for ignition," said Purnomo. "I've seen the devastation they can cause and want to help my country and others like it which are affected by peat fires."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.journals.elsevier.com/proceedings-of-the-combustion-institute">Proceedings of the Combustion Institute</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Soil moisture is key to slowing zombie fires

When peat fires smolder underground during the freezing winter months,...

In a new study from the <a href="https://www.psychologicalscience.org/">Association for Psychological Science</a>, researchers found that a positive affect is linked to a lower risk of age-related <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/musically-training-children-have-improved-attention-and-memory-skills/">memory</a> decline. 

The extent to which an individual experiences enthusiasm, joy, happiness, and excitement - referred to as positive affectivity - has an influence on how well information is retained throughout life.

The research adds to a growing collection of evidence that positive affectivity contributes to healthier aging. Previous studies have suggested that a positive outlook can lead many desirable life outcomes, such as more marital satisfaction, improved well-being, greater cognitive performance, and the delayed onset of disease.

The study was focused on data from nearly 1,000 middle-aged and older adults who participated in a national study that was conducted over the course of a decade in three phases: between 1995 and 1996, 2004 and 2006, and 2013 and 2014.

For each trial, the participants reported on a range of positive emotions they had experienced over the past 30 days. During the final two assessments, participants were also tested for memory performance. The tests involved recalling words immediately after they were presented and then again 15 minutes later.

The researchers examined the association between positive affect and memory decline, while accounting for additional factors such as age, gender, education, depression, negative affect, and extraversion.

Study senior author Professor Claudia Haase said that the findings confirmed that memory did, in fact, decline with age among the study participants.

"However, individuals with higher levels of positive affect had a less steep memory decline over the course of almost a decade," added study last author Emily Hittner.

According to the researchers, further studies are needed to understand the pathways that may connect positive affect and memory, such as physical health or social interactions.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/home/pss">Psychological Science</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Positive affect linked to less memory decline

In a new study from the Association for Psychological Science,...

Scientists have discovered that ogre-faced spiders can actually hear their <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/top-predators-face-the-most-imminent-threat-from-habitat-loss/">predators</a> and prey, despite the fact that they have no ears. In a study published by <a href="https://www.cell.com/">Cell Press</a>, the experts report that these spiders use hairs and receptors on their legs to detect sounds from at least two meters away. 

Ogre-faced spiders are named after their huge eyes that give them remarkable night vision for seeking out prey. The spiders dangle from Florida palm fronds, waiting to cast silk nets on insects.

The findings suggest that the big-eyed spiders can hear low-frequency sounds from insect prey as well as higher frequency sounds from bird predators.

Study senior author Ron Hoy is a professor of Neurobiology and Behavior at <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a>.

"I think many spiders can actually hear, but everybody takes it for granted that spiders have a sticky web to catch prey, so they're only good at detecting close vibrations," said Professor Hoy. "Vibration detection works for sensing shaking of the web or ground, but detecting those airborne disturbances at a distance is the province of hearing, which is what we do and what spiders do too, but they do it with specialized receptors, not eardrums."

After hiding out during the daylight hours, ogre-faced spiders prepare to use their webs as a weapon at night. Instead of passively waiting for prey to get stuck, the spiders dangle out of the trees and throw their web over insects like a net. 

These stealthy spiders use their night vision to catch insects on the ground, but they also catch insects in the air with a skillful backwards strike. 

"In a previous study, I actually put dental silicone over their eyes so they couldn't see," said study first author Jay Stafstrom. "And I found that when I put them back out into nature, they couldn't catch prey from off the ground, but they could still catch insects from out of the air. So I was pretty sure these spiders were using a different sensory system to hunt flying insects."

The current study confirmed that ogre-faced spiders have an incredible audible range. The researchers measured the neural response of the spiders as they were exposed to different tones. The experiment revealed that they could detect sounds of up to 10 kHz in frequency, which is far higher than the sounds of a walking or flying insect.

"When I played low tone frequencies, even from a distance, they would strike like they were hunting an insect, which they don't do for higher frequencies," said Stafstrom. "And the fact that we were able to do that from a distance, knowing we're not getting up close and causing them to vibrate. That was key to knowing they can really hear."

Detecting higher frequencies may help the spiders stay alert when hiding out from birds and other predators.

"If you give an animal a threatening stimulus, we all know about the fight or flight response. Invertebrates have that too, but the other 'f' is 'freeze.' That's what these spiders do," said Professor Hoy. "They're in a cryptic posture. Their nervous system is in a sleep state. But as soon as they pick up any kind of salient stimulus, boom, that turns on the neuromuscular system. It's a selective attention system."

Next, the researchers plan to investigate whether ogre-faced spiders can tell which direction sounds are coming from. If they can hear directionally, this could help explain how they pull off their impressive backwards strike.

"What I found really amazing is that to cast their net at flying bugs they have to do a half backflip and spread their web at the same time, so they're essentially playing centerfield," said Professor Hoy. "Directional hearing is a big deal in any animal, but I think there are really going to be some interesting surprises from this spider."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Ogre-faced spiders may not have ears, but they can hear

Scientists have discovered that ogre-faced spiders can actually hear their...

Experts at <a href="https://www.stanford.edu/">Stanford University</a> have designed a multi-drone imaging system that uses a unique route planning algorithm to autonomously survey <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/satellite-images-reveal-11-new-emperor-penguin-colonies/">penguin</a> colonies. Test flights in Antarctica have produced detailed surveys of approximately 300,000 nesting pairs of Adélie penguins at Cape Crozier and a smaller colony of about 3,000 nesting pairs at Cape Royds. 

While previous drone surveys of the Cape Crozier colony took two days, the new system completed each survey of the colony in about 2.5 hours. Study senior author Mac Schwager is an assistant professor of Aeronautics and Astronautics. The idea of the multi-drone system was first conceived by Professor Schwager after a chance encounter with Annie Schmidt, a biologist at Point Blue Conservation Science, who was seeking a better way to image a large penguin colony in Antarctica.

"Just moving all of that equipment down to a remote site and being able to prepare it, field it and deploy it with nothing other than tents and a small warming hut at your disposal, that's really phenomenal," said Professor Schwager. "It really goes to show how practical autonomous robotic systems can be in remote environments."

Aerial surveys of penguin colonies have been conducted using helicopters, but they can be expensive and disruptive to the animals. Single-drone surveys have been challenging as well, mainly because they are time-consuming.

For the multi-drone system, Stanford researchers developed a route planning algorithm that coordinates two to four autonomous drones and prioritizes efficient coverage of the colony.

"The process was quick. What had been just the algorithm's squiggles on a screen the day before turned into a massive image of all the penguins in the colonies," said study lead author Kunal Shah. "We could see people walking around the colonies and all the individual birds that were nesting and coming to and from the ocean. It was incredible."

The researchers hope their multi-drone system brings attention to the incredible potential of autonomous robots and systems. They plan to explore additional uses for the new technology, such as traffic monitoring and tracking wildfires.

"Humans could never leap into the sky and count 300,000 penguins or track a forest fire," said Professor Schwager. "I think that teams of autonomous robots can really be powerful in helping us manage our changing world, our changing environment, at a scale that we never could before."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://robotics.sciencemag.org/">Science Robotics</a>.

---

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Multi-drone system uses a unique algorithm to survey penguin colonies

Experts at Stanford University have designed a multi-drone imaging system...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

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