Plastic may not always float where we expect it. The ocean’s surface might look clean in some places, but far beneath the waves, a different story is unfolding. 



In the southeastern Mediterranean, the deep seafloor is turning into a massive storage ground for plastic packaging, especially bags. A new study shows how this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-retailers-are-replacing-plastic-bags-with-eco-friendly-paper-bags/">waste</a> ends up thousands of feet below the surface, and the answer isn’t as simple as trash just “sinking.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plastic-in-the-deep-sea">Plastic in the deep sea</h2>



Plastic debris has entered every corner of the ocean, but previously, most of the research has concentrated on floating plastic or beach trash. That changed with this latest study, which took a closer look at what is occurring on the ocean floor. 



Scientists discovered that the Levant Basin - a deep section of the eastern <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/two-continents-meet-along-the-mediterranean-coastline/">Mediterranean</a> off the coasts of Israel, Egypt, and Turkey - is among the world's most contaminated deep-sea areas.



“We used trawls to survey the seafloor and we mainly found plastic bags and packaging that dominate the debris,” said Xing-Yu Li from the <a href="https://www.haifa.ac.il/?lang=en">University of Haifa</a>, the study’s lead author.



This raised a question: how does something so light - something meant to float - end up nearly a mile underwater?



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-forensic-approach-to-trash">A forensic approach to trash</h2>



To answer that, the team decided to treat each plastic item like a crime scene. Every piece of debris was carefully examined using a method called multi-marker analysis. 



This approach looks at everything about the plastic - size, shape, color, material, surface features, and even what kinds of things are stuck to it, like tar or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-organisms-may-adapt-to-climate-change-but-with-hidden-costs/">marine organisms</a>.



“In the multi-marker approach anything that is found on a piece of plastic is an evidence,” said Xing-yu. “We extracted as many evidence as possible from every piece of waste, more than many previous studies, to build a fuller, more detailed view of the bottom waste.”



Instead of just counting how much trash was found, this method helped researchers understand how it got there, why it sank, and where it might have come from.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-some-plastic-doesn-t-sink">Why some plastic doesn’t sink</h2>



Most of the plastics found were <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/everyday-kitchen-tool-that-could-be-leaching-toxins-into-your-food-polypropylene-cutting-board/">polyethylene</a> - the same material used in grocery bags. Normally, this kind of plastic floats. But when additives like calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) are mixed in during manufacturing, the plastic becomes heavier. 



Those with CaCO₃ sank closer to the shore. Others, without these additives, drifted farther out before eventually settling on the seafloor.



The study also revealed that the deep basin at over 3,000 feet deep acts like a trap. Pressure and fine sediments help keep the plastic down. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biofilms-could-change-the-way-we-track-plastic-pollution/">Biofilms</a>, which are slimy layers formed by microbes, usually help weigh plastics down too, but they don’t grow well in this part of the sea. Instead, things like tar, sand, and tiny shells helped plastics stay put.



The scientists noted that these plastic films - while thin and lightweight - are ending up where they can do the most long-term damage. 



Even more troubling, the team found that some of this plastic could become buoyant again if disturbed, but because of how the deep sea works, that rarely happens. Once the plastic settles, it stays.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-the-trash-is-coming-from">Where the trash is coming from</h2>



The plastic pollution isn’t only from local beaches. According to the research, land-based sources from Egypt, Israel, and Turkey are a big part of the problem. 



Shipping also plays a role, especially in deeper waters. Surprisingly, fishing was not a major contributor - possibly due to strict Israeli regulations.



For years, scientists noticed high levels of plastic at the seafloor, but they didn’t fully understand why. 



“For years in our monitoring reports we have reported a high concentration of plastic debris in this area. It was an unsolved mystery as we know that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-floor-harbors-up-to-11-million-tons-of-plastic-debris/">plastic debris</a> should remain floating on the sea surface. Now we have a deep understanding of how it happens,” said Dr. Yael Segal from Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research (IOLR). 



“The Eastern Mediterranean is the most polluted area in the world, and we must take action for the sake of the next generation.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-risks-to-marine-life">Long-term risks to marine life</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grapevines-could-offer-a-breakthrough-alternative-to-plastic-packaging/">Plastic packaging</a> is cheap, easy to produce, and used globally - but it doesn’t go away. It breaks into smaller pieces and can remain in the environment for hundreds of years. 



Deep-sea habitats are already fragile, and adding plastic into the mix could disrupt food webs, introduce toxins, and harm species that haven’t even been fully studied yet.



“As the head of the national monitoring program, I see firsthand how plastic pollution is impacting the entire sea environment: beaches, water, sea bottom, and even local turtle populations,” said Dr. Segal.



Professor Revital Bookman said that the discovery is fascinating in the worst possible way. 



"The eastern Mediterranean is quietly turning into a deep-sea landfill. Plastics that we use for only a few minutes are ending up trapped for centuries, threatening deep marine ecosystems we barely understand," noted Professor Bookman. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-needs-to-happen-next">What needs to happen next</h2>



According to the researchers, this study changes how we should think about ocean pollution. Plastic doesn’t just float around until it hits a beach. It travels far, interacts with other pollutants like tar, and ends up in hidden places. 



“This previously overlooked dynamic necessitates a broader perspective on pollution processes in marine environments,” said Professor Bookman. 



“Without systematic deep-sea accounting, we risk underestimating the true environmental footprint of plastic pollution and misallocating mitigation efforts by neglecting offshore and deep-sea sinks.”



To deal with this, the experts call for coordinated efforts across the region. Countries that share the sea need to work together on monitoring, cleanup, and prevention. 



Without a shared strategy, plastics will continue piling up, silently choking one of the planet’s most mysterious ecosystems.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0025326X25009671?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Marine Pollution Bulletin</a>.



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Hidden plastic graveyard uncovered in the deep Mediterranean Sea

Plastic may not always float where we expect it. The ocean’s surface might look clean in some places, but far beneath the waves, a different story is unfolding. In the southeastern Mediterranean, the deep seafloor is turning into a massive storage ground for plastic packaging, especially bags. A new study shows how this waste ends up thousands of feet below the surface, and the answer isn’t as simple as trash just “sinking.” Plastic in the deep sea Plastic debris has entered every corner of the ocean, but...

Seabird restoration on remote island archipelagos involves removing invasive rats and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-birds-diving-petrels-return-home-island-conservation-efforts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reviving native vegetation</a>, which could attract hundreds of thousands of breeding seabirds.



A recent study reveals that the surrounding seas contain enough fish to support these increased seabird populations, a crucial factor often overlooked in previous restoration efforts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seabirds-and-invasive-rats">Seabirds and invasive rats</h2>



Seabird populations decline drastically due to invasive rats, which prey on seabird eggs, chicks, and even adult birds. Rats, introduced to islands by human activities, pose a severe threat to seabirds, especially on islands where seabirds evolved without such predators. 



Seabirds typically nest on the ground or in burrows, making their nests highly accessible to rats. These invasive rodents consume eggs and young birds, disrupting the breeding success of seabird colonies. 



With fewer chicks surviving to adulthood, seabird populations cannot sustain themselves and begin to dwindle. This predation pressure leads to significant declines in seabird numbers, affecting the entire island ecosystem. 



Seabirds play crucial roles in nutrient cycling and supporting other wildlife, so their decline impacts biodiversity and ecological health. Effective restoration efforts, such as rat eradication and habitat restoration, are essential to reviving seabird populations and restoring island ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-restoring-seabird-populations">Restoring seabird populations </h2>



The first-of-its-kind study, led by marine scientists from <a href="https://www.lancaster.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lancaster University</a>, highlights the significant impact of restoring seabird populations on island ecosystems.



“We know that invasive species, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rats-on-tropical-islands-change-reef-fish-behavior/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rats</a>, have devastating impacts on native seabird populations - they eat the eggs, chicks, and even sometimes adult birds,” explained Dr. Dunn, the lead author.



“Restoration projects that remove invasive species, such as rats, are effective. However, it is also important to know if restored <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-heatwaves-are-causing-massive-seabird-mortality-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seabird populations</a> will have enough fish to hunt and eat, especially as threats like overfishing and climate change make fish populations more uncertain.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-energy-requirements-and-fish-availability">Energy requirements and fish availability</h2>



The researchers assessed the energy needs of restored seabird populations and the quantity of prey fish using available data. 



The focus was on the Chagos Archipelago in the Indian Ocean, which includes nature reserves where fishing is restricted. These protected areas may influence the availability of prey fish for seabirds.



“Our study was the first to factor in this important consideration, and encouragingly, we found that there is enough fish in the sea for restored populations of seabirds,” Dr. Dunn noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-of-seabird-restoration-efforts">Potential of seabird restoration efforts </h2>



The team modeled three scenarios for 25 islands: complete <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rat-eradication-is-beneficial-for-seabirds-and-coral-reefs/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rat eradication</a>, partial restoration of native vegetation, and extensive vegetation restoration. The results were promising:



<ul>
<li>Rat eradication alone could result in nearly 24,000 breeding pairs of lesser noddies, sooty terns, and red-footed boobies.</li>



<li>Partial vegetation restoration (half of the island's surface) could increase this number to 83,000 pairs.</li>



<li>Extensive vegetation restoration (three-quarters of the island's surface) could boost the breeding pairs to over 280,000.</li>
</ul>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-benefits-to-coral-reefs">Benefits to coral reefs</h2>



The positive effects of seabird restoration extend beyond the islands themselves. Seabird droppings, known as guano, are rich in nitrogen and phosphorus, which fertilize surrounding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-reveal-the-health-of-coral-reefs-in-real-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coral reef</a> environments.



Increased seabird numbers could boost nitrogen input from 78 tons to 170 tons annually, leading to a 52% increase in fish biomass on the reefs, approximately 50,000 tons more reef fish.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-enhancing-coral-reef-resilience">Enhancing coral reef resilience</h2>



Restoration would also significantly increase grazing fish populations, such as parrotfish, which play crucial roles in maintaining healthy reefs by eating algae and removing dead coral. This helps reefs recover from disturbances like storms and bleaching events.



“These findings underscore the substantial role island restoration can have not just in bolstering vulnerable seabird populations, but also in enhancing the resilience of adjacent coral reefs to the impacts of climate change,” said Professor Graham, a co-author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seabird-restoration-and-rat-species">Seabird restoration and rat species</h2>



The study emphasizes the importance of considering the broader ecological context when planning island restoration projects. 



By modeling the impacts of different levels of vegetation restoration and available food sources, such projects can maximize benefits for nature.



In conclusion, restoring rat-free islands holds immense potential for reviving seabird populations and bolstering the health and resilience of coral reef ecosystems. The findings serve as a vital guide for future restoration efforts worldwide.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cobi.14313" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Conservation Biology</a>.



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Rat removal helps seabirds thrive on restored islands

Seabird restoration on remote island archipelagos involves removing invasive rats...

A recent study conducted by the <a href="https://www.globalcarbonproject.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Carbon Project</a> has revealed that emissions of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-levels-of-nitrous-oxide-will-accelerate-global-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nitrous oxide</a>, a potent greenhouse gas, continued unabated from 1980 to 2020. In 2020 alone, over 10 million metric tons of nitrous oxide were released, primarily due to agricultural practices.&nbsp;



The study, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/essd-2023-401" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth System Science Data</a>, indicates that 74% of these emissions in the 2010s came from farming, specifically from the use of chemical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-emissions-from-fertilizers-could-be-cut-by-80-percent/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fertilizers</a> and animal waste on croplands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nitrous-oxide-and-global-warming-nbsp">Nitrous oxide and global warming&nbsp;</h2>



According to the report “<a href="https://www.globalcarbonproject.org/nitrousoxidebudget/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Nitrous Oxide Budget 2024</a>,” led by researchers from <a href="https://www.bc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Boston College</a>, nitrous oxide emissions increased at an unprecedented rate during 2020 and 2021, highlighting the urgent need for reducing these emissions to combat global warming.&nbsp;



On Earth, excess nitrogen contributes to soil, water, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-will-increase-dramatically-in-a-hotter-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">air pollution</a>, while in the atmosphere, it depletes the ozone layer and exacerbates climate change.



“Nitrous oxide emissions from human activities must decline in order to limit global temperature rise to 2°C as established by the Paris Agreement,” said lead author Hanqin Tian, a professor of global sustainability at Boston College.&nbsp;



“Reducing nitrous oxide emissions is the only solution since at this point no technologies exist that can remove nitrous oxide from the atmosphere.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increased-use-of-nitrogen-fertilizers-nbsp">Increased use of nitrogen fertilizers&nbsp;</h2>



The study reveals a significant increase in the use of nitrogen fertilizers, which rose from 60 million metric tons in 1980 to 107 million metric tons in 2020. Additionally, animal manure contributed 101 million metric tons in 2020, leading to a combined total of 208 million metric tons.&nbsp;



This unchecked rise in nitrous oxide, with a global warming potential 300 times larger than carbon dioxide, poses dire consequences for the planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-millions-of-nitrous-oxide-measurements-nbsp">Millions of nitrous oxide measurements&nbsp;</h2>



The researchers analyzed millions of nitrous oxide measurements taken over four decades from various sources, making this the most comprehensive assessment of global nitrous oxide emissions and sinks to date.&nbsp;



The team examined data from all major economic activities leading to nitrous oxide emissions and reported on 18 anthropogenic and natural sources and three absorbent sinks.



The top 10 nitrous oxide-emitting countries identified in the study are China, India, the United States, Brazil, Russia, Pakistan, Australia, Indonesia, Turkey, and Canada. 



While some regions, like China and Europe, have successfully implemented policies to reduce emissions, others, including the U.S., continue to see a rise in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/agricultural-emissions-negatively-impact-our-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">agricultural emissions</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-need-for-improved-agricultural-practices-nbsp">Need for improved agricultural practices&nbsp;</h2>



Josep Canadell, Global Carbon Project Executive Director and a research scientist at <a href="https://www.csiro.au/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CSIRO</a>, emphasized the need for improved agricultural practices and more frequent assessments to target high-emission regions.&nbsp;



“The growth rates of atmospheric nitrous oxide in 2020 and 2021 were higher than any previous observed year and more than 30 percent higher than the average rate of increase in the previous decade,” he warned.



To effectively mitigate nitrous oxide emissions, it is crucial to adopt strategies that limit the use of nitrogen fertilizers and manage animal waste better, the authors concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sources-of-nitrous-oxide-emissions-nbsp">Sources of nitrous oxide emissions&nbsp;</h2>



The largest sources of nitrous oxide emissions are primarily from agricultural activities, including the use of synthetic and organic fertilizers and manure management. Industrial processes, such as the production of nitric acid and adipic acid, also contribute significantly.&nbsp;



Fossil fuel combustion in vehicles and power plants, biomass burning including forest fires and agricultural waste burning, and residential wood burning are additional sources.&nbsp;



Waste management practices, such as the decomposition of organic waste in landfills and wastewater treatment, also release nitrous oxide into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dangers-of-nitrous-oxide-emissions-nbsp">Dangers of nitrous oxide emissions&nbsp;</h2>



Nitrous oxide (N₂O) emissions pose significant environmental and health risks. As a potent greenhouse gas, nitrous oxide has a global warming potential approximately 300 times greater than that of carbon dioxide over a 100-year period, contributing significantly to climate change.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uv-radiation-nbsp">UV radiation&nbsp;</h2>



Additionally, nitrous oxide is a major contributor to the depletion of the ozone layer, which protects living organisms from harmful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/uv-radiation-played-a-role-in-earths-largest-mass-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ultraviolet radiation</a>.&nbsp;



The increased UV exposure due to ozone layer depletion can lead to higher incidences of skin cancer, cataracts, and other health issues in humans, as well as adverse effects on ecosystems and wildlife.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ground-level-ozone">Ground-level ozone</h3>



Furthermore, nitrous oxide is involved in the formation of ground-level ozone, a harmful air pollutant that can cause respiratory problems and other health issues in humans, as well as damage crops and other vegetation.&nbsp;



Reducing nitrous oxide emissions is therefore crucial for protecting both the environment and public health.



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Nitrous oxide emissions have increased at an unprecedented rate 

A recent study conducted by the Global Carbon Project has...

Aerosols, the&nbsp;tiny particles floating in the air from sources like dust,&nbsp;smoke,&nbsp;and pollution,&nbsp;play a role in climate change.&nbsp;They act as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-small-aerosols-influence-cloud-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">"seeds" for cloud formation</a>,&nbsp;with more aerosols leading to thicker,&nbsp;more reflective clouds that can cool the Earth.&nbsp;But a new study has discovered a crucial factor that has been overlooked:&nbsp;the connection between clouds and the Earth's surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cloud-surface-coupling">Cloud-surface coupling</h2>



The researchers,&nbsp;led by the Earth System Science Interdisciplinary Center (<a href="https://webhost.essic.umd.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESSIC</a>),&nbsp;investigated how clouds interact with the Earth's surface,&nbsp;a phenomenon known as&nbsp;cloud-surface coupling.&nbsp;



This coupling influences the vertical exchange of heat and moisture between the surface and the atmosphere.&nbsp;



When coupling is strong,&nbsp;warm air from the surface rises,&nbsp;creating updrafts that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aerosol-formation-earths-lower-atmosphere-soas/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">transport aerosols into the cloud layer</a>.&nbsp;This leads to a more homogeneous distribution of aerosols within the clouds,&nbsp;resulting in more consistent cloud droplet sizes and a stronger cooling effect on climate due to increased reflection of sunlight.&nbsp;



Conversely, when coupling is weak, this vertical transport is diminished, leading to an uneven distribution of aerosols within the clouds and a greater variability in cloud droplet size. 



The variability in cloud properties introduces significant uncertainty into our understanding of how aerosols influence climate.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-predictions-with-aerosol-cloud-link">Climate predictions with aerosol-cloud link</h2>



"Aerosol-cloud interaction has remained the largest source of uncertainty in understanding Earth's climate and projecting its future changes,&nbsp;especially those incurred by anthropogenic emissions such as sulfate,&nbsp;nitrate,&nbsp;and black carbon," said Zhanqing Li,&nbsp;Distinguished University Professor at <a href="https://umd.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UMD</a> and lead author of the study.



By understanding how cloud-surface coupling influences interactions between aerosols and clouds,&nbsp;scientists can better predict how aerosols will affect our climate.&nbsp;This is crucial because it helps explain why climate models and real-world observations often don't match up.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-global-perspective">A global perspective</h2>



The team's findings have far-reaching implications. "If we can determine cloud-surface coupling across the globe,&nbsp;we could significantly improve our quantification of aerosol climate effects," explained Tianning Su,&nbsp;a co-author of the study.



This translates to improved climate modeling and forecasting capabilities,&nbsp;allowing for more precise predictions about future climate change scenarios.&nbsp;



Furthermore,&nbsp;this enhanced understanding of aerosol-cloud interactions can help researchers better quantify the impact of human activities -&nbsp;such as the burning of fossil fuels - on the climate system.&nbsp;



This knowledge is essential for developing effective mitigation and adaptation strategies to address the challenges posed by climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aerosols-clouds-and-climate-science">Aerosols, clouds and climate science</h2>



The research not only reveals the intricate nature of climate science but also serves as a stark reminder that seemingly minor elements within the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mysteries-in-the-sky-how-trees-impact-cloud-formation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth's climate system</a> can wield substantial influence.&nbsp;



The interplay between <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-denial-historic-floods-are-not-caused-by-cloud-seeding/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">clouds</a> and the Earth's surface,&nbsp;once considered a secondary factor,&nbsp;is now recognized as a key player in the broader climate change narrative.



This study underscores the imperative for continued and comprehensive research into the multifaceted mechanisms that govern our planet's climate.&nbsp;Each new discovery,&nbsp;like the significant role of cloud-surface coupling,&nbsp;adds another piece to the complex puzzle of climate change.



By diligently investigating and ultimately understanding these intricate processes, scientists can develop more precise and effective strategies to mitigate the escalating effects of climate change.&nbsp;



This knowledge empowers policymakers and communities alike to make informed decisions and take proactive measures to safeguard the planet for current and future generations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reducing-uncertainty">Reducing uncertainty</h2>



The researchers are now focused on applying their findings on a global scale,&nbsp;hoping to integrate this new understanding into broader climate projections.&nbsp;



"The goal is to integrate this new understanding into broader climate projections to reduce uncertainty and make more accurate predictions about climate change," said Su.



The study of cloud-surface coupling and its impact on aerosol-cloud interaction is a major step forward in our understanding of climate change.&nbsp;It's a reminder that the Earth's climate system is a complex web of interconnected processes,&nbsp;and that even the smallest details can have a significant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cloud-engineering-can-temporarily-cool-our-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">impact</a>.&nbsp;



By continuing to explore these connections,&nbsp;we can gain valuable insights into how our planet is changing and what we can do to protect it.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adl5044" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>.



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Aerosols have an underestimated effect on clouds and climate

Aerosols, the&nbsp;tiny particles floating in the air from sources like...

The Arctic, once a frozen expanse of white and blue, is undergoing a dramatic transformation. Thanks to climate change, this region is warming four times faster than the rest of the planet. As <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shrinking-arctic-ice-changing-global-climate-warm-arctic-cold-eurasia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperatures rise</a> and ice retreats, a surprising new phenomenon is taking center stage: a massive bloom of algae beneath the thinning ice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-consequence-of-arctic-melting-ice">Unexpected consequence of Arctic melting ice</h2>



We're all familiar with images of polar bears stranded on shrinking ice floes.&nbsp;But the impact of climate change on the Arctic Ocean goes far deeper than its most iconic inhabitants.



"As ice and snow gets thinner,&nbsp;more light penetrates to the bottom of sea ice.&nbsp;This changing light regime has the potential to impact the entire marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-invasion-jellyfish-are-moving-north-in-a-warming-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ecosystem</a>,&nbsp;which all begins with algae," explains Julienne Stroeve,&nbsp;a researcher from the <a href="https://umanitoba.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Manitoba</a> and the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado</a>.



The algae form a vast,&nbsp;underwater "lawn" that thrives on the underside of the ice.&nbsp;Much like the phytoplankton that bloom in open oceans,&nbsp;these ice algae are the foundation of the Arctic food web.&nbsp;They feed zooplankton,&nbsp;which in turn nourish fish,&nbsp;seals,&nbsp;and ultimately,&nbsp;polar bears.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revelation-of-algae-blooms-in-arctic">Revelation of algae blooms in Arctic</h2>



Mapping this underwater bloom has been a challenge,&nbsp;especially from space.&nbsp;



"Unlike in the open ocean,&nbsp;we can't see the algae within sea ice from space.&nbsp;What we can do is start by estimating light availability," remarks Karley Campbell,&nbsp;a scientist at the <a href="https://en.uit.no/startsida" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Tromsø</a>.



This is where <a href="https://www.esa.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ESA</a>'s <a href="https://www.esa.int/Applications/Observing_the_Earth/FutureEO/CryoSat" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CryoSat satellite</a> steps in. This remarkable mission has been monitoring Earth's polar ice for 14 years, giving us one of the longest continuous records of ice thickness. 



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/arctic-ocean_algae-bloom_BlueEye-rover_BREATHE-project_1m.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/arctic-ocean_algae-bloom_BlueEye-rover_BREATHE-project_1s.jpg" alt="Underwater algae in the Arctic Ocean seen by the BlueEye rover. Credit: BREATHE project" class="wp-image-1937027"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Underwater algae in the Arctic Ocean seen by the BlueEye rover. Credit: BREATHE project</figcaption></figure>



Now, scientists have harnessed CryoSat's data, along with information from <a href="https://sentinels.copernicus.eu/web/sentinel/copernicus/sentinel-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Copernicus Sentinel-3</a> and <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s <a href="https://icesat-2.gsfc.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ICESat-2</a>, to model light penetration through the ice.



By combining this light data with models of snow and ice cover,&nbsp;researchers can predict where and when these algal blooms are likely to occur.&nbsp;The results are striking:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earlier-blooms">Earlier blooms</h3>



The Arctic is experiencing a warming trend,&nbsp;resulting in thinner ice and earlier melting.&nbsp;This allows more sunlight to reach the ocean waters beneath the ice,&nbsp;triggering earlier algal blooms,&nbsp;especially in the southern regions where warming is more pronounced.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-snow-matters">Snow matters</h3>



Snow cover acts as a barrier to sunlight. In years with heavy snowfall, the thicker snow layer prevents light from reaching the water, delaying or even suppressing algal blooms. 



Conversely, years with less snow allow more light penetration, leading to earlier and potentially larger blooms.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-long-term-trends">Long-term trends</h3>



Climate models predict a continued decline in Arctic snow cover over time. This decrease, coupled with the ongoing warming trend, suggests that algal blooms could start significantly earlier each decade. 



Some regions may experience blooms up to 15 days earlier every ten years due to the combined effects of less snow and thinner ice.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ripple-effects-of-a-greener-arctic-due-to-algae">Ripple effects of a greener Arctic due to algae</h2>



The implications of these findings are far-reaching. Changes in the timing and extent of algae blooms can disrupt the delicate balance of the Arctic ecosystem. 



Algae exposed to more light may produce different nutrients, potentially impacting the entire food web.



"This unprecedented use of satellite data benefits our knowledge of the rapidly changing Arctic ecosystem," Julienne Stroeve explains. 



"Understanding the photosynthetically active radiation that penetrates sea ice will support wider studies to understand just what is happening to life in the Arctic Ocean due to climate change."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arctic-monitoring-and-algae-growth">Arctic monitoring and algae growth</h2>



The collaborative efforts of CryoSat and ICESat-2,&nbsp;along with upcoming missions like CRISTAL,&nbsp;promise to give us even deeper insights into the Arctic's changing environment.&nbsp;



"The rapid changes happening in the Arctic will have widespread consequences that affect all of us," notes Tommaso Parrinello,&nbsp;CryoSat's Mission Manager.



As we continue to monitor the Arctic's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-warming-influences-us-weather-patterns-ai-machine-learning/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">transformation</a>, one thing is clear: the once-frozen north is becoming a greener, more dynamic ecosystem. 



The fate of this region is intertwined with our own, and understanding these changes is vital for navigating a future shaped by climate change.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2023GL106486" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.



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Arctic Ocean is turning green thanks to climate change

The Arctic, once a frozen expanse of white and blue, is undergoing...

For the first time, aquaculture has overtaken wild fisheries in aquatic animal production, marking a significant milestone in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/better-refrigeration-could-significantly-reduce-global-food-waste/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global</a> food security.



A recent report by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (<a href="https://www.fao.org/home/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FAO</a>) highlights this shift and underscores the growing importance of sustainable aquaculture in meeting the world's food needs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-aquaculture">What is aquaculture?</h2>



Aquaculture, often referred to as fish farming, is the practice of breeding, rearing, and harvesting aquatic organisms like fish and seaweed in controlled environments.



Unlike traditional wild fisheries that depend on capturing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/eating-small-fish-whole-reduces-cancer-risk-in-women/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fish</a> from natural bodies of water, aquaculture involves cultivating these species in tanks, ponds, or ocean enclosures.



This method allows for greater control over growing conditions, such as water quality, feed, and breeding cycles, which can lead to more efficient and sustainable production. 



Aquaculture plays a crucial role in supplementing wild fish stocks, reducing pressure on overfished populations, and contributing to global food security. It also supports livelihoods in coastal and rural areas by providing jobs and economic opportunities.



By producing high-quality protein with lower environmental impact compared to some land-based farming practices, aquaculture presents a promising solution to meet the increasing global demand for nutritious and sustainable seafood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rise-of-aquaculture-for-food">Rise of aquaculture for food</h2>



In 2022, aquaculture reached a significant milestone by producing 94.4 million tons of aquatic animals. This impressive output accounted for 51 percent of the total aquatic production globally.



Even more noteworthy is that 57 percent of this production was specifically intended for human consumption. This achievement underscores the growing importance of aquaculture in meeting the world's food needs.



The increase in aquaculture production is crucial as the global demand for aquatic foods continues to rise. As populations grow and dietary preferences shift towards healthier and more diverse options, the need for reliable sources of aquatic foods becomes more pressing. 



The FAO highlights the importance of sustainable production practices in aquaculture. Ensuring that aquaculture operations are environmentally friendly and resource-efficient is vital for maintaining the health of our ecosystems. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aquaculture-and-food-security">Aquaculture and food security</h2>



"Aquatic systems are increasingly recognized as vital for food and nutrition security," the report states. This sentiment was echoed by experts who recently gathered in Costa Rica to discuss ocean conservation.



Due to their diversity and capacity to provide ecosystem services, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/blue-foods-could-help-address-global-challenges/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aquatic food</a> systems offer a promising solution to enhance <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-food-system-must-change-if-nations-hope-to-reduce-greenhouse-gas-emissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global food</a> security and nutrition.



Despite the steady production levels of wild fisheries over the past decades, aquaculture has seen a 6.6 percent increase since 2020. However, the sustainability of wild fishery resources remains a significant concern. 



The proportion of marine stocks fished within biologically sustainable levels dropped to 62.3 percent in 2021, down from 64.6 percent in 2019. The report calls for urgent action to accelerate the conservation and rebuilding of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/without-strong-action-global-fish-stocks-could-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fishery stocks</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-investment-and-challenges">Investment and challenges</h2>



With the global population projected to reach 8.5 billion by 2030, significant investments are necessary to ensure adequate food, nutrition, and livelihoods. The report highlights the potential of aquaculture, particularly in Africa, where it remains largely untapped.



Currently, over 40 percent of the global population cannot afford a healthy diet, making the role of aquaculture even more critical. Aquatic products are among the most traded food commodities, generating a record $195 billion in 2022 - a 19 percent increase from pre-pandemic levels.



Despite these achievements, the sector faces significant challenges, including climate change, water scarcity, pollution, and biodiversity loss.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-efforts-to-support-aquaculture">Global efforts to support aquaculture</h2>



The report's release coincides with a meeting in San Jose, Costa Rica, where country representatives, scientists, and international experts are preparing for the third UN Ocean Conference in France in 2025. 



United Nations Under-Secretary-General for Social Affairs, Li Junhua, emphasized the urgency of protecting the ocean, stating that it is "not an option but an imperative."



Costa Rica's President Rodrigo Chaves, hosting the two-day meeting, warned that failing to act would jeopardize the future of humanity. Participants are debating critical issues, including the ocean's capacity to absorb carbon dioxide, the need for sustainable fishing practices, and tackling marine pollution.



In conclusion, the shift from wild fisheries to aquaculture marks a pivotal moment in global food security. Sustainable aquaculture offers a viable solution to meet the growing demand for aquatic foods, but it requires significant investment and concerted global efforts to overcome the challenges posed by climate change and other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/90-percent-of-the-worlds-aquaculture-faces-substantial-risk-from-human-induced-environmental-changes/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental</a> threats.



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Aquaculture now produces more food than wild fishing

For the first time, aquaculture has overtaken wild fisheries in...

Wildfires have always been a terrifying spectacle of nature's raw power. But a remarkable study from <a href="https://www.ucr.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Riverside</a> reveals a chilling twist: smoke from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-breaking-wildfire-years-are-just-getting-started/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildfires</a> may be stoking the very conditions that feed their growth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildfire-smoke-signals">Wildfire smoke signals</h2>



We've all seen the towering plumes of smoke rising from wildfires, but these aren't just a sign of destruction. They're a key factor in a dangerous feedback loop.



"Fires emit <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-smoke-has-affected-almost-every-lake-in-north-america/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">smoke</a> with black carbon, or soot. Since it is very dark, the soot absorbs sunlight more readily than bright or reflective things," noted James Gomez, the lead author of the study.



This soot, a type of aerosol, acts like a heat-trapping blanket. It soaks up the sun's energy, raising temperatures and creating a hotter, drier environment. This, in turn, makes the perfect recipe for more fires to ignite.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vicious-cycle-in-northern-california">Vicious cycle in Northern California</h2>



Northern California,&nbsp;with its abundant and dense vegetation,&nbsp;is particularly vulnerable to the self-perpetuating nature of wildfires.&nbsp;The region's landscape,&nbsp;rich in flammable plant matter,&nbsp;provides ample fuel for fires to spread and intensify.&nbsp;



The study's findings reveal that the impact of wildfires in Northern California is amplified by an average daily temperature increase of 1 degree Celsius (33.8 degrees Fahrenheit) during active fire periods.&nbsp;



This heightened temperature,&nbsp;a direct consequence of the fire itself, further dries out vegetation and creates a more conducive environment for fire to propagate,&nbsp;exacerbating the already destructive nature of these events.



"It appears these fires are creating their own fire weather," said Gomez. This chilling statement paints a picture of wildfires fanning the flames of their own growth, creating a vicious cycle that's difficult to break.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-double-edged-sword-of-wildfire-smoke">Double-edged sword of wildfire smoke</h2>



The story of aerosols in our atmosphere is a complex one. Some, like sulfate aerosols from fossil fuels, act as a shield, reflecting sunlight and cooling the environment. However, recent research suggests that efforts to improve air quality by reducing these aerosols may have an unintended consequence: an increase in wildfires.



On the other hand, black carbon from wildfires does the opposite. It traps heat, dries out the atmosphere, and discourages cloud formation. "What I found is that the black carbon emitted from these California wildfires is not increasing the number of clouds. It's hydrophobic," said Gomez.



This means fewer clouds and less rain, a dire prospect for drought-prone regions already struggling with water scarcity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-can-we-break-the-cycle">Can we break the cycle?</h2>



The situation may seem grim, but there's hope. Gomez believes that mitigating CO2 emissions and implementing better land management practices can help reduce the number of large wildfires.



"There is a buildup of vegetation here in California. We need to allow more frequent small fires to reduce the amount of fuel available to burn," said Gomez. "With more forest management and more prescribed burns, we could have fewer giant fires. That is in our control."



This research isn't just a wake-up call about the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfires-in-siberia-are-a-growing-global-threat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dangers of wildfires</a>. It's a reminder that the Earth's systems are interconnected in complex ways. 



Our actions have consequences, both intended and unintended. And as we continue to grapple with the challenges of climate change, understanding these connections is more important than ever.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-wildfire-research">Future of wildfire research</h2>



The UC Riverside study is a significant step forward in our understanding of wildfires and their impact on the environment. However, it's just the beginning. There's still much to learn about the complex interplay between fire, weather, and climate change.



Future research will likely delve deeper into the role of aerosols, both from natural and human-made sources. 



Scientists will also continue to explore the effectiveness of various fire management strategies, with the goal of reducing the frequency and intensity of wildfires.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-burning-issue-of-wildfire-smoke">Burning issue of wildfire smoke</h2>



The issue of wildfires is a burning one, both literally and figuratively. It's a problem that affects us all, whether we live in fire-prone areas or not. The smoke from wildfires can travel thousands of miles, impacting air quality and public health far from the source of the flames.



As we continue to face the challenges of a changing climate, the research from UC Riverside serves as a stark reminder that we must act now to prevent the worst-case <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-uncover-effects-of-wildfires-on-soil-chemistry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">scenarios</a> from becoming a reality. The future of our planet, and our own well-being, depends on it.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://acp.copernicus.org/articles/24/6937/2024/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics</a>.



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Wildfire smoke creates conditions that favor more fires

Wildfires have always been a terrifying spectacle of nature's raw...

Groundwater temperatures are one of the things affected as our planet's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-deja-vu-oceans-may-slow-down-again/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> warms due to the increased concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.



This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-earth-energy-imbalance-temperature-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">warming</a> extends beyond what we see in the air and ocean. It influences the Earth's surface, including soil and groundwater, which absorb and store heat.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-temperature-of-groundwater">Temperature of groundwater</h2>



Groundwater is the water found beneath the Earth's surface, stored in the cracks and spaces in soil, sand, and rock. It is a critical source of drinking water, irrigation for agriculture, and industrial processes. 



Groundwater comes from precipitation that infiltrates the ground, moving through the soil and rock layers until it reaches an area it can no longer penetrate, forming aquifers.



The temperature of groundwater is important because it influences water quality and the health of ecosystems. Warmer groundwater can increase the concentration of harmful substances like arsenic and manganese, posing health risks. It can also disrupt aquatic life, biogeochemical processes, and the thermal regimes of rivers. 



Additionally, higher groundwater temperatures can promote the growth of pathogens in water distribution networks. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-projecting-groundwater-temperature-changes">Projecting groundwater temperature changes</h2>



Understanding and managing groundwater temperature is crucial for ensuring safe drinking water, preserving ecosystems, and mitigating the impacts of climate change.



Recent research from the <a href="https://www.ipf.kit.edu/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing</a> and the <a href="https://www.agw.kit.edu/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Applied Geosciences</a> has begun to address this knowledge gap.



“To close this gap, we have simulated the projected changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/groundwater-depletion-is-accelerating-but-it-is-not-inevitable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global groundwater</a> temperatures through 2100,” explained Dr. Susanne Benz.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-varying-temperatures-at-different-depths">Varying temperatures at different depths</h2>



The study, which involved Dr. Kathrin Menberg and Professor Philipp Blum, provides detailed maps showing how groundwater temperatures will vary at different depths across the globe. 



The findings indicate that areas with shallow groundwater tables or significant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-some-lakes-resist-the-heat-of-atmospheric-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">atmospheric warming</a> will experience the highest rates of groundwater warming.



The projections are based on two climate scenarios: SSP 2–4.5 and SSP 5–8.5. These scenarios represent different pathways for future socioeconomic development and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/measuring-greenhouse-gas-emissions-from-ponds-improves-climate-predictions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">greenhouse gas</a> concentrations.



SSP 2–4.5 is a middle-range scenario, while SSP 5–8.5 represents a high-end, worst-case scenario.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-groundwater-temperatures-forecast-and-implications">Groundwater temperatures: Forecast and implications</h2>



The study forecasts a significant rise in groundwater temperatures by 2100. The results suggest an increase of 2.1 degrees Celsius under SSP 2–4.5 and 3.5 degrees Celsius under SSP 5–8.5.



“There are already about 30 million people living in regions where the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rising-sea-levels-threaten-groundwater-global-cities-underground-infrastructure/">groundwater</a> exceeds the strictest drinking water guidelines for temperature. This means the water might not be safe to drink without treatment," noted Dr. Benz. By 2100, this number could swell to hundreds of millions, depending on the scenario.



Estimates range from 77 to 188 million people for SSP 2–4.5 and 59 to 588 million for SSP 5–8.5. The variations are due to differences in regional climate change impacts and population trends.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-and-health-impacts">Ecological and health impacts</h2>



Groundwater temperature is a critical factor in water quality, affecting chemical, biological, and physical processes. 



“Rising groundwater temperatures can increase the concentrations of harmful substances like arsenic or manganese, posing health risks, especially if the groundwater is used for drinking,” said Dr. Benz.



Warmer groundwater also disrupts ecosystems, impacting aquatic life, biogeochemical processes, geothermal energy potential, and thermal regimes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drought-conditions-amplify-river-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rivers</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-water-distribution-networks">Water distribution networks </h2>



Increased groundwater temperatures can lead to exceeding critical thresholds in water distribution networks, potentially promoting the growth of harmful pathogens such as Legionella which presents a direct threat to human health. 



Fish species, particularly salmon, are also at risk if their groundwater-dependent spawning grounds become too warm.



“Our results highlight the importance of taking action to protect groundwater and finding sustainable solutions to mitigate the negative impacts of climate change on groundwater,” said Dr. Benz.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-impacts-of-climate-change">Addressing the impacts of climate change</h2>



As the Earth's climate warms, understanding and addressing the impacts on groundwater is crucial. This research highlights the need for proactive measures to protect this vital resource. 



Rising groundwater temperatures can degrade water quality, making it unsafe for drinking without treatment. 



It also disrupts ecosystems, affecting aquatic life and biogeochemical processes. By taking action now, we can ensure safe drinking water and preserve ecosystems for future generations. 



Protecting groundwater from the impacts of climate change is essential for sustaining both human health and the environment.



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Groundwater temperatures are rising due to climate change

Groundwater temperatures are one of the things affected as our...

As life on Earth dramatically expanded over 500 million years ago during the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cambrian-explosion-fossil-sponges/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cambrian explosion</a>, tectonic plate activity began to significantly shape the planet, according to a recent study. The collision of these plates caused mountains to form and initiated a sequence of events that led to a mass extinction known as the “Sinsk event.” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tectonic-activity-and-rapid-climate-change">Tectonic activity and rapid climate change</h2>



These tectonic movements allowed magma to reach the surface, releasing large amounts of greenhouse gasses into the atmosphere and triggering rapid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-climate-change-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>. This catastrophic event wiped out various animal groups, such as archaeocyathids and hyoliths.



“It's unusual to point to a tectonic cause for an extinction event, but the evidence is compelling,” said study co-author John Goodge, a professor emeritus at the <a href="http://d.umn.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Minnesota Duluth</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sinsk-event-extinction-nbsp">Sinsk event extinction&nbsp;</h2>



According to the study authors, the Sinsk event extinction was triggered by initial Ross/Delamerian supracrustal contraction along the edge of Gondwana, which caused a cascading series of geodynamic, paleoenvironmental, and biotic changes.&nbsp;



These changes included loss of shallow marine carbonate habitats along the Gondwanan margin, tectonic transformation within the Gondwanan interior, and the extrusion of the Kalkarindji large igneous province.



There was also a release of large volumes of volcanic gases and rapid climate change, including incursions of marine anoxic waters and collapse of shallow marine ecosystems, noted the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-records-of-mountain-building">Records of mountain building</h2>



Goodge and his colleagues discovered the connection to plate tectonics by comparing field notes from Antarctica and southern Australia. These two regions, once part of the supercontinent Gondwana near the equator, showed nearly identical records of mountain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-and-why-do-mountains-form-new-theories-for-an-age-old-mystery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">building</a> just before the extinction event.



The research, which began in the 1990s, has recently been published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adl3452" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>. Goodge and other scientists set up camps on a glacier in Antarctica, traveling by helicopter and snowmobile to the Holyoake Range. 



The experts examined fossils from carbonate reef structures to trace the timeline of the extinction. A separate team found similar evidence in Australia in 2011.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-series-of-cascading-events">A series of cascading events</h2>



“You never know when something you did decades ago is going to come together in a new way,” Goodge said.



Thus, as the author concluded, tectonic movements during mountain building “caused a series of cascading environmental processes that resulted in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-sediments-predict-the-impacts-of-ocean-warming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ocean warming</a>, reduced oceanic turnover, widespread bottom-water anoxia in marginal and epicontinental seas, and, ultimately, the Sinsk extinction.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-mountain-building-nbsp">More about mountain building&nbsp;</h2>



Mountain building, also known as orogeny, is a complex geological process that involves the formation of mountain ranges. This phenomenon primarily results from the movement of tectonic plates, which are massive slabs of Earth's lithosphere.&nbsp;



As these plates interact, they can converge, diverge, or slide past each other, leading to various geological activities.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-formation-of-mountain-ranges">Formation of mountain ranges</h3>



When <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/major-volcanic-events-linked-to-the-slowing-of-tectonic-plates/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tectonic plates</a> converge, one plate may be forced over another, causing the crust to crumple and fold. This is how many of the world's major mountain ranges, such as the Himalayas, were formed. 



The immense pressure and heat generated during this process can also cause the rocks to undergo metamorphism, further contributing to mountain formation.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-volcanic-activity-nbsp">Volcanic activity&nbsp;</h3>



Another mechanism of mountain building is volcanic activity. When magma from the Earth's mantle rises to the surface, it can build up layers of lava and ash, creating volcanic mountains.&nbsp;



The Andes in South America are a prime example of mountains formed by the subduction of an oceanic plate beneath a continental plate, leading to significant volcanic activity.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dynamic-mountain-ranges-nbsp">Dynamic mountain ranges&nbsp;</h3>



Erosion and weathering also play a crucial role in shaping mountains. Over time, these forces can wear down the peaks and ridges, redistributing the material to form valleys and other features.&nbsp;



This ongoing interaction between tectonic activity and surface processes ensures that mountain ranges are dynamic and continually evolving.



Overall, mountain building is a multifaceted process driven by the movement of tectonic plates and volcanic activity, with subsequent modification by erosion and weathering. These forces combine to create and reshape the majestic mountain ranges that define Earth's topography.



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Mountain building triggered a mass extinction event

As life on Earth dramatically expanded over 500 million years...

Close,Up,Of,Female,Famer,Hands,Holding,Soil,Outdoors,At

Regenerative agriculture has become the focus of the agricultural community as farmers in the U.S. face the harsh realities of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-pool-of-global-soil-carbon-alters-climate-change-models/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> -- extreme heat, drought, heavy rainfall, flooding, and erosion.



This innovative approach promises not only to improve <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-microbes-may-shape-the-flavor-of-food/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil health</a> but also to provide financial opportunities through "carbon farming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-is-regenerative-agriculture">What is regenerative agriculture?</h2>



Regenerative agriculture is a farming approach that focuses on enhancing and restoring the health of the soil, ecosystems, and the environment while producing food. It goes beyond sustainable practices, which aim to maintain the status quo, by actively improving the land. 



The key principles of regenerative agriculture include:



<ul>
<li>Minimizing soil disturbance: Reducing tillage and avoiding the use of heavy machinery to maintain soil structure and integrity.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Maximizing crop diversity: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-farming-could-increase-food-productivity-and-reduce-emissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Planting a variety of crops</a> and using crop rotation to enhance soil health and reduce pests and diseases.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Keeping the soil covered: Using cover crops, mulch, and crop residues to protect the soil from erosion, regulate temperature, and retain moisture.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Maintaining living roots in the soil: Planting cover crops and perennials to keep roots in the soil year-round, which supports soil microorganisms and improves soil health.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Integrating livestock: Using managed grazing to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-dormant-soil-microbes-survive-in-a-60-year-old-fire/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">improve soil fertility</a>, control weeds, and enhance biodiversity.</li>
</ul>



<ul>
<li>Reducing external inputs: Minimizing the use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides, and instead relying on natural processes to maintain soil health and productivity.</li>
</ul>



<ol></ol>



By implementing these practices, regenerative agriculture aims to sequester carbon in the soil, improve water retention and infiltration, enhance biodiversity, and create more resilient food systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-financial-and-practical-challenges">Financial and practical challenges</h2>



Despite the potential benefits, many farmers have been hesitant to join carbon market programs. Surveys indicate that low carbon prices and extensive paperwork deter participation.



However, a recent study published in Agriculture and Human Values reveals that financial factors are not the only barriers. 



Many farmers view soil health improvement as a pathway to a better quality of life, reducing their dependence on agrochemical companies' products and advice.



"Farmers are really looking to get off that treadmill of high-input, high yield commodity agriculture," says Susanne Freidberg, a professor of geography at <a href="https://home.dartmouth.edu/">Dartmouth College</a> and co-lead author of the study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insights-from-the-field">Insights from the field</h2>



The study, based on interviews with over 80 farmers in Kansas and Nebraska, explores their experiences with regenerative practices. 



These farmers, managing farms ranging from a few hundred to a few thousand acres, shared a range of experiences from recent adopters to veterans with over 20 years of practice.



Recent adopters cited high input costs, soil erosion concerns, and success stories from other farmers as motivations to explore <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grasslands-can-be-managed-to-benefit-biodiversity-and-soil-health/">soil health</a>. They often began their journey by attending field days or conferences.



As they implemented new practices, they developed new mindsets and relationships.



"Farmers who had implemented regenerative practices talked a lot about how they paid attention to interactions between the different kinds of life in their fields -- cover crops, earthworms, and especially soil microbes," Freidberg noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-social-dynamics-of-regenerative-agriculture">Social dynamics of regenerative agriculture</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-soil-microbes-could-revolutionize-climate-predictions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Below-ground microbial activity</a> not only builds soil fertility, allowing farmers to use less fertilizer, but also helps reduce erosion, conserve water, and sequester carbon.



However, practices beneficial to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/can-soil-microbes-survive-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil microbes</a> sometimes strained relationships with neighbors and landlords.



"Farmers mentioned that when they stopped tilling and started planting multi-species cover crops, they started getting strange looks at their local coffee shop because now their fields looked messy," Freidberg explained.



These tensions underscored the importance of support networks among regenerative farmers. Many joined informal "support groups" to share experiences or farm equipment. 



"Farmers who viewed regenerative agriculture as a way to gain more personal freedom also saw that this freedom depended on the support of other farmers," Freidberg said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-personal-fulfillment-and-carbon-programs">Personal fulfillment and carbon programs</h2>



Farmers also appreciated the return of birds and wildlife to their fields and found their daily work more enjoyable and interesting. 



Those who signed up for carbon programs preferred ones without long-term commitments or major changes to their practices. 



One farmer described the extra income from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reducing-carbon-footprint-urban-farms-and-agriculture/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon</a> farming as "beer money."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-carbon-farming">Future of carbon farming</h2>



The opportunities for carbon farming expanded with the rollout of USDA-funded "climate smart" commodities projects in 2023, around the time the Dartmouth study concluded. 



These projects, often led by large food and agribusiness companies, offer financial incentives for adopting regenerative practices. However, widespread farmer participation will depend on how well these projects align with farmers' values.



"When farmers talk about the return on investment on regenerative agriculture, they're talking about more than just money," Freidberg emphasized.



In summary, while the financial benefits of regenerative agriculture are significant, many farmers are drawn to these practices for the broader improvements they bring to their lives and communities.



By focusing on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-soil-bacteria-contribute-to-atmospheric-co2/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil health</a>, farmers are not only nurturing their land but also fostering a more sustainable and fulfilling way of farming.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10460-024-10558-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Agriculture and Human Values</a>.



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Farmers are adopting regenerative agriculture for better soil health

Regenerative agriculture has become the focus of the agricultural community...

Top,View,Square,Block,Cement,Concrete,Green,Grass,Pattern,Parking.

A research team led by Reza Moini, an assistant professor of civil and environmental engineering at Princeton University, has developed a new cement composite material that is remarkably more crack-resistant and flexible than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/recycled-cement-is-an-absolute-miracle-to-lower-concrete-emissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">standard cement</a>. 



The findings, published on June 10 in the journal Advanced Functional Materials, could <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mycocrete-new-material-made-of-fungi-hopes-to-replace-concrete-in-construction-projects/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">revolutionize the construction industry</a> and improve the safety and durability of a wide range of brittle ceramic materials.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-s-blueprint-provides-secret-recipe">Nature's blueprint provides secret recipe</h2>



The inspiration for this innovative cement composite came from an unlikely source: the material that makes up oyster and abalone shells, known as nacre or <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mother-pearl-record-ancient-ocean-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">mother of pearl</a>. 



Shashank Gupta, a graduate student in Moini's <a href="https://www.princeton.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Princeton University</a> lab, explained that at the microscopic level, nacre consists of hexagonal tablets of a hard mineral called aragonite, glued together by a soft biopolymer.



"This synergy between the hard and soft components is crucial to nacre's remarkable mechanical properties," Gupta said.



The aragonite tablets contribute significantly to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-study-of-earths-stratosphere-has-important-implications-for-life-on-earth/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nacre's strength</a>, while the biopolymer adds flexibility and crack resistance. 



When under stress, the aragonite tablets slide, allowing the nacre to dissipate energy and maintain its structural integrity, making it both strong and resilient.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-engineering-a-tougher-cement-material">Engineering a tougher cement material</h2>



Inspired by nacre's unique properties, the Princeton team set out to create a cement composite that mimics its structure using conventional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cement-absorbs-co2-emissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">construction materials</a> like Portland cement paste and a limited amount of polymer.



The researchers created multi-layered small beams by alternating cement paste sheets with thin layers of a highly stretchable polymer called polyvinyl siloxane. 



They then subjected these beams to a notched three-point bending test to evaluate their crack resistance and fracture toughness.



The team produced three types of beams:



<ol>
<li>one with alternating layers of cement paste sheets and thin polymer</li>



<li>another with hexagonal grooves engraved into the cement paste sheets using a laser</li>



<li>a third with completely separated hexagonal tablets connected by the polymer layer, similar to how aragonite lies on the biopolymer layer in nacre</li>
</ol>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-remarkable-results-17-times-more-crack-resistant">Remarkable results: 17-times more crack-resistant</h2>



The experiments revealed that the beams with completely separated hexagonal tablets, which closely resemble nacre's structure, exhibited the most significant improvements. 



These beams demonstrated 19 times the ductility and 17 times the fracture toughness while retaining nearly the same strength as the solid cement paste beam.



"Our bio-inspired approach is not to simply mimic nature's microstructure but to learn from the underlying principles and use that to inform the engineering of human-made materials," Moini said. "We intentionally engineer defects in the brittle materials as a way to make them stronger by design."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-era-in-cement-construction-materials">New era in cement construction materials</h2>



While the findings are based on lab conditions and additional research is needed to develop the techniques for use in the field, the potential implications for the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wind-farms-quickly-neutralize-carbon-footprint-from-their-construction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">construction industry</a> are vast.



"If we can engineer concrete to resist crack propagation, we can make it tougher, safer and more durable," Gupta said.



The researchers are working to determine whether the structures' fracture toughness and ductility apply to other ceramic materials beyond cement paste, such as concrete.



"We are only scratching the surface; there will be numerous design possibilities to explore and engineer the constitutive hard and soft material properties, the interfaces, and the geometric aspects that play into the fundamental size effects in construction materials," Moini said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crack-resistant-cement-inspired-by-nature">Crack-resistant cement inspired by nature</h2>



In summary, the research conducted by Princeton engineers opens up a world of possibilities for creating stronger, safer, and more durable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-waste-can-be-recycled-into-construction-materials/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">construction materials</a>. 



By drawing inspiration from the intricate design of nacre found in oyster and abalone shells, the team has developed a cement composite that dramatically improves crack resistance and flexibility. 



As the researchers continue to explore the potential applications of this bio-inspired approach, the construction industry stands to benefit from a new era of resilient and sustainable materials. 



The future of building lies in the hands of innovative minds who dare to look to nature for solutions, and the Princeton team has taken a significant step forward in cracking the code of engineered resilience.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/adfm.202313516" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Advanced Functional Materials</a>.



-----



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New crack-resistant cement material inspired by nature

A research team led by Reza Moini, an assistant professor...

A recent study has revealed that U.S. adults are more confident in associating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-smoke-significantly-impacts-lake-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildfires</a> and heat with climate change compared to other extreme weather events such as hurricanes, flooding, or tornadoes. The research was based on a survey of 1,071 U.S. adults in September 2021.



The recurring biweekly AmeriSpeak Omnibus survey aims to understand public perceptions of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/antarctica-shattered-extreme-cold-records-during-global-heat-wave/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme weather</a> events and their links to anthropogenic climate change.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-and-human-activities">Climate change and human activities </h2>



Climate change refers to significant and lasting changes in weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years. 



These environmental changes are primarily linked to human activities - such as burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and industrial processes - which increase greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The gases trap heat, leading to global warming and alterations in weather patterns.



Consequences include more frequent and severe extreme weather events, rising sea levels, melting glaciers, and disruptions to ecosystems. 



Addressing climate change requires global efforts to reduce emissions, transition to renewable energy, and implement sustainable practices to protect the planet for future generations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-political-views-and-personal-experience">Political views and personal experience</h2>



The findings indicate that politics and personal experiences significantly influence people's beliefs about climate change.



Self-identified Republicans were generally less likely than Democrats to attribute extreme weather events to climate change. 



However, Republicans who had personally experienced negative impacts from extreme weather were more likely to make the connection than those who had not.



Overall, 83% of respondents believed there is some link between extreme weather events and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/indisputable-evidence-of-human-caused-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human-caused climate change</a>, while about 17% thought climate change had no connection to extreme weather.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-public-perceptions-and-event-attribution">Public perceptions and event attribution</h2>



“There is a growing field of scientific extreme event attribution to climate change, but we know less about what the public thinks,” said Hilary Boudet, co-author of the study and an associate professor in <a href="https://catalog.oregonstate.edu/college-departments/liberal-arts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">OSU’s College of Liberal Arts</a>.



“This work helps us to better understand public perceptions of event attribution to climate change. What the public thinks is important because these perceptions shape individual behavior and policy support.”



The survey participants were asked to rate their confidence on a scale of 1 to 5 in linking the increasing frequency and severity of wildfires, heat, rainfall/flooding, hurricanes, and tornadoes to anthropogenic climate change.



For instance, a respondent absolutely certain that climate change is to blame for increased wildfires would choose “5” for that question. 



The survey also inquired if respondents had personally experienced any negative impacts from these extreme weather events.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildfires-heat-and-climate-change">Wildfires, heat and climate change</h2>



The study found that more than 47% of respondents were "very" or "extremely confident" in linking increased wildfires to climate change. Similarly, roughly 42% expressed the same level of confidence regarding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/billions-of-people-endured-an-extra-month-of-extreme-heat-in-the-past-year/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme heat</a>.



Differences between political affiliations were most pronounced in the context of extreme heat and least pronounced regarding hurricanes. Additionally, factors such as race, education, and income also influenced responses.



Although the survey did not ask respondents to explain their confidence ratings, study co-author Professor Philip Mote offered some insights.



For example, the impact of wildfires extends far beyond the flames. Last year, during massive wildfires in eastern Canada, New Yorkers 1,500 miles away experienced poor air quality due to drifting smoke. In contrast, hurricanes, tornadoes, and floods tend to affect more localized areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-public-attribution-of-extreme-weather">Public attribution of extreme weather </h2>



The researchers also examined how closely public attribution of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-will-climate-change-affect-extreme-weather-events/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">extreme weather events</a> aligns with scientific consensus. The weakest alignment was observed in the context of wildfires.



This discrepancy might be due to the narrow scientific definition that only records the number of extreme fires, rather than overall fire weather. The general public likely considers all hot, dry conditions contributing to worsening wildfires amid climate change.



The researchers emphasize that understanding and improving public perceptions of extreme weather linked to climate change is crucial for maximizing the impact of mitigation efforts.



Accurate perceptions ensure that resources are directed towards actions that can make a real difference, rather than towards events that trigger the largest public response.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10584-024-03735-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Climatic Change</a>.



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Most people attribute extreme heat and wildfires to climate change

A recent study has revealed that U.S. adults are more...

In response to mounting environmental crises, countries worldwide have recognized the urgent need for more robust ocean conservation and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-ocean-day-a-unified-approach-to-protect-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">protection</a> of our planet.



The ambitious "30x30" initiative, which aims to protect 30 percent of Earth's surface by 2030, was proposed to address this need.



However, despite the popularity of conservation in principle, the high costs often hinder significant progress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-market-based-approach-to-conservation">Market-based approach to conservation </h2>



Researchers from <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Santa Barbara</a> have introduced a novel market-based approach to achieve the 30x30 targets for ocean conservation.



Their study explores whether a system allowing countries to trade conservation credits can reduce costs and incentivize nations to meet their goals.



The findings are promising: voluntary trade always reduced the cost of conservation, sometimes by more than 90 percent.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-biodiversity-framework">Global biodiversity framework</h2>



The 30x30 initiative is part of the Convention on Biological Diversity, established in the early 1990s. Specifically, it is Target No. 3 of the Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF), adopted by 196 countries at the UN Biodiversity Conference in 2022.



The GBF aims to protect and manage 30% of the world's terrestrial, freshwater, coastal, and marine areas by 2030. 



Achieving this goal is crucial for the planet's long-term health. However, the framework does not specify which areas to protect, how to do so inclusively, or how to fund these efforts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-four-year-journey-of-the-project">Four-year journey of the project </h2>



"This project started just over four years ago," noted study co-author Juan Carlos Villaseñor-Derbez. At the time, many countries struggled to meet even the 10% protection benchmark.



"It seemed like most nations were genuinely committed to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-protected-areas-fall-short-on-2030-biodiversity-targets/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine conservation</a>, but the costs were preventing some from engaging at all."



The cost of ocean conservation varies significantly by location, as do the ecological benefits. Protecting high-value fisheries can conflict with important <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-stress-causes-undetected-changes-in-marine-ecosystems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine ecosystems</a> like coral reefs and seagrass meadows. 



"Without an innovative policy solution, the cost of conservation for many nations could stall progress toward 30x30," said Villaseñor-Derbez.



The researchers proposed that trade could incentivize additional gains. Instead of investing in high-cost or low-benefit areas, countries could trade their conservation duties to focus on regions where protection yields higher returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-conservation-credit-system">Ocean conservation credit system</h2>



Environmental economists and scientists at UC Santa Barbara’s Environmental Markets Lab (emLab) designed an ocean conservation credit system. 



This system allows countries to trade their conservation obligations within a "transferable conservation market" policy, adhering to strict ecological principles.



"Like existing mandates, this approach requires every country to protect a certain fraction (say 30%) of its marine habitat," said Professor Christopher Costello, emLab’s director.



"But unlike other approaches, we allow those obligations to be traded across countries, within strict ecological constraints."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-cost-savings">Potential cost savings</h2>



Costello, Villaseñor-Derbez, and co-author Professor Andrew Plantinga created a model to estimate the potential costs and benefits of a conservation market. Using data from 23,699 marine species and fisheries revenue, they built conservation supply curves for coastal nations.



Furthermore, they defined “trade bubbles” based on biological and geographic factors, allowing countries to trade conservation credits within these predefined bubbles. This ensured equitable conservation across different marine habitats.



The model showed that a market for marine conservation always reduced costs, with potential savings ranging from 37.4 to 98 percent.



"It highlighted how inefficient it is to require uniform conservation obligations from each nation," noted Villaseñor-Derbez. "National boundaries don’t align with marine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-ocean-day-a-unified-approach-to-protect-biodiversity/">biodiversity</a> distribution patterns."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-conservation-efforts">Balancing conservation efforts</h2>



While a global market offered the highest savings, it risked focusing efforts on a single habitat type, neglecting others. To counter this, the team introduced the trade bubble constraint.



"When nations facing high costs are allowed to trade, they can ask, ‘Should I conserve in my waters at this high cost, or can I find someone in my bubble with similar habitat at a lower price?’” said Villaseñor-Derbez.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fair-compensation-in-ocean-conservation">Fair compensation in ocean conservation</h2>



Some may worry that wealthy nations could exploit this system by offloading their conservation obligations onto poorer nations. 



However, the market is voluntary. "The selling nation only engages in trade if they find it advantageous," said Plantinga, who heads emLab’s Productive Landscapes Group.



The market approach offers flexibility for developing nations. It allows them to balance their finances against conservation costs, deciding how much to conserve domestically, buy from others, or offer for sale. This flexibility is not possible under the current 30x30 scheme.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-incentivizing-habitat-restoration">Incentivizing habitat restoration</h2>



The system could also promote habitat restoration, aligning with Target No. 2 of the Global Biodiversity Framework. Nations specializing in marine resource exploitation could compensate those focusing on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/effective-conservation-efforts-key-to-saving-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> conservation.



"Our approach provides an explicit payment for conserving marine ecosystems," said Costello. "Under the current system, there is rarely a payment to conserve."



Lowering costs incentivizes action, a central tenet of economics used by governments and industries worldwide. 



The authors argue that these savings could be redirected toward other pressing environmental issues, leveraging economic principles to advance global ocean conservation efforts.



The study is published in the journal <a href="http://10.1126/science.adl4019" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



-----



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Ocean conservation: Credit system could reduce costs

In response to mounting environmental crises, countries worldwide have recognized...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lHHxOej4QfE
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Researchers found a correlation between Alzheimer's disease and traffic pollution.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invisible-threat-in-urban-air">Invisible threat in urban air</h2>



City dwellers face an unseen danger with every breath. New findings from Emory University researchers suggest that fine particulate matter from <a href="http://earth.com/news/traffic-related-air-pollution-might-increase-alzheimers-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vehicle emissions may significantly elevate the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease</a>. The study examined brain tissue samples from 224 individuals who had confirmed diagnoses and volunteered their brains for scientific research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disturbing-connections-emerge">Disturbing connections emerge</h2>



Scientists analyzed neuritic plaques — protein clusters that characterize Alzheimer's — while mapping each participant's exposure to PM2.5 particles based on residential location and surrounding traffic density. The correlation proved more alarming than anticipated. Individuals experiencing higher pollution exposure showed nearly double the likelihood of elevated plaque accumulation in brain tissue.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-timing-matters">Timing matters</h2>



The research team discovered that pollution exposure during the final year before death demonstrated the strongest association with brain changes. This timeline suggests relatively rapid impacts from environmental toxins on neural health. The connection remained robust even after accounting for various demographic and health factors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-vulnerability-patterns">Genetic vulnerability patterns</h2>



Perhaps most concerning, people lacking the APOE gene—which naturally predisposes individuals to Alzheimer's — exhibited more than twice the susceptibility to pollution-related brain damage. Study author Dr. Anke Huels noted this indicates environmental elements like air contamination could trigger the disease in cases where hereditary factors don't explain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-public-health-implications">Public health implications</h2>



These findings, published in <a href="https://www.neurology.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neurology</a>, underscore the critical importance of air quality regulations in urban planning. The research suggests that implementing stricter emission controls and promoting alternative transportation could serve as powerful tools in Alzheimer's prevention.



As cities worldwide grapple with growing traffic congestion and aging populations, this study highlights an urgent need for comprehensive approaches to environmental health that protect both our lungs and our minds.



—–



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Traffic fumes may trigger Alzheimer's

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lHHxOej4QfE Researchers found a correlation between Alzheimer's disease and traffic...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K0DuSr87SHY
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">57 million-year ice age mystery solved by Australian scientists.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-earth-became-a-frozen-wasteland">When Earth became a frozen wasteland</h2>



Imagine Earth as a giant snowball, frozen solid from the North Pole to the equator. This wasn't the plot of a science fiction movie – it was our planet's reality 700 million years ago during an extreme ice age that has puzzled scientists for decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-discovery">The discovery</h2>



Australian researchers from the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sydney</a> have finally cracked one of geology's greatest mysteries: what caused the Sturtian glaciation and why it persisted for an unprecedented 57 million years. This period occurred long before dinosaurs roamed the Earth, when no complex plants or multicellular animals existed.



Dr. Adriana Dutkiewicz, the study's lead author, describes a world completely unlike today's climate. "Imagine the Earth almost completely frozen over," she explained. "The planet was blanketed in ice from poles to equator, and temperatures plunged."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-combination-of-climate-factors">The combination of climate factors</h2>



The research team discovered that this massive freeze resulted from a "double whammy" of geological events. First, plate tectonic activity reduced volcanic carbon dioxide emissions to historically low levels. Volcanic activity typically releases CO2 into the atmosphere, creating a greenhouse effect that keeps Earth warm.



Simultaneously, weathering of volcanic rocks in what is now Canada actively absorbed atmospheric CO2, further reducing greenhouse gas concentrations. When atmospheric carbon dioxide levels dropped below 200 parts per million – less than half of today's levels – glaciation engulfed the entire planet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-climate-implications">Modern climate implications</h2>



Published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/geology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geology</a>, this research provides crucial insights into Earth's climate system. While geological climate changes occur over millions of years, the study emphasizes that human-induced climate change is happening at a pace ten times faster than previously observed natural changes, highlighting the urgent need to understand our planet's delicate climate balance.



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What caused the planet's longest ice age

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K0DuSr87SHY 57 million-year ice age mystery solved by Australian scientists....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the opposite.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-contrasting-climate-response">A contrasting climate response</h2>



Most coastal towns are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sinking-land-will-intensify-the-effects-of-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preparing for higher sea levels</a>, but <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-no-longer-has-to-worry-about-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Greenland presents</a> a different scenario during climate change. The ground there is rising at a remarkable rate. Over the past decade, some areas have lifted about 20 centimeters, which translates to roughly 2 meters per century. This rate significantly exceeds current projections for sea level rise.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geological-rebound-process-through-climate-change">Geological rebound process through climate change</h2>



The mechanism behind this phenomenon is straightforward. As the ice sheet melts, the immense weight is removed from the bedrock, causing the land to rebound upward. This process resembles the way compressed material springs back when pressure is released.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-monitoring-networks">Scientific monitoring networks</h2>



Researchers at the <a href="https://www.dtu.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technical University of Denmark</a> are documenting this uplift using the GNET network, consisting of 61 GPS stations positioned around Greenland's coast. These sensors can detect movement with millimeter precision, providing detailed measurements of the ongoing changes.



The data reveal that current uplift rates exceed the gradual rebound occurring since the last ice age ended approximately 12,000 years ago. This acceleration corresponds directly with increased ice sheet melting rates.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coastal-transformation">Coastal Transformation</h2>



This uplift is actively reshaping Greenland's coastline. New islands and rocky formations, called "skerries," are emerging as previously submerged land surfaces rise above the water level. This represents a notable contrast to global concerns about rising seas.



The study, published in Geophysical Research Letters, demonstrates the varied regional impacts of climate change. While many locations face rising water levels, Greenland's bedrock is literally rising above the surrounding seas.



The full study was recently published in <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2023GL104851" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.



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Greenland's ground rises while coasts worldwide face higher seas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to implement the latest AI Agent building platform.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-agent-training-transforms-the-workplace-fear-factor-into-a-competitive-advantage">AI agent training transforms the workplace 'fear factor' into a competitive advantage</h2>



Organizations that offer comprehensive artificial intelligence training to their workers find remarkable value that extends well beyond basic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mind-wandering-might-be-more-productive-than-you-think/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">productivity improvements</a>. Emerging research demonstrates that carefully crafted AI training programs <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-does-not-replace-human-creativity-but-enhances-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enhance</a> corporate performance, lower operational costs, and dramatically improve employee psychological well-being by turning workplace uncertainty into professional empowerment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-widespread-ai-anxiety-crisis-among-us">Addressing the widespread 'AI anxiety' crisis among us</h2>



A staggering 53% of employees expressed concern that the use of AI tools to automate work tasks could make them appear disposable to their employers, according to <a href="https://www.microsoft.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microsoft</a>'s 2024 workplace survey. Such pervasive worry about being substituted by machines has caused what researchers have termed "AI technostress" – a psychological state that can result in occupational burnout and poorer mental well-being.



Data published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a> showed that belief in AI learning ability was a moderator in the link between technology adoption and work pressure, and higher confidence significantly lowered negative psychological responses. Workers provided ample training to become competent with AI software have significantly lower stress.



Companies like <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a> have platforms for building what are known as "AI Agents". In essence, AI Agents are simply tools that employees can build for themselves or their teams quickly and inexpensively. MindStudio will even train entire companies, from the CEO on down, at no cost. By letting MindStudio empower employees, companies avoid hiring more IT staff, buying more software, and implementing solutions to problems that do not exist.



MindStudio even has partners locally for companies, like <a href="http://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dominnus</a> with offices in the Carolinas, California, and Denver, to help build AI Agents and support employees as they become resident AI experts for their organization. The training provided by MindStudio is applicable across other AI Agent building platforms as well.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-productivity-through-focused-learning">Revolutionary productivity through focused learning</h2>



Organizations that implement large-scale AI training programs achieve dramatic outcomes. Employees performed tasks significantly better when they utilized AI support compared to when they didn't, according to <a href="https://www.nngroup.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nielsen Norman Group</a> research findings. Their study documented productivity increases of 66% for a variety of professional tasks.



Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis research finds workers record 33% higher productivity in time working with generative AI tools. The benefit is equivalent to 5.4% of work time savings for AI users – around 2.2 hours per week for full-time workers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psychological-well-being-benefits-through-ai-competence">Psychological well-being benefits through AI competence</h2>



The emotional transformation when employees are provided with proper technology training is a fundamental transformation from fear to professional confidence. A survey of 600 employees across industries, carried out by ScienceDirect, proved that AI capabilities strengthen work environment commitment and improve job satisfaction.



A <a href="https://www.lut.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LUT University</a> study discovered that AI adoption has no direct effect on workers' well-being but does so indirectly through working conditions like task optimization and safety protocols. Strategically deployed AI that involves correct training can actually increase workplace mental well-being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-replacement-anxiety-to-partnership-confidence">From 'replacement anxiety' to 'partnership confidence'</h2>



Although 35% of those interviewed in recent McKinsey studies were concerned about workforce displacement, firms with large-scale training initiatives witness such fears dissipate quickly. The World Economic Forum found that two out of three respondents believe AI competencies will enhance their career prospects and job marketability.



This shift from fear to trust has measurable implications for job satisfaction. Applied Sciences research indicates AI can create tailored wellness programs based on individual employee requirements.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-financial-benefits-of-increased-retention">Financial benefits of increased retention</h2>



The mental health advantages of AI learning have a direct impact on organizational bottom lines in the form of a positive feedback cycle with high retention of employees. Recent ROI research validates that artificial intelligence learning has a beneficial impact on employee turnover and satisfaction levels.



PriceWaterhouseCoopers' research documents 20% to 30% improvements in productivity, market speed, and revenue in organizations that attempt systematic AI adoption through comprehensive training.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-advantages-of-ai-enabled-teams">Environmental advantages of AI-enabled teams</h2>



AI training has unforeseen environmental benefits as it makes the work environment more efficient. According to a study in Scientific Reports, the carbon footprint in writing and illustrating work is significantly lower when AI performs it compared to humans. AI software produces 130 to 1,500 times less CO2 equivalent per page of text created than human authors.



In addition, AI-driven remote work functionality significantly reduces environmental impact. Research by Cornell University and Microsoft indicates that remote workers reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to 54% by not commuting daily to offices. Hybrid workers working remotely two to four days a week can reduce their carbon footprint by 11% to 29%.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cumulative-organizational-advantages">Cumulative organizational advantages</h2>



The compounding gains of better mental well-being, reduced turnover, increased productivity, and environmental benefits flow to enterprises from the pairing. McKinsey analysis estimates the long-term AI potential at $4.4 trillion in incremental productivity growth opportunity from business use cases.



As of now, 75% of knowledge workers globally utilize generative AI, mirroring widespread adoption patterns. Organizations that provide organized training and assistance see the most favorable results in productivity, worker satisfaction, and ecological sustainability.



The research overwhelmingly indicates that companies that invest in proper AI education, like that offered through <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a>, establish win-win scenarios where employees are both more empowered and less stressed, and companies enjoy the gains of increased productivity, reduced turnover, and improved mental health outcomes throughout their workforce.



For more on MindStudio's free AI training for companies, visit the website's of MindStudio and Dominnus from the links below.



The research was published across a variety of peer-reviewed journals, including <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a>, <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence</a>, and <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci">Applied Sciences</a>.



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MindStudio.AI: <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.mindstudio.ai</a>



Dominnus: <a href="https://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.dominnus.com</a>

AI agent training boosts mental health and profits

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-natural-solution-to-disease-through-crop-modification">A natural solution to disease through crop modification.</h2>



The agricultural industry stands at a crossroads between productivity and environmental responsibility, and crop modification often carries a negative connotation. While chemical pesticides have long been the go-to solution for crop protection, their harmful effects on ecosystems and human health have prompted scientists to seek alternatives. The recent breakthrough by <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southampton</a> researchers offers a promising path forward through the precise manipulation of plant-associated microbial communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-microbial-partnerships">The science behind microbial partnerships</h2>



Plants naturally harbor diverse ecosystems of bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms that function as biological allies. These microscopic partners contribute to disease resistance, nutrient absorption, and stress tolerance. However, until now, scientists lacked the tools to deliberately reshape these communities to enhance crop protection.



The Southampton team's approach centered on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-plant-microbiomes-the-future-of-crop-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modifying lignin biosynthesis genes in rice plants</a>. This strategic intervention altered the plant's metabolic output, creating conditions that favored beneficial bacterial populations while suppressing harmful ones. The result was a living defense system embedded within the plant itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-global-food-security">Implications for global food security</h2>



The successful demonstration against Xanthomonas oryzae, the pathogen responsible for bacterial blight in rice, represents more than a laboratory achievement. Rice feeds nearly half the world's population, and bacterial blight causes devastating crop losses annually. Traditional control methods rely heavily on pesticides that contaminate soil and water systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-disease-resistance">Looking Beyond Disease Resistance</h2>



While disease protection represents the immediate application, the research framework opens doors to broader agricultural improvements. Future developments could engineer microbiomes to enhance nutrient uptake, reducing dependence on synthetic fertilizers. This dual benefit addresses both crop productivity and environmental sustainability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-forward">The path forward</h2>



As this technology advances from laboratory to field applications, it promises to reshape sustainable agriculture. The ability to program plants with their own biological defense systems could herald a new era where crops protect themselves naturally, reducing chemical inputs while maintaining yields necessary for global food security.



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44335-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Revolutionizing agriculture through microbiome engineering

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4 Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease A natural...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;



"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.



"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;



According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

[sendtonews key="f8fukm28Vz-2491833-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.



Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.



From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;



"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.



Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

[sendtonews key="3UUsNkFOuS-2487333-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.



“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”



The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.



The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.



“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.



Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.



"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.



"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."



"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."



According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.



"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

[sendtonews key="qARzJPSabQ-2270617-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes how Earth is unique in our solar system for its ability to sustain liquid water on its surface. But now, the water cycle is shifting as the climate warms, and scientists must find ways to predict how these changes will affect water availability.



Overall, 96 percent of Earth's water is saltwater, and nearly all of freshwater is found in ice and groundwater. These sources of water are linked as it passes through solid, liquid and gas phases.



In a warmer climate, the water cycle will be transformed. It will be easier for water to evaporate and form clouds, and storms will become more frequent and intense. Some regions will get too much water, while others will be left without enough water. In addition, soil moisture will be lost - which threatens food security.



Scientists are using satellite data from over the last 40 years to track changes that are happening in the water cycle. This will ultimately help us prepare for extreme events and better manage our water resources, according to ESA.



Video Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Tracking changes in Earth's water cycle

[sendtonews key="fxH3eJHEkQ-2010196-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Saturn,-,High,Resolution,3d,Images,Presents,Planets,Of,The

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard Space Flight Center</a> features images of Saturn from NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope. The photographs capture the start of the mysterious "spoke season" on Saturn - when unexplained features appear on its rings. 



According to NASA, both the cause of the spokes and their seasonal variability have yet to be fully explained by planetary scientists.



"Like Earth, Saturn is tilted on its axis and therefore has four seasons, though because of Saturn's much larger orbit, each season lasts approximately seven Earth years. Equinox occurs when the rings are tilted edge-on to the Sun," explains NASA.



"The spokes disappear when it is near summer or winter solstice on Saturn. (When the Sun appears to reach either its highest or lowest latitude in the northern or southern hemisphere of a planet.) As the autumnal equinox of Saturn's northern hemisphere on May 6, 2025, draws near, the spokes are expected to become increasingly prominent and observable."



Experts believe that the spokes may be a product of the planet's variable magnetic field. When magnetic fields interact with solar wind, an electrically charged environment is created. This phenomenon is visible on Earth as the northern lights.&nbsp;



"Scientists think that the smallest, dust-sized icy ring particles can become charged as well, which temporarily levitates those particles above the rest of the larger icy particles and boulders in the rings," says NASA.



The spokes were first observed in the early 1980s by NASA's Voyager mission. Depending on the angle of the rings, the spokes can appear dark or light.



"Thanks to Hubble's OPAL program, which is building an archive of data on the outer solar system planets, we will have longer dedicated time to study Saturn’s spokes this season than ever before," said NASA senior planetary scientist Amy Simon, head of the Hubble Outer Planet Atmospheres Legacy (OPAL) program.



"Despite years of excellent observations by the Cassini mission, the precise beginning and duration of the spoke season is still unpredictable, rather like predicting the first storm during hurricane season."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Mysterious "spoke season" captured on Saturn

[sendtonews key="Ccjk8KEMzv-2550719-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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