<p>Plastics fill <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-bottles-shed-dangerous-fragments-into-drinking-water/">trash</a> cans, roadside ditches, and coastlines. A new peer-reviewed study argues they also form a durable record of how people live, shop, travel, and throw things away.</p>



<p>The United Nations Environment Program (<a href="https://www.unep.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNEP</a>) puts annual plastic production at about 400 million tons, a startling <a href="https://www.unep.org/resources/report/drowning-plastics-marine-litter-and-plastic-waste-vital-graphics" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">estimate</a>. </p>



<p>Lead author Professor John Schofield of the <a href="https://www.york.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of York</a>, also affiliated with <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/">Flinders</a> University, brings an archaeologist’s eye to this modern layer of human debris.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-anthropocene">Understanding the Anthropocene</h2>



<p>The Anthropocene is the name scientists use to describe this new chapter in Earth’s history where humans have become the dominant force shaping the planet. </p>



<p>For most of Earth’s past, natural processes like volcanoes, ice ages, and asteroid impacts drove big changes. </p>



<p>But now, human activities - <a href="https://www.earth.com//news/more-warnings-fossil-fuels-are-causing-climate-health-and-biodiversity-crises/">burning fossil fuels</a>, cutting down forests, building cities, and producing massive amounts of plastic waste - are altering the climate, ecosystems, and even the chemistry of the oceans and atmosphere on a global scale. </p>



<p>Think of it like this - humanity has taken the steering wheel of Earth’s future, for better or worse.</p>



<p>You can see evidence of the Anthropocene everywhere. Rising global temperatures, melting glaciers, and stronger storms show how human-driven climate change affects the weather. </p>



<p>Plastic waste has spread so far that tiny fragments are in the <a href="https://www.earth.com//news/human-plastics-waste-found-deepest-part-mediterranean-ionian-sea-calypso-deep/">deepest parts of the ocean</a> and even inside animals (and people). </p>



<p>We’ve changed the course of rivers, wiped out species, and created new materials that will last thousands of years in the geologic record. </p>



<p>When future scientists dig through Earth’s layers, they’ll spot a sharp line that marks this human age.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plastics-in-the-archaeological-record">Plastics in the archaeological record</h2>



<p>An archaeologist studies the <a href="https://www.earth.com//news/donating-clothes-to-charity-has-a-dark-side-exported-dumped-worsens-waste/">material traces</a> of human activity to understand behavior and change over time. </p>



<p>The case here is simple, everyday objects made of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-plastic-graveyard-uncovered-in-the-deep-mediterranean-sea/">plastic</a> enter the archaeological record the moment they are discarded, and they persist.</p>



<p>The authors describe the Plastic Age as a period that began almost everywhere in the 1950s. </p>



<p>Because it started at roughly the same time across the globe, the layer it leaves behind is unusually synchronized and tightly linked to consumer culture and fossil fuels.</p>



<p>At sea, at least 5.25 trillion pieces of plastic are floating, based on a global <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0111913" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analysis</a>. That gives researchers an immense, if troubling, dataset that stretches from urban rivers to remote gyres.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-archaeological-reading-of-plastics">Archaeological reading of plastics</h2>



<p>Bags, bottles, and fibers can be dated by logos, bar codes, and manufacturing features. Polymers and additives leave fingerprints that tie objects to industries and design choices.</p>



<p>Archaeologists also think in terms of life cycles. An item moves from use to discard, then cultural and natural forces shuffle and break it apart, which explains why plastics pile up far from where people used them.</p>



<p>“Only recently have archaeologists started taking an interest in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-rain-forests-are-trapping-microplastics-from-the-sky/">plastics</a>, and it is vital that they do,” said <a href="https://www.york.ac.uk/archaeology/people/john-schofield/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Schofield</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plastics-as-archaeological-markers">Plastics as archaeological markers</h2>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-environment-day-2025-plastic-pollution-is-choking-our-planet/">Plastics</a> can also serve as time markers in the same way pottery shards or stone tools help date earlier sites. </p>



<p>A soda bottle with a logo change or a supermarket bag tied to a specific decade can lock a layer of soil or sediment into a clear window of time. </p>



<p>These items are what archaeologists call type fossils, objects that anchor material to a defined historical period.</p>



<p>Because plastic objects are mass-produced, their design features and chemical composition often tie directly to industries and even single years of production. </p>



<p>This precision means future archaeologists could build timelines of consumer habits, packaging trends, or technological shifts with far greater accuracy than for many earlier materials.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-landfills-to-lunar-dust">From landfills to lunar dust</h2>



<p>Each year, an estimated 19 to 23 million tons of plastic leak into aquatic ecosystems, according to UNEP, a sobering <a href="https://www.unep.org/topics/chemicals-and-pollution-action/plastic-pollution" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">estimate</a>. </p>



<p>That leakage turns rivers, lakes, and coasts into repositories that future researchers can read.</p>



<p>Archaeological thinking now reaches <a href="https://researchnow.flinders.edu.au/en/publications/plastics-in-outer-space" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space</a> where plastics in insulation blankets, wiring, and protective layers ride on satellites and landers. </p>



<p>As missions end, fragments weather and join orbital debris or fall back toward Earth.</p>



<p>Remote places record these signals in different ways. In soils, microfibers work into layers; in ice, particles get locked into annual bands that track sources and transport.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-defining-plastic-terms">Defining plastic terms</h2>



<p>Scientists use the word microplastics for pieces under about 5 millimeters and nanoplastics for particles below about 1 micrometer. </p>



<p>Size matters, because it controls how pieces travel, where they settle, and what organisms can take them up.</p>



<p>Another useful idea is the technosphere, the total mass of human-made stuff interacting with living systems. Plastics are a major part of that, and their durability gives today’s habits a long tail.</p>



<p>Some researchers also talk about a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41579-019-0308-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastisphere</a>, the communities of microbes that live on plastic surfaces and change how those surfaces sink, float, and move. </p>



<p>These details help archaeologists and ecologists read transport routes and residence times.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-managing-plastic-archive">Managing plastic archive</h2>



<p>Treat the environment as an active archive, not a passive dump. That means recording what enters it while cutting off flows at the moment objects move from use to discard.</p>



<p>Focus on the handoff points where choices are made, like festivals, ports, campuses, and delivery hubs. Small changes at these nodes can shift the pattern of what ends up in soils, waterways, and air.</p>



<p>The ethical question is real. Plastics threaten wildlife and people, yet they also record a chapter in human history that will matter to those who come after us.</p>



<p>The authors suggest documenting without excusing. Catalog the evidence with the same care used at ancient sites, and use what it shows to reduce harm now.</p>



<p>The study is published in <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/cambridge-prisms-plastics/article/archaeological-and-systemic-context-for-the-plastic-age-theorising-the-formation-of-contemporary-and-future-archaeological-records/5FC76AE71E7B5FD53AFAD98BA7830B41" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Cambridge Prisms: Plastics</em></a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Plastics form an important archaeological record of modern human culture, says a new study

Plastics fill trash cans, roadside ditches, and coastlines. A new peer-reviewed study argues they also form a durable record of how people live, shop, travel, and throw things away. The United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) puts annual plastic production at about 400 million tons, a startling estimate. Lead author Professor John Schofield of the University of York, also affiliated with Flinders University, brings an archaeologist’s eye to this modern layer of human debris. Understanding the Anthropocene The Anthropocene is the name scientists use to describe this new...

<p>Daniela de Paulis, an acclaimed interdisciplinary artist and licensed radio operator, poses an intriguing question: what if we received a message from an alien civilization? Currently, de Paulis is the artist in residence at both the <a href="https://www.seti.org/">SETI Institute</a> and the Green Bank Observatory.&nbsp;</p>



<p>To explore this question, she has gathered an international team of specialists ranging from SETI researchers and space scientists to artists for her newest endeavor, <a href="https://danieladepaulis.com/project/a-sign-in-space/">A Sign in Space</a>.</p>



<p>A Sign in Space is a groundbreaking global theatre project that will simulate the process of receiving, decoding, and interpreting an alien message. The project emphasizes the importance of worldwide cooperation, drawing on expertise from many areas to facilitate a discussion around SETI, space research, and society that transcends cultures.</p>



<h2 id="h-bringing-the-world-together-for-first-alien-contact">Bringing the world together for first alien contact</h2>



<p>“Throughout history, humanity has searched for meaning in powerful and transformative phenomena. Receiving a message from an extraterrestrial civilization would be a profoundly transformational experience for all humankind," said de Paulis.</p>



<p>"A Sign in Space offers the unprecedented opportunity to tangibly rehearse and prepare for this scenario through global collaboration, fostering an open-ended search for meaning across all cultures and disciplines.”</p>



<p>As part of this grand experiment, the European Space Agency's <a href="https://sci.esa.int/web/mars/-/46475-trace-gas-orbiter">ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter</a> (TGO), currently orbiting Mars, will transmit an encoded message to Earth on May 24, 2023. This will simulate the experience of receiving a signal from an alien civilization.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The exact content of this encoded message, crafted by de Paulis and her team, remains a secret to the public, allowing them to take part in the decryption and interpretation process.</p>



<h2 id="h-the-when-where-and-how-of-this-experiment">The when, where, and how of this experiment</h2>



<p>Three renowned radio astronomy observatories stationed globally will receive this message. These include the Allen Telescope Array (ATA) at the SETI Institute, the Robert C. Byrd Green Bank Telescope (GBT) at the Green Bank Observatory, and the Medicina Radio Astronomical Station observatory managed by the Italian National Institute for Astrophysics (INAF).</p>



<p>On May 24 at 19:00 UTC / 12:00 pm PDT, the encoded message will begin its journey from the ExoMars Orbiter towards Earth, taking 16 minutes to arrive. To involve the public in this historic event, the SETI Institute will host a live stream on social media featuring interviews with key team members, including scientists, engineers, artists, and more, streaming live from around the globe, including the control rooms of ATA, GBT, and Medicina.</p>



<p>Dr. Wael Farah, ATA project scientist, emphasized the importance of this experiment. “This experiment is an opportunity for the world to learn how the SETI community, in all its diversity, will work together to receive, process, analyze, and understand the meaning of a potential extraterrestrial signal. More than astronomy, communicating with ET will require a breadth of knowledge. With 'A Sign in Space,' we hope to make the initial steps towards bringing a community together to meet this challenge.”</p>



<h2 id="h-next-step-after-message-is-received">Next step after message is received</h2>



<p>Once the observatories receive the signal, they will process it and then make it available for public decoding. The processed data will be securely stored by the SETI Institute in collaboration with the Breakthrough Listen Open Data Archive and Filecoin, the world's largest decentralized storage network. This safeguards the data's preservation and accessibility for further analysis and decoding efforts.</p>



<p>Stefaan Verveat, head of Network Growth at Protocol Labs, the company behind Filecoin, is enthusiastic about the partnership. “We’re thrilled to partner with SETI on this groundbreaking project. Our decentralized data storage solutions are ideally suited for the secure and reliable storage of the vast amounts of data generated by this project.”</p>



<p>People working to decode and interpret the message can join the conversation on the A Sign in Space Discord server. They can also submit their findings, insights, and artistic and scientific contributions through a submission form available on the project's website.</p>



<h2 id="h-series-of-public-discussions-scheduled">Series of public discussions scheduled</h2>



<p>In the weeks following the transmission, the A Sign in Space team plans to host a series of public discussions via Zoom. These discussions will delve into the societal implications of detecting a signal from an alien civilization. These conversations are set to take place over a period of 6-8 weeks post-transmission.</p>



<p>With the ambitious A Sign in Space project, Daniela de Paulis and her team are not only pushing the boundaries of art and science, but also encouraging us to reimagine our place in the universe and how we might one day communicate with alien civilizations.&nbsp;</p>



<p>By fostering a spirit of global collaboration and open-minded inquiry, the project aims to prepare us for a potentially profound transformative experience: receiving a message from an extraterrestrial intelligence.</p>



<p>The public is warmly invited to join this journey into the unknown. More details about the project, along with a schedule of upcoming events and links for registration, can be found on the A Sign in Space website. Whether you're a scientist, artist, or simply a curious individual, your insights and perspectives are most welcome in this extraordinary endeavor to explore the cosmic unknown.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-humanity-s-search-for-extraterrestrial-life">More about humanity’s search for extraterrestrial life</h2>



<p>The search for extraterrestrial life, often abbreviated as SETI (Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence), is a fascinating area of scientific inquiry that aims to answer one of humanity's oldest questions: Are we alone in the universe?</p>



<p>The search for extraterrestrial life spans multiple scientific disciplines, including astronomy, biology, and even anthropology. It is guided by the principles of astrobiology, which is the study of the origin, evolution, and future of life in the universe.</p>



<p>There are several key methodologies used in the search for extraterrestrial life:</p>



<h3 id="h-radio-and-optical-seti">Radio and Optical SETI&nbsp;</h3>



<p>This is perhaps the most well-known aspect of the search for alien life. Scientists use radio and optical telescopes to search for signals that could potentially be of artificial, non-human origin. The idea is based on the assumption that any advanced civilization would eventually develop technology that could broadcast their presence, intentionally or not, through radio or light waves.</p>



<h3 id="h-astrobiology-and-the-search-for-biosignatures">Astrobiology and the Search for Biosignatures&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Not all searches for alien life look for advanced civilizations. Astrobiology, for instance, primarily looks for "biosignatures" — evidence of life, not necessarily intelligent — on other planets and moons. These biosignatures can be chemical (such as the presence of certain gases like oxygen in a planet's atmosphere) or physical (such as the presence of liquid water, thought to be necessary for life as we know it).</p>



<h3 id="h-exoplanet-research">Exoplanet Research&nbsp;</h3>



<p>This is closely linked with the search for biosignatures. Thanks to advancements in technology, astronomers have detected thousands of exoplanets — planets outside our solar system — many of which are in the habitable zone of their star, where conditions might be just right for liquid water and, potentially, life.</p>



<h3 id="h-interstellar-messaging">Interstellar Messaging&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Some efforts have been made to send messages to potential extraterrestrial civilizations. The most famous of these is probably the Arecibo message, a binary-encoded message broadcast into space in 1974 that included basic information about humanity and Earth.</p>



<p>It's important to note that no definitive evidence of extraterrestrial life has been found. The search for alien life is a long-term scientific endeavor, one that could take centuries or more.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, discoveries like the abundance of potentially habitable exoplanets and tantalizing but inconclusive hints of life on planets like Mars mean that the search for extraterrestrial life remains a vibrant and exciting field of research.</p>



<p><strong>—-</strong></p>



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When aliens call, how will Earth respond? New project aims to find out

Daniela de Paulis, an acclaimed interdisciplinary artist and licensed radio...

<p>It's generally assumed that drought spells disaster for trees. But in a surprising revelation, recent research shows that certain trees may indeed benefit from a record-breaking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-collapse-of-mayan-civilization-was-not-caused-by-drought/">drought</a>. This curious phenomenon, which defies expectations, is the subject of a study in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/13652486"><em>Global Change Biology</em></a>.</p>



<p>A team of scientists led by Professor Joan Dudney from <a href="https://www.ucsb.edu/">UC Santa Barbara</a> delved into how whitebark pine, an endangered tree species, responded to droughts over the past century. This particular tree grows in harsh, chilly climates, often found at high altitudes and latitudes.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Professor Dudney's team discovered that in these hostile conditions, drought could, quite unexpectedly, provide an advantage to the trees by extending their growing season.</p>



<h2 id="h-important-insights-will-help-guide-climate-change-initiatives">Important insights will help guide climate change initiatives</h2>



<p>What does this mean for the future? This research offers crucial insight into the locations most vulnerable to the threats of extreme drought and how different species and ecosystems will likely react to climate change.</p>



<p>Trees encounter several obstacles to their growth. Cold temperatures, insufficient sunlight, and lack of water and nutrients can all hinder a tree's growth. The distinction between energy-limited and water-limited systems, where trees struggle to grow due to either freezing conditions or drought, respectively, is of particular importance.</p>



<p>Over the years, numerous tree species have adapted to these harsh conditions, showing broadly similar responses. When faced with extreme weather, trees typically scale back on growth-related activities, such as photosynthesis and nutrient uptake, essentially going into survival mode until conditions improve.</p>



<p>"Intriguingly, the shift from energy-limited to water-limited growth can result in quite unexpected outcomes," said Professor Dudney. "In severe, energy-limited climates, extreme drought can actually amplify growth and productivity, even in a place like California."</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted</h2>



<p>Dudney's team conducted thorough research by collecting 800 tree core samples from whitebark pine across the Sierra Nevada. They compared the tree rings to historical climate records from 1900 to 2018, a period encompassing three extreme droughts: 1959-61, 1976-77, and 2012-15.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Their meticulous record-keeping highlighted where tree growth and temperature shared a positive relationship, and where it was negative.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



<p>The findings were startling. The experts observed a distinct change in growth during periods of drought when the average maximum temperature hovered around 8.4° Celsius (47.1° Fahrenheit) from October to May. Above this temperature threshold, extreme drought stunted growth and photosynthesis. But below it, drought seemed to spur the trees to grow more.</p>



<p>"The key question is, 'how long is the growing season?'" said Dudney. Trees in colder climates with heavier snowpack usually face shorter growing seasons, thus limiting their growth. Even during intense droughts, many trees growing in these extreme environments did not exhibit severe water stress.</p>



<p>This discovery surprised the research team, several of whom had witnessed first-hand the unprecedented tree death that occurred at slightly lower elevations in the Sierra Nevada.</p>



<p>Professor Dudney wondered whether the impact of drought was confined to the main trunk or if it affected the entire tree. To answer this question, the team turned to chemistry.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-uncertain-future-for-the-whitebark-pine">Uncertain future for the whitebark pine</h2>



<p>By examining the different isotopes of carbon found in the tree's tissues, such as leaves and needles, they could estimate the level of water stress the tree experienced during droughts. This proved especially useful, as the whitebark pine retains its needles for approximately eight years, providing a wealth of data across both drought and non-drought years.</p>



<p>What they found was that the entire tree, from trunk growth and needle growth to photosynthesis and nutrient cycling, was affected by the tipping point between water-limited and energy-limited systems.</p>



<p>The future of whitebark pine is fraught with uncertainty. The species, recently categorized as threatened under the Endangered Species Act, confronts numerous challenges, including disease, pine beetle infestation, and disturbances from altered fire regimes.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This research underscores that drought and warming are likely to exacerbate these threats in water-limited regions. However, in energy-limited environments, warming could actually aid in their growth.</p>



<p>"This research can guide us towards more precise conservation strategies to help restore this historically widespread tree species," Dudney stated, highlighting the critical relevance of their findings. The habitat of whitebark pine spans an impressive region, from California to British Columbia, and east to Wyoming.</p>



<h2 id="h-research-has-global-implications">Research has global implications</h2>



<p>The implications of this research extend far beyond just the whitebark pine. Approximately 21% of the world's forests are energy-limited, with an even higher percentage classified as water-limited. Therefore, it's likely that transitions between these two climate regimes occur globally.</p>



<p>This transition also appears to influence nitrogen cycling. Trees in water-limited environments seemed to rely less on symbiotic fungi for nitrogen, which is indispensable for tree growth in harsh, energy-limited environments.</p>



<p>"Droughts are causing widespread tree mortality worldwide, which can accelerate global warming," said Professor Dudney.</p>



<p>Understanding the multifaceted ways trees react to drought is a critical part of forecasting which ecosystems are most vulnerable to climate change. This knowledge will also guide us in crafting more focused strategies to protect our invaluable forests. After all, understanding how some trees grow despite adversity is a lesson in survival - not just for the trees, but for our planet too.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-climate-change-and-trees">More about climate change and trees</h2>



<p>Climate change has significant impacts on trees and forests around the world. With rising temperatures and shifting precipitation patterns, trees are being forced to adapt to new and challenging conditions, while forests face threats of altered habitats, biodiversity loss, and changes in carbon storage capacity.</p>



<p>Rising temperatures are one of the most direct effects of climate change. While it might seem that warmer weather would be beneficial for plant growth, it's not that simple.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Many trees are adapted to specific temperature ranges, and a sudden shift can result in stress and even death for those that can't adapt quickly enough. This is particularly true for species in high altitudes and latitudes, which are adapted to cold environments and may struggle with even a slight increase in temperature.</p>



<p>Additionally, warmer temperatures can lead to more frequent and severe heatwaves, which can cause water stress and increase susceptibility to pests and diseases.</p>



<p>Changes in precipitation patterns are another major impact of climate change on trees and forests. Some areas are experiencing increased rainfall, leading to flooding and waterlogged soils, while others are becoming drier, leading to drought.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Both situations can be detrimental to trees. Flooding can suffocate tree roots and promote disease, while drought can reduce growth and increase mortality. Drought can also make trees more susceptible to pests and wildfires.</p>



<h3 id="h-pests-and-diseases-broaden-their-range">Pests and diseases broaden their range</h3>



<p>The impact of climate change on pests and diseases is a growing concern. Warmer temperatures can allow pests to expand their range and increase their population size. It can also accelerate the lifecycle of pests and diseases, allowing them to reproduce more quickly. This, coupled with trees weakened by heat and drought stress, can lead to outbreaks that can devastate entire forests.</p>



<p>Wildfires, too, are becoming more frequent and severe due to climate change. Warmer, drier conditions increase the risk of fire, and once a fire starts, it can spread more quickly and burn more intensely.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Forests that are adapted to occasional fires may struggle to recover from these intense burns, leading to a loss of tree cover and biodiversity.</p>



<p>Lastly, climate change can also impact the role of forests as carbon sinks. Trees absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere as they grow, helping to mitigate climate change.&nbsp;</p>



<p>But as forests are stressed, damaged, and destroyed by the impacts of climate change, their capacity to store carbon is reduced. This can create a feedback loop, where the loss of forests exacerbates climate change, leading to further forest loss.</p>



<p>In conclusion, climate change poses a major threat to trees and forests worldwide. However, understanding these impacts and how different tree species and forest ecosystems respond to them is crucial for developing strategies to conserve and manage our forests in a changing climate.</p>



<p><strong>—-</strong></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Droughts can actually benefit trees in certain circumstances

It's generally assumed that drought spells disaster for trees. But...

<p>For decades, scientists have relied on the amount of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/groundbreaking-technique-turns-rotting-seaweed-into-biofuels/">seaweed</a> at the ocean’s surface as an indicator for estimating the health of the coral reefs below. However, according to a new global study led by the <a href="https://www.ubc.ca/">University of British Columbia</a> (UBC), such an approach has been misleading, and may have even hidden signs of reef stress.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The findings suggest that scientists should find new ways to determine whether and to what extent human activity is harming coral reefs.</p>



<p>Seaweed belongs to a group of organisms known as macroalgae that usually float on the ocean’s surface, covering coral reefs. The extent and features of macroalgae are relatively easy and quick to measure, and have long served as a proxy to assess reef health. Since the 1970s, experts have assumed that local human impacts increase macroalgae, while damaging the reefs below.</p>



<p>However, by examining data from over 1,200 sites in the Indian and Pacific Oceans during a 16- year period, the UBC researchers found that the previous assumptions may have been faulty. For instance, macroalgae covering depends heavily on the species growing in particular regions. While <em>Sargassum</em> is unlikely to grow in water contaminated by agricultural runoff, a species such as <em>Halimeda </em>will thrive.</p>



<p>Thus, using macroalgae cover as an indicator of local human impacts can actually obscure how much anthropogenic actions are damaging coral reefs, and cause scientist to misidentify the reefs that are most in need of intervention.</p>



<p>“Despite evidence that macroalgae respond to local stressors in diverse ways, there have been few efforts to evaluate relationships between specific macroalgae taxa and local human-driven disturbance. The convention to use percent cover of macroalgae as an indication of local human disturbance therefore likely obscures signatures of local anthropogenic threats to reefs," said the researchers.</p>



<p>"Our limited understanding of relationships between human disturbance, macroalgae taxa, and their responses to human disturbances impedes the ability to diagnose and respond appropriately to these threats."</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/gcb.16694"><em>Global Change Biology</em></a>.</p>



<h2 id="h-human-impacts-on-coral-reefs">Human impacts on coral reefs</h2>



<p>Human activities have profound impacts on coral reefs. These activities largely exacerbate the natural threats that reefs face, causing more frequent and severe damages. Here are the key ways humans impact coral reefs:</p>



<h3 id="h-climate-change">Climate Change</h3>



<p>Human-induced climate change is one of the most significant threats to coral reefs. The burning of fossil fuels and deforestation have led to an increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, causing global warming and ocean acidification. This results in coral bleaching events and impedes coral growth, respectively.</p>



<h3 id="h-pollution">Pollution</h3>



<p>Coastal development, industrial activities, and agricultural runoff can increase the amount of sediment, nutrients, and pollutants in the water, which can smother coral reefs or lead to destructive algal blooms.</p>



<h3 id="h-overfishing-and-destructive-fishing-practices">Overfishing and Destructive Fishing Practices</h3>



<p>Overfishing can disrupt the balance of reef ecosystems, removing key species that help control algal growth. Destructive fishing practices, like blast fishing or cyanide fishing, can directly destroy coral reefs.</p>



<h3 id="h-unsustainable-tourism">Unsustainable Tourism</h3>



<p>While eco-tourism can bring attention and resources to the conservation of coral reefs, irresponsible practices can harm them. Damage can be done through direct physical damage from anchors or divers and indirect impacts like increased waste and pollution.</p>



<h3 id="h-coastal-development">Coastal Development</h3>



<p>Construction along coastlines can lead to increased sediment in the water, which can smother corals. Coastal development can also result in the destruction of mangroves and sea grass beds, which serve as important buffer zones that reduce the amount of sediment and pollutants reaching coral reefs.</p>



<h3 id="h-coral-mining">Coral Mining</h3>



<p>Coral reefs are often mined for limestone, used in construction, and for coral rock, used in souvenir industry. This practice directly removes the reef.</p>



<h3 id="h-introduction-of-invasive-species">Introduction of Invasive Species</h3>



<p>Human activities can unintentionally introduce non-native species to reef environments. These invasive species can outcompete native species for resources, disrupt local ecosystems, and cause significant harm to the reefs.</p>



<h2 id="h-can-these-human-impacts-be-reduced">Can these human impacts be reduced?</h2>



<p>The impact of human activities on coral reefs can be mitigated with various strategies and efforts. Here are some key ones:</p>



<h3 id="h-policy-changes">Policy Changes</h3>



<p>Government regulation can play a critical role in coral reef conservation. Policies can regulate fishing to prevent overfishing and destructive practices, enforce pollution controls to maintain water quality, manage coastal development to reduce habitat destruction, and encourage renewable energy and other climate change mitigation strategies.</p>



<h3 id="h-education-and-public-awareness">Education and Public Awareness</h3>



<p>Education can help the general public understand the value of coral reefs and the threats they face, inspiring individuals to adopt practices that support reef health. This can include understanding safe and sustainable tourism practices, supporting sustainable seafood choices, and reducing carbon footprints.</p>



<h3 id="h-sustainable-practices">Sustainable Practices</h3>



<p>Businesses and industries can adopt sustainable practices to reduce their impact on coral reefs. This can include responsible waste management, sustainable sourcing and supply chain management, and transition to renewable energy sources.</p>



<h3 id="h-direct-action-and-restoration">Direct Action and Restoration</h3>



<p>Conservation groups and researchers are working on reef restoration initiatives. This includes projects that actively restore damaged reefs, such as coral gardening and the use of artificial reefs.</p>



<h3 id="h-scientific-research">Scientific Research</h3>



<p>Continued research is critical to understanding coral reef ecosystems, the threats they face, and the most effective methods for their conservation.</p>



<h3 id="h-climate-change-mitigation">Climate Change Mitigation</h3>



<p>Given the impact of climate change on coral reefs, efforts to mitigate climate change are critical. This includes reducing greenhouse gas emissions, adopting renewable energy sources, and promoting carbon sequestration efforts.</p>



<h3 id="h-marine-protected-areas">Marine Protected Areas</h3>



<p>Establishing and enforcing marine protected areas (MPAs) can provide a refuge for coral reefs and the species that inhabit them. MPAs can help maintain biodiversity, prevent overfishing, and provide areas for reefs to recover from disturbances.</p>



<p>These strategies together can significantly reduce the human impact on coral reefs. The challenge is substantial but so too is the importance of these unique and invaluable ecosystems.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Seaweed can mislead scientists about reef health

For decades, scientists have relied on the amount of seaweed...

<p>New research has shed light on an unforeseen benefit of the 1987 global agreement, known as the Montreal Protocol, which aimed to protect the ozone layer. The study reveals that this international accord may have delayed the inaugural ice-free <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/arctic-sea-ice-algae-heavily-contaminated-with-microplastics/">Arctic</a> summer by up to 15 years, with the timeline now projected for mid-century.</p>



<p>The Montreal Protocol was a landmark agreement, ratified by every member of the United Nations. It focused on regulating nearly 100 synthetic chemicals, identified as ozone-depleting substances (ODSs). These chemicals were largely developed during the 20th century for industrial applications such as refrigerants and propellants, the most well-known being chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs.</p>



<p>Despite the primary objective being the conservation of the ozone layer - a shield protecting us from the sun's harmful ultraviolet radiation - the Montreal Protocol had a broader impact. The ODSs in focus also double as potent greenhouse gases, which means that the agreement inadvertently played a role in mitigating global warming.</p>



<p>The recently conducted study, backed by the US National Science Foundation, unveiled some astonishing insights about this unforeseen impact. The research team - comprising scientists from UC Santa Cruz, Columbia University, and the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> - found that for every 1,000 tons of ODS emissions prevented, approximately seven square kilometers of Arctic sea ice were saved.</p>



<h2 id="h-how-odss-impact-the-environment">How ODSs impact the environment</h2>



<p>Dr. Mark England, a senior research fellow at the University of Exeter under the Royal Commission for the Exhibition of 1851, clarified the influence of ODSs on our environment.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“While ODSs aren’t as abundant as other greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, they can have a real impact on global warming,” said Dr. England. “ODSs have particularly powerful effects in the Arctic, and they played a major role in driving Arctic climate change in the second half of the 20th Century.”</p>



<p>Dr. England also noted that while curbing these impacts was not the primary aim of the Montreal Protocol, it turned out to be a "fantastic by-product." He said that despite some critics forecasting negative outcomes from the Protocol, these mostly did not materialize. Instead, the treaty has delivered numerous unexpected climate benefits.</p>



<h2 id="h-first-ice-free-arctic-summer-will-be-a-pivotal-moment">First ice-free Arctic summer will be a pivotal moment</h2>



<p>Taking a similar stance, Professor Lorenzo Polvani from Columbia University emphasized the significance of the first ice-free Arctic summer - a pivotal moment in the narrative of climate change.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Our findings clearly demonstrate that the Montreal Protocol has been a very powerful climate protection treaty, and has done much more than healing the ozone hole over the South Pole,” said Professor Polvani. “Its effects are being felt all over the world, especially in the Arctic.”</p>



<p>The research utilized cutting-edge climate model simulations to draw these conclusions. It emphasized that the protection of the ozone layer did not contribute to the preservation of the Arctic sea ice. Instead, the primary factor was the greenhouse gas role played by the ODSs.</p>



<p>Post the Montreal Protocol, the atmospheric concentrations of ODSs have been on the decline since the mid-1990s. This successful effort has led to the first signs of the ozone layer's healing process. Nonetheless, a small rise in ODS concentrations was recorded between 2010 and 2020, prompting Dr. England to emphasize that vigilance remains crucial.</p>



<p>The study's findings, highlighting the unexpected climate benefits of the Montreal Protocol, are published in the prestigious journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2211432120"><em>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-ozone-layer">More about the ozone layer</h2>



<p>The ozone layer is a region of the Earth's stratosphere that contains a high concentration of ozone (O3) molecules. It plays a vital role in protecting life on Earth by absorbing the majority of the Sun's harmful ultraviolet-B (UV-B) radiation.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Without this protective shield, humans and other organisms could be subjected to harmful levels of UV radiation, potentially causing skin cancer, cataracts, weakened immune systems, and damaging crops and marine ecosystems.</p>



<h3 id="h-depletion-of-the-ozone-layer">Depletion of the ozone layer&nbsp;</h3>



<p>However, in the mid-20th century, scientists discovered that the ozone layer was depleting, primarily over the Antarctic, creating what is commonly known as the "ozone hole." The primary culprits were man-made chemicals, particularly chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, carbon tetrachloride, and methyl chloroform.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These chemicals were widely used in air conditioners, refrigerators, aerosol propellants, fire extinguishers, and in various industrial processes. Once released into the atmosphere, they could stay there for a long time, slowly rising to the stratosphere where they could be broken down by solar radiation, releasing chlorine and bromine atoms, which could then catalyze the destruction of ozone.</p>



<h3 id="h-the-1987-montreal-protocol">The 1987 Montreal Protocol</h3>



<p>Concern over this growing environmental issue led to the establishment of the 1987 Montreal Protocol. This international treaty was designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production and consumption of these ozone-depleting substances (ODSs).&nbsp;</p>



<p>The Montreal Protocol was remarkable in the broad global consensus it achieved; it is the first treaty in the history of the United Nations to achieve universal ratification, with all 198 UN member countries signing on.</p>



<p>Since its implementation, the Montreal Protocol has been incredibly successful. It has resulted in the phase-out of 99% of ODSs globally. According to a 2018 scientific assessment by the UN, the ozone layer is recovering and the Antarctic ozone hole is expected to gradually close, returning to 1980 levels in the 2060s.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This assessment also indicates that the Protocol will have prevented 2 million cases of skin cancer annually by 2030, averted damage to human eyes and immune systems, and protected wildlife and agriculture.</p>



<h3 id="h-inadvertent-positive-consequences">Inadvertent positive consequences</h3>



<p>Furthermore, because many ODSs are also potent greenhouse gases, the Montreal Protocol has inadvertently mitigated some climate change. Recent studies have suggested that the Montreal Protocol's controls on ODSs have avoided a significant amount of global warming, potentially more than any other measure taken so far.</p>



<p>However, despite these successes, challenges remain. Some ODSs continue to be emitted, either from existing equipment and products or from certain exempted uses. Furthermore, some substances that replace ODSs, while not depleting the ozone layer, are potent greenhouse gases.&nbsp;</p>



<p>In response, the Montreal Protocol was amended in 2016 (the Kigali Amendment) to include hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), which are used as replacements for CFCs but contribute to global warming.</p>



<p>In conclusion, the 1987 Montreal Protocol stands as a successful example of global cooperation in response to a planetary environmental threat. The continued vigilance and cooperation of the international community will be critical in ensuring the full recovery of the ozone layer and the successful management of ODSs and their substitutes.</p>



<p><em>—--</em></p>



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1987 ozone treaty had an unexpected benefit for the environment

New research has shed light on an unforeseen benefit of...

<p>The specter of a dangerously hot future awaits more than a fifth of the global population by 2100, according to compelling new research. This warning comes despite pledges made under the Paris Agreement to maintain global warming well below 2°C when compared to pre-industrial levels.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Researchers fear that existing climate policies may fail to curb the rising mercury and lead to an average global temperature increase of 2.7°C by the century's close.</p>



<p>This groundbreaking study, a collaborative effort of the Global Systems Institute at the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a>, Earth Commission, and Nanjing University, presents a sobering picture of what such a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/temperature-changes-negatively-impact-bumblebees/">temperature</a> increase could mean for humanity.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted</h2>



<p>In essence, the researchers studied the impact of this warming on the number of people living outside the “climate niche” - a term describing the conditions under which our species has thrived.</p>



<p>The study reveals that approximately 60 million people are currently exposed to dangerously high heat levels, defined as an average temperature of 29°C or higher. Alarmingly, should global warming reach 2.7°C, this figure is projected to swell to two billion. This represents a staggering 22% of the projected population by 2100.</p>



<p>However, amidst the grim statistics, the paper also underscores the significant potential of resolute climate policy to mitigate the human costs and inequities of climate change.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-sticking-to-climate-policy-can-make-a-huge-impact">Sticking to climate policy can make a huge impact</h2>



<p>By implementing more stringent policies that limit global warming to 1.5°C, we could significantly reduce the number of people exposed to dangerous heat levels - saving a sixth of humanity from this fate compared to a scenario of 2.7°C warming.</p>



<p>The team went on to highlight the climate crisis's inherent inequity. They found that the lifetime emissions of merely 3.5 average global citizens today, or just 1.2 US citizens, could expose one future person to dangerous heat.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This stark reality gains a further dimension when considering that the regions where these future heat-exposed individuals will reside typically emit only about half of the global average today.</p>



<p>Worst-case scenarios of 3.6°C or even 4.4°C global warming could push half the world's population outside the climate niche, an existential risk that researchers are urging us to avoid.</p>



<p>“The costs of global warming are often expressed in financial terms, but our study highlights the phenomenal human cost of failing to tackle the climate emergency,” said Professor Tim Lenton, director of the Global Systems Institute.</p>



<p>“For every 0.1°C of warming above present levels, about 140 million more people will be exposed to dangerous heat. This reveals both the scale of the problem and the importance of decisive action to reduce carbon emissions. Limiting global warming to 1.5°C rather than 2.7°C would mean five times fewer people in 2100 being exposed to dangerous heat.”</p>



<h2 id="h-defining-the-human-niche">Defining the human “niche”</h2>



<p>In order to better understand this crisis, the researchers defined the human "niche." Historically, human population density has peaked in areas with an average temperature of about 13°C, and to a lesser extent, 27°C - typically monsoon climates such as those found in South Asia. In line with this, wealth (as measured by GDP), along with crop and livestock density, follows a similar pattern.</p>



<p>Yet, as less than 1% of humanity currently lives in places of dangerous heat exposure, the study shockingly shows that climate change has already forced 9% of the global population (more than 600 million people) out of the niche.</p>



<p>“Most of these people lived near the cooler 13°C peak of the niche and are now in the ‘middle ground’ between the two peaks. While not dangerously hot, these conditions tend to be much drier and have not historically supported dense human populations,” explained Professor Chi Xu of Nanjing University.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Meanwhile, the vast majority of people projected to be pushed outside the niche due to future warming will face dangerous heat. Such high temperatures have been linked to a plethora of problems, including increased mortality, decreased labor productivity, impaired learning, adverse pregnancy outcomes, reduced crop yield, escalated conflict, and the spread of infectious diseases.”</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



<p>The study also suggests that while climate change may render some cooler places more habitable, population growth is expected to spike in regions threatened by dangerous heat, notably India and Nigeria.</p>



<p>In a deep dive into the specifics, the research revealed that exposure to dangerous heat begins to escalate dramatically at 1.2°C above current global warming, increasing by approximately 140 million people for every additional 0.1°C of warming.</p>



<p>With a projected global population of 9.5 billion people, the numbers are even more concerning. At 2.7°C of global warming, India is set to bear the brunt, with more than 600 million people exposed to dangerous heat. If this warming can be limited to 1.5°C, this number could be drastically reduced to around 90 million.</p>



<p>Similarly, Nigeria would have the second-largest heat-exposed population at 2.7°C of global warming, with over 300 million people at risk. Reducing warming to 1.5°C would see this number decline to less than 40 million.</p>



<p>Even at this stage, "hotspots" of dangerous temperatures are apparent in India and Nigeria. If the globe warms by 2.7°C, nearly 100% of some countries, including Burkina Faso and Mali, will experience dangerously hot conditions. Brazil, despite having almost no areas exposed at 1.5°C, would have the largest land area exposed to dangerous heat at 2.7°C. Australia and India would also see massive increases in areas exposed to such conditions.</p>



<h2 id="h-avoiding-crisis-through-rapid-action">Avoiding crisis through rapid action</h2>



<p>Collaborating researchers from the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research, the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, and the Universities of Washington, North Carolina State, Aarhus and Wageningen stress that these dire consequences can be avoided through rapid action to cut greenhouse gas emissions.</p>



<p>Reflecting on the motivation behind their study, Professor Marten Scheffer, of Wageningen University, stated, “We were triggered by the fact that the economic costs of carbon emissions hardly reflect the impact on human wellbeing. Our calculations now help bridge this gap and should stimulate asking new, unorthodox questions about justice.”</p>



<p>The study's findings offer valuable insights into the racialized nature of projected climate impacts. Ashish Ghadiali, of Exeter’s Global Systems Institute, said, “These findings from the leading edge of Earth systems science should inspire a policy sea-change in thinking around the urgency of decarbonization efforts, as well as in the value of massively up-shifting global investment into the frontlines of climate vulnerability.”</p>



<h2 id="h-recommendations-from-the-research-team">Recommendations from the research team</h2>



<p>Funded by the <a href="https://www.opensocietyfoundations.org/">Open Society Foundations</a>, this research also serves as a cornerstone for the Global Commons Alliance through the Earth Commission.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Wendy Broadgate, Executive Director of the Earth Commission at Future Earth, remarked, “We are already seeing effects of dangerous heat levels on people in different parts of the world today. This will only accelerate unless we take immediate and decisive action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.”</p>



<p>The Global Systems Institute at the University of Exeter is keen to identify "positive tipping points" to expedite action against climate change. A recent report from the institute highlighted three "super-leverage points" that could trigger a cascade of decarbonization.</p>



<p>The researchers have made their findings available in a paper titled "Quantifying the Human Cost of Global Warming," published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41893-023-01132-6"><em>Nature Sustainability</em></a>. This comprehensive research not only highlights the human cost of global warming but also stresses the urgent need for decisive climate policy to avert a grim future.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-climate-change-and-the-paris-agreement">More about climate change and the Paris Agreement</h2>



<p>Climate change refers to the long-term changes in temperature and typical weather patterns around the world. It's primarily driven by human activities that release greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, leading to a warming effect known as global warming. These activities include burning fossil fuels like coal and oil, deforestation, and industrial processes.</p>



<p>This global warming has far-reaching effects on the Earth's climate systems, leading to more intense and frequent heatwaves, rising sea levels due to melting ice caps, increased frequency and severity of natural disasters like storms and wildfires, and significant disruption to ecosystems and agriculture.</p>



<h3 id="h-what-the-paris-agreement-hopes-to-accomplish">What the Paris Agreement hopes to accomplish&nbsp;</h3>



<p>The Paris Agreement is an international treaty designed to address these challenges. It was adopted by 196 Parties at COP 21 in Paris on 12 December 2015 and entered into force on 4 November 2016. Its goal is to limit global warming to well below 2, preferably to 1.5 degrees Celsius, compared to pre-industrial levels.</p>



<p>This goal was established in response to scientific consensus that a global warming of 2 degrees Celsius would have catastrophic impacts on the planet, including severe and potentially irreversible changes to weather patterns, ecosystems, and biodiversity.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The lower goal of 1.5 degrees was included in recognition of the fact that even 2 degrees of warming could have serious consequences, particularly for vulnerable populations such as small island nations.</p>



<h3 id="h-how-to-achieve-the-paris-agreements-goals">How to achieve the Paris Agreements goals&nbsp;</h3>



<p>To achieve this goal, countries that are party to the Paris Agreement have made Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), which are their own individual commitments to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The Agreement also includes provisions for monitoring, reporting, and ratcheting up these commitments over time, to ensure that the global response to climate change continues to strengthen in the coming decades.</p>



<p>Furthermore, the Paris Agreement acknowledges the need for global cooperation in other areas, such as climate change adaptation, financial flows, technology transfer, and capacity building. This recognizes that some countries, particularly developing nations, will require support to both reduce their emissions and cope with the impacts of climate change.</p>



<p>However, despite the ambitions of the Paris Agreement, current pledges under the agreement are not yet enough to limit global warming to well below 2 degrees. As such, the Agreement includes mechanisms to increase the ambition of NDCs over time. Yet, significant action is needed to meet these goals and effectively mitigate the impacts of climate change.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Limiting global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius would save billions of lives

The specter of a dangerously hot future awaits more than...

<p>Approximately 252 million years in the past, our Earth was gripped by a cataclysmic event of mass extinction so severe it's now referred to as "the Great Dying." Vast volcanic eruptions ignited an unparalleled climate shift, leading to the extinction of 90% of all species, thus setting the stage for the era of the dinosaurs.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This catastrophic event, however, was not a sudden occurrence. Instead, the Great Dying stretched over the course of nearly a million years, marking the end of the Permian period with a drawn-out farewell.</p>



<p>During this prolonged extinction event, a tiger-sized, saber-toothed creature named Inostrancevia symbolized the struggle for survival in the face of the Earth's drastically shifting environments.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The fossil record reveals a recent discovery that this creature embarked on a 7,000-mile migration across the supercontinent Pangaea, establishing its presence in a far-off ecosystem that had lost its apex predators. Yet, despite its monumental journey, Inostrancevia was also eventually doomed to extinction.</p>



<p>"All the big top predators in the late Permian in South Africa went extinct well before the end-Permian mass extinction. We learned that this vacancy in the niche was occupied, for a brief period, by Inostrancevia," said Pia Viglietti, a research scientist at the <a href="https://www.fieldmuseum.org/">Field Museum</a> in Chicago and a co-author of the new study published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2023.04.007"><em>Current Biology</em></a>.</p>



<h2 id="h-inostrancevia-was-an-extraordinary-creature">Inostrancevia was an extraordinary creature</h2>



<p>Indeed, Inostrancevia was not an ordinary creature. Viglietti explained: "Inostrancevia was a gorgonopsian, a group of proto-mammals that included the first saber-toothed predators on the planet."&nbsp;</p>



<p>Resembling a tiger in size, Inostrancevia likely bore skin akin to an elephant or a rhino, and despite its somewhat reptilian appearance, it was actually a part of the lineage leading to modern mammals.</p>



<p>Before this study, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-marine-ichthyosaur-fossils-found-high-in-the-alps/">fossils</a> of Inostrancevia had only been identified in Russia. However, during the examination of South Africa’s Karoo Basin fossil record, Christian Kammerer, Viglietti's colleague, identified the fossils of two large predatory animals that were distinct from those typically found in the region.</p>



<p>"The fossils themselves were quite unexpected," said Viglietti. The mystery of how these creatures traveled from modern-day Russia, across Pangaea, and arrived in what's now South Africa remains. Yet, their distant journey was just one facet of what made these fossils remarkable.</p>



<h2 id="h-researchers-make-exciting-revelation">Researchers make exciting revelation</h2>



<p>The discovery brought forth an exciting revelation. "When we reviewed the ranges and ages of the other top predators normally found in the area, the rubidgeine gorgonopsians, with these Inostrancevia fossils, we found something quite exciting," explained Viglietti. “The local carnivores actually went extinct quite a bit before even the main extinction that we see in the Karoo - by the time the extinction begins in other animals, they're gone.”</p>



<p>Thus, the journey of Inostrancevia from 7,000 miles away and its subsequent extinction suggests that these top predators were like the proverbial “canaries in the coal mine” for the more substantial extinction event that was to follow.</p>



<p>“This shows that the South African Karoo Basin continues to produce critical data for understanding the most catastrophic mass extinction in Earth’s history,” explained study co-author Professor Jennifer Botha, director of GENUS Centre of Excellence in Palaeosciences.</p>



<h2 id="h-shifting-roles-of-apex-predators">Shifting roles of apex predators</h2>



<p>This study also discovered that the role of apex predators shifted an unprecedented four times over a span of less than two million years around the Permian-Triassic mass extinction.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"This underlines how extreme this crisis was, with even fundamental roles in ecosystems in an extreme state of flux," said study lead author Christian Kammerer, a research curator of paleontology at the North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences and research associate at the Field Museum.</p>



<p>The susceptibility of these top predators mirrors what we observe in our current ecosystems.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Apex predators in modern environments tend to show high extinction risk, and tend to be among the first species that are locally extirpated due to human-mediated activities such as hunting or habitat destruction," said Kammerer.&nbsp;</p>



<p>He referred to examples like the European wolves or Asian tigers, species that reproduce and grow slowly and require large areas to roam and hunt prey, but are now missing from most of their historic ranges. "We should expect that ancient apex predators would have had similar vulnerabilities, and would be among the species that first go extinct during mass extinction events."</p>



<h2 id="h-valuable-lessons-learned">Valuable lessons learned</h2>



<p>The study not only throws new light on the extinction event that paved the way for the rise of the dinosaurs, but also imparts valuable lessons about the ecological crises that our planet currently faces.</p>



<p>“It's always good to get a better understanding of how mass extinction events affect ecosystems, especially because the Permian is basically a parallel on what we’re going through now," said Viglietti.</p>



<p>She further emphasized the lack of modern analogs to compare with the mass extinction happening today. The Permian-Triassic mass extinction event offers one of the best references of what our planet might endure due to the ongoing climate crisis and extinctions. But unlike the past, "we know what to do and how to stop it from happening."</p>



<p>This groundbreaking study not only reveals intriguing aspects of prehistoric life but also serves as a timely reminder of the need to preserve our ecosystems and avert the looming ecological disasters threatening our planet today.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-great-dying">More about the Great Dying</h2>



<p>The Great Dying, formally known as the Permian-Triassic (P-Tr) extinction event, is the most devastating mass extinction event that our planet has ever experienced. This catastrophic event occurred roughly 252 million years ago, marking the boundary between the Permian and Triassic geological periods, hence its name.</p>



<p>This extinction event wiped out approximately 96% of marine species and 70% of terrestrial vertebrate species. The sheer scale of life lost earned it the moniker "the Great Dying." It was an extinction event so severe that it took the Earth up to 10 million years to recover its biodiversity levels.</p>



<p>Several theories attempt to explain the cause of this mass extinction. Most scientists agree that a combination of environmental changes likely led to this catastrophe, rather than a single event.</p>



<h3 id="h-volcanic-activity">Volcanic Activity</h3>



<p>Massive volcanic eruptions in the Siberian Traps released a vast amount of greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide and methane, leading to drastic global warming. These eruptions also spewed out sulfur dioxide, which can cause acid rain and further environmental damage.</p>



<h3 id="h-ocean-anoxia">Ocean Anoxia</h3>



<p>The increased global temperatures could have led to the depletion of oxygen levels in the oceans, a state known as ocean anoxia. This could have made the oceans inhospitable for many marine species, leading to widespread death.</p>



<h3 id="h-methane-hydrate-gasification">Methane Hydrate Gasification</h3>



<p>Some scientists also theorize that warming oceans might have destabilized deposits of methane hydrates (a type of ice that contains a lot of trapped methane) on the seafloor, leading to a massive release of methane, a potent greenhouse gas. This could have caused temperatures to spike even further.</p>



<p>The Great Dying had significant long-term impacts on life on Earth. In the aftermath of the extinction, a group of reptiles known as archosaurs emerged as dominant, leading eventually to the age of dinosaurs in the later Mesozoic Era. It also took a long time for life to fully recover from this event, with some estimates suggesting it took as long as 10 million years for biodiversity to return to pre-extinction levels.</p>



<p>As we face our own environmental challenges today, understanding events like the Great Dying can help scientists predict potential outcomes and develop strategies to prevent similar scenarios from occurring due to human-induced climate change.</p>



<p><em>Image Credit: Art by Matt Celeskey</em></p>



<p>—-</p>



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Saber-toothed predator was king prior to the Great Dying

Approximately 252 million years in the past, our Earth was...

<p>Biological diversity is an invaluable global asset that must be safeguarded for future generations. Yet, this biodiversity is increasingly threatened by human activities such as deforestation, overfishing, and pollution, which are dramatically reducing the number of species.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Recognizing the critical need for public awareness on this matter, the United Nations decided to annually celebrate the <a href="https://www.cbd.int/ibd/">International Day for Biological Diversity</a>, a day that highlights our responsibility to protect the natural world.</p>



<p>In an era of rapid technological advancement and increasing global connectivity, we must reassess our relationship with nature. The reality is that our survival depends on the health of the world's ecosystems.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Our <a href="https://www.earth.com/search-results/?search=water&amp;start=0">water</a>, food, medicine, clothing, fuel, shelter, and energy all stem from the invaluable resources provided by nature, underscoring the urgency of nurturing and conserving our planet's biological diversity.</p>



<p>Protecting and restoring biological diversity has never been more crucial, or more possible. This year presents an unprecedented opportunity for biodiversity conservation.</p>



<p>The adoption of the <a href="https://www.cbd.int/gbf">Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework</a> in December 2022 has set a groundbreaking precedent for our battle against nature's loss. The historic agreement lays out definitive goals aimed at halting and eventually reversing the devastating loss of nature by 2050.</p>



<p>This transformative commitment is the inspiration for this year's International Day for Biological Diversity and its theme: "From agreement to action: build back biodiversity." The globally agreed-upon action plan must be implemented in its entirety before 2030, setting the stage for a thriving, sustainable ecosystem by 2050.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This powerful call to action comes from the <a href="https://www.cbd.int/">Convention on Biological Diversity</a> (CBD). Recognized as the primary global mechanism advocating for sustainable development, the CBD emphasizes that our future rests heavily on how effectively we implement measures that are not merely reactive but also preemptive, to nurture and conserve our world's biological diversity</p>



<p>"Biological diversity has a problem, humanity has a problem," says the CBD. The concept of biodiversity extends beyond wildlife to the genetic variability within individual species, such as crop varieties and livestock breeds, and the diversity of ecosystems that sustain interactions among their inhabitants.</p>



<p>Biological diversity serves as the foundation upon which our civilizations are built, providing resources that are integral to our survival and well-being. For example, the critical role of fish as a primary protein source cannot be overstated. Fish fulfill 20 percent of the animal protein needs for an estimated three billion people globally. Meanwhile, plants are responsible for over 80 percent of the human diet.</p>



<p>Furthermore, the importance of traditional plant-based medicines is magnified in the context of rural communities within developing nations. In these regions, conventional healthcare facilities may be inaccessible or insufficient, making traditional plant-based remedies indispensable.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These natural remedies cater to the basic healthcare needs of as many as 80 percent of individuals in developing areas, emphasizing the vital role that biodiversity plays in human health and well-being.</p>



<p>The International Day for Biological Diversity is an important reminder of the connection between human society and the network of life that sustains us. Protecting this biodiversity is not just an ecological necessity, but also a critical step in safeguarding the future health and prosperity of humanity.</p>



<h2 id="h-how-you-can-help-protect-biological-diversity">How you can help protect biological diversity&nbsp;</h2>



<p>While government policies, business practices, and large-scale conservation efforts play significant roles in protecting biodiversity, individual actions can also contribute immensely. Here are some ways individuals can contribute to preserving biological diversity:</p>



<h3 id="h-mindful-consumption">Mindful Consumption</h3>



<p>Consuming responsibly is perhaps the most direct way we can lessen our impact on biodiversity. This includes opting for sustainably sourced products, reducing waste, and minimizing the use of plastic and other non-biodegradable materials.</p>



<h3 id="h-support-local-produce">Support Local Produce</h3>



<p>Buying locally sourced, organic food not only reduces your carbon footprint due to decreased transport distances, but it also encourages diverse local flora and fauna by promoting environmentally friendly farming practices.</p>



<h3 id="h-plant-native-species">Plant Native Species</h3>



<p>Planting native plants in your gardens or local community spaces can enhance local ecosystems by providing habitats and food sources for local wildlife.</p>



<h3 id="h-reduce-energy-use">Reduce Energy Use</h3>



<p>Lowering your consumption of energy reduces the demand for non-renewable resources and decreases greenhouse gas emissions, thereby mitigating the impacts of climate change on biodiversity.</p>



<h3 id="h-participate-in-citizen-science">Participate in Citizen Science</h3>



<p>Participate in local biodiversity surveys or monitoring programs. This type of citizen science can help scientists and conservationists monitor local wildlife populations and identify emerging threats.</p>



<h3 id="h-educate-others">Educate Others</h3>



<p>Raise awareness about the importance of biodiversity among friends, family, and your community. The more people understand and appreciate the role of biodiversity, the more likely they are to take action to protect it.</p>



<h3 id="h-support-conservation-organizations">Support Conservation Organizations</h3>



<p>Contribute time, resources, or money to organizations committed to biodiversity conservation.</p>



<h3 id="h-advocate-for-nature">Advocate for Nature</h3>



<p>Engage in local, national, or international policy advocacy to protect natural habitats and demand sustainable practices.</p>



<p>Every action, no matter how small, can have a positive impact on the planet's biodiversity. It all begins with an understanding of the essential role that biodiversity plays in our lives and a commitment to preserving it for future generations.</p>



<p><em>—--</em></p>



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International Day for Biological Diversity: From agreement to action

Biological diversity is an invaluable global asset that must be...

<p>Picture this: you're thousands of kilometers above the Earth's surface, in the ionosphere - the uppermost layer of our planet's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-atmosphere-is-expanding-due-to-climate-change/">atmosphere</a>. Here, atoms and molecules are consistently getting ionized due to constant exposure to solar radiation, giving birth to an abundance of positively charged ions.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This part of the atmosphere, known as the F-region, becomes a vital cog in the mechanism of long-distance radio communication, allowing the reflection and refraction of radio waves used by satellite and GPS tracking systems back to Earth's surface. But the F-region isn't static. Changes in this area can cause severe disruption in these vital communications.</p>



<p>The stability of the F-region is a delicate dance of intricate balance. As the Sun's ultraviolet radiation ionizes the ionosphere during the day, an electron density gradient forms, with the highest density found near the equator.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, various disruptors such as the movement of plasma, electric fields, and neutral winds can distort this gradient. These disruptions can lead to the creation of a localized irregularity in plasma density, which, when amplified, forms a bubble-like structure termed an equatorial plasma bubble, or EPB.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-epbs-can-cause-huge-problems">EPBs can cause huge problems</h2>



<p>The impact of an EPB on radio communication is nothing short of disastrous - it delays radio waves and significantly deteriorates GPS performance.</p>



<p>Atmospheric waves can meddle with these density gradients, sparking a longstanding hypothesis that these waves could be triggered by terrestrial events, like volcanic eruptions. Recently, this theory was put to the test by an international team of researchers led by Professor Atsuki Shinbori and Professor Yoshizumi Miyoshi from the Institute for Space–Earth Environmental Research (ISEE) at <a href="https://en.nagoya-u.ac.jp/">Nagoya University</a>.</p>



<p>The team collaborated with several renowned institutions, including NICT, The University of Electro-Communications, Tohoku University, Kanazawa University, Kyoto University, and ISAS. Their opportunity? The Tonga volcano eruption - the biggest submarine eruption in recorded history.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



<p>The team capitalized on this event, using the Arase satellite to detect EPB occurrences, the Himawari-8 satellite to track the initial arrival of air pressure waves, and ground-based ionospheric observations to trace the movement of the ionosphere.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Their observations unveiled an irregular structure in the electron density across the equator that came into existence following the arrival of pressure waves generated by the volcanic eruption.</p>



<p>"The results of this study showed EPBs generated in the equatorial to low-latitude ionosphere in Asia in response to the arrival of pressure waves caused by undersea volcanic eruptions off Tonga," stated Shinbori.</p>



<p>The study led to another striking revelation. Contrary to the long-held model geosphere-atmosphere-cosmosphere coupling that suggests ionospheric disturbances only occur after the eruption, the team discovered that ionospheric fluctuations start a few minutes to a few hours before the arrival of atmospheric pressure waves that generate plasma bubbles.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This discovery nudges the scientific community to reconsider the existing model and could potentially reshape our understanding of the atmospheric-ionospheric relationship.</p>



<p>The findings have been meticulously compiled and published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-33603-3"><em>Scientific Reports</em></a>. These discoveries could be monumental in predicting the effects of terrestrial events on our satellite-based communication systems.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-surprising-results-from-the-study">More surprising results from the study</h2>



<p>“Our new finding is that the ionospheric disturbances are observed several minutes to hours before the initial arrival of the shock waves triggered by the Tonga volcanic eruption,” Shinbori said.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“This suggests that the propagation of the fast atmospheric waves in the ionosphere triggered the ionospheric disturbances before the initial arrival of the shock waves. Therefore, the model needs to be revised to account for these fast atmospheric waves in the ionosphere.”&nbsp;</p>



<p>The research team also found that the EPB extended much further than standard models had predicted.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Previous studies have shown that the formation of plasma bubbles at such high altitudes is a rare occurrence, making this a very unusual phenomenon,” Shinbori said.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“We found that the EPB formed by this eruption reached space even beyond the ionosphere, suggesting that we should pay attention to the connection between the ionosphere and the cosmosphere when extreme natural phenomenon, such as the Tonga event, occur.”&nbsp;</p>



<p>“The results of this research are significant not only from a scientific point of view but also from the point of view of space weather and disaster prevention."</p>



<p>"In the case of a large-scale event, such as the Tonga volcano eruption, observations have shown that a hole in the ionosphere can form even under conditions that are considered unlikely to occur under normal circumstances. Such cases have not been incorporated into space weather forecast models."</p>



<p>This study will contribute to the prevention of satellite broadcasting and communication failures associated with ionospheric disturbances caused by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and other events.”</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-equatorial-plasma-bubbles">More about equatorial plasma bubbles</h2>



<p>Equatorial plasma bubbles (EPBs), also known as equatorial ionospheric irregularities, are a phenomenon that primarily occurs in the F-region of the Earth's ionosphere, a layer in the upper atmosphere that is ionized by solar radiation.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These structures, often described as "bubble-like," can play a significant role in disrupting communications systems that rely on ionospheric radio wave propagation, such as GPS tracking and satellite-based communication systems.</p>



<p>EPBs are typically observed in the post-sunset period and extend from the equatorial region towards higher latitudes. During the day, the ionosphere is bombarded by the sun's ultraviolet radiation, creating a density gradient of electrons, with the highest concentration near the equator. But this stable condition can change.</p>



<h2 id="h-true-understanding-of-epbs-is-still-evolving">True understanding of EPBs is still evolving</h2>



<p>Disruptions, such as moving plasma, electric fields, and neutral winds, can lead to the creation of localized irregularities in plasma density. Over time, these irregularities can grow and evolve into EPBs. They appear like tube-like structures extending along the Earth's magnetic field lines, with the 'empty' or 'bubble' part representing regions of depleted electron density.</p>



<p>The development of these bubbles can cause significant disruption in radio communications. They distort the path of the radio signals as they travel through the ionosphere, leading to scintillations or rapid variations in amplitude and phase of the signals. This effect can lead to significant issues for GPS receivers, causing errors in positioning or even loss of lock on the signal.</p>



<p>Research has suggested that atmospheric waves, possibly triggered by terrestrial events like earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, can affect the electron density gradient in the ionosphere, leading to the formation of EPBs.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, our understanding of the formation, evolution, and dynamics of EPBs is still evolving. Scientists use a variety of techniques, including satellite observations, ground-based radar, and advanced computational modeling, to study these complex phenomena and to better predict their occurrence and potential impacts on communication systems.</p>



<p><em>Image Credit:</em> <em>NOAA/ NASA</em></p>



<p>—-</p>



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Tonga eruption disrupted satellite communication halfway around the world

Picture this: you're thousands of kilometers above the Earth's surface,...

<p>In the mountain ranges of Western North America, winters are not what they used to be. More rain is falling instead of snow, and the snow is melting earlier.&nbsp;The resulting leaner snowpack could pose significant problems for agriculture, wildfire risk, and municipal water supplies come summer, according to a study conducted by the <a href="https://www.colorado.edu/">University of Colorado Boulder</a>.</p>



<p>The study, published in <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s43247-023-00751-3"><em>Nature Communications Earth &amp; Environment</em></a>, chronicles over six decades of change in snowpack water storage across this region.&nbsp;</p>



<p>From 1950 to 2013, there has been a significant reduction in snowpack water storage in more than 25 percent of the Mountain West. This is partly due to snow melting earlier in the winter and spring seasons, effectively wearing down this seasonal boundary.</p>



<h2 id="h-timing-is-everything-when-it-comes-to-snowpack-melting">Timing is everything when it comes to snowpack melting</h2>



<p>"On average and in every mountainous region that we looked at, snow melt is occurring closer in time to when it fell," explained study lead author Kate Hale.</p>



<p>This shift in the timing of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-water-is-the-key-to-a-long-and-healthy-life/">water</a> availability is moving toward earlier in the springtime, with less snow melt and water availability later in the summertime, implying an impending water scarcity later in the year.</p>



<p>Western U.S. and Canada heavily depend on snow for most of their water needs. For a long time, the Rocky Mountains, Sierra Nevadas, and other mountain ranges have been the region's "water towers," storing snow throughout the winter which then melts and provides water in the spring and summer when demand is highest.</p>



<p>Every April 1st, state and regional water managers use a metric known as the snow water equivalent (SWE) to predict and plan for water resources that year. But this measurement is merely a snapshot and does not reveal how the snow accumulated or if it is already melting, says Hale, who is currently a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Vermont.</p>



<p>"From a hydrologic perspective, the only thing that's unique about snow is that it delays the timing of water input to watersheds. And just looking at a snapshot of snow water equivalent doesn't give you a sense as to how long that snow water equivalent has been on the ground," said Noah Molotch, an associate professor in the Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research (INSTAAR) at CU Boulder.</p>



<h2 id="h-the-challenge-of-managing-water-resources">The challenge of managing water resources</h2>



<p>To gain more clarity, Hale developed a new measurement known as Snow Storage Index (SSI), which takes into account the timing and quantity of snowfall and snowmelt, both before and after April 1st. Unlike SWE, the SSI provides a more comprehensive understanding, encapsulating into a single number the time elapsed from when rain or snow falls in winter to when it becomes available as surface water.</p>



<p>The SSI gives a broader perspective on snow water storage. "The snow storage index allows us to look at snow water storage, not just in the context of how much is there at any given time, but the duration of that storage on the ground,” explained Molotch.</p>



<p>By using this tool, the researchers were able to study the performance of each mountainous region of the West as a water tower over the past 60 years, revealing a declining trend across the board.</p>



<p>High SSI values, close to 1.0, were found in places with a highly seasonal snowfall pattern. In the Cascades, for example, snow piles up during the fall and winter seasons and stays on the ground up to six months before it gradually melts in the spring and summer.&nbsp;</p>



<p>By Contrast, in Colorado's Rocky Mountains, the SSI is lower - between 0 and 0.5—indicating snow both accumulates and melts during the colder half of the year.</p>



<h2 id="h-some-areas-adapt-easier-to-changes-in-snowpack">Some areas adapt easier to changes in snowpack</h2>



<p>Interestingly, areas like the Rockies and the Front Range, which are accustomed to this fluctuating pattern of snowfall and snowmelt, may find it easier to adapt to the declining snowpack water storage patterns linked with global warming.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, the mountain regions near the West Coast, which heavily rely on snowpack meltwater during spring and summer, might face significant challenges when that water melts earlier and is not available during the late summer.</p>



<p>The researchers hope that this new SSI measurement will prove valuable for scientists and water resource managers, enabling them to make more accurate predictions and plan more effectively for the possibility of less water availability.</p>



<p>Half a century ago, the era of dam building enabled the Western United States to prosper with a reliable access to water for cities and agriculture, said Molotch. However, as these natural "water towers" of snow melt away, the reservoirs they filled may also deplete.</p>



<p>"The snowpack is eroding and disappearing before our eyes. That's going to present challenges in terms of managing the infrastructure that's allowed the Western United States to flourish over the last 100 years," said Molotch.</p>



<p>Thus, as the snowpack continues to dwindle, managing water resources in the Western North America could become a complex puzzle, demanding innovation, forward thinking, and sustainable solutions.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-snowpack-and-water-resources">More about snowpack and water resources</h2>



<p>Snowpack plays a critical role in both human and environmental water resources, especially in regions where a significant portion of annual precipitation falls as snow.</p>



<p>At its most basic level, snowpack refers to the accumulated snow that covers the ground in mountainous or high-altitude areas. During the colder months, the snowpack builds up, acting as a frozen reservoir.&nbsp;</p>



<p>As temperatures rise in the spring and summer, this snow melts, releasing water gradually into rivers, lakes, and the ground. This slow release of water over time is incredibly important for several reasons.</p>



<h3 id="h-water-supply">Water Supply</h3>



<p>In many regions, especially in the western United States and Canada, snowpack is the primary source of water supply. As the snowpack melts in spring and summer, it replenishes reservoirs that provide drinking water to cities and towns. Without a healthy snowpack, there would be less water available during the driest parts of the year.</p>



<h3 id="h-agriculture">Agriculture</h3>



<p>Many farming areas rely on the melting of snowpack to irrigate crops. The water that comes from melting snow travels down mountains into rivers and streams, which farmers then divert for irrigation. Without this reliable water source, agriculture in these areas would face significant challenges.</p>



<h3 id="h-hydropower-generation">Hydropower Generation</h3>



<p>The flow of water from melting snowpack is also critical for hydropower, which generates electricity by using flowing or falling water to turn a turbine. In areas like the Pacific Northwest, hydropower accounts for a large percentage of electricity generation.</p>



<h3 id="h-ecosystem-health">Ecosystem Health</h3>



<p>Snowpack is essential to maintaining healthy ecosystems. Many species of fish, for example, rely on the cold, clean water from snowmelt for spawning. Additionally, the slow melt of snowpack into the ground helps replenish groundwater, which many plants and animals rely on.</p>



<h3 id="h-climate-change-indicator">Climate Change Indicator</h3>



<p>Changes in snowpack can serve as a useful indicator of climate change. Decreases in snowpack and earlier melt seasons can be linked to global warming. These changes can lead to water shortages, increased wildfire risks, and impacts on wildlife and ecosystems.</p>



<p>The reduction in snowpack and changes in snowmelt timing due to climate change pose significant risks to water resources. If less snow is falling and it's melting earlier in the year, there may not be enough water available during the dry summer months when demand is highest. This could have serious implications for drinking water supplies, agriculture, energy production, and the health of our ecosystems.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Despite record snowpack in the West, early melting could lead to water scarcity

In the mountain ranges of Western North America, winters are...

<p>The ever-increasing expansion of the common ragweed plant, known scientifically as Ambrosia artemisiifolia, is leaving allergy sufferers worldwide in prolonged discomfort as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/environmental-dna-can-be-used-to-monitor-grass-pollen/">pollen</a> season intensifies.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Notoriously invasive, common ragweed has now managed to venture as far north as Norway, demonstrating its extraordinary adaptability. However, it's currently meeting resistance due to Norway's challenging climate.</p>



<p>"Common ragweed can be found in Norway, but for now it has no stable populations,” said Vanessa Carina Bieker, a postdoctoral researcher at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology's (<a href="https://www.ntnu.edu/">NTNU</a>) University Museum Department of Natural History.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Bieker stumbled upon this alien species in Oslo during the fall of last year. As of now, Norway’s environmental conditions seem to be stalling the plant's progress, though an increase in temperature might facilitate its survival, given its track record of rapid global expansion.</p>



<p>Scientists attribute the unrelenting proliferation of the ragweed plant to the role of "supergenes," large blocks of genes that enable the plant to readily adapt to new conditions.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Supergenes are inherited as a single unit by the subsequent generation, significantly impacting the plant's characteristics, such as size and flowering time. These changes, in turn, increase the plant's chances of survival and reproduction under diverse climatic conditions.</p>



<p>“These supergenes affect the plants' characteristics, such as their size or when they flower, and are in turn important for the plants to be able to survive and reproduce under new climate conditions," explained Professor Michael D. Martin.</p>



<p>The researchers collaborated with scientists from various other&nbsp; institutions, including Dr. Kathryn Hodgins of Monash University, to study these supergenes and their role in the ragweed's invasiveness. The groundbreaking research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-37303-4"><em>Nature Communications</em></a>.</p>



<p>Native to North America, common ragweed made its way to Europe in the 19th century, most likely through imported seeds and horse feed. However, the plant's story of expansion isn't unique; it is part of a larger global issue of invasive species disrupting local ecosystems.</p>



<p>Invasive species pose a serious environmental threat. They disrupt existing biodiversity, often leading to destructive consequences for local wildlife.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Professor Martin emphasizes the need for further understanding of invasive species: “We have to learn how invasive species evolve and spread before we can learn to control them. Then we can counteract the damage they do and limit their effect on species diversity, the economy, and our health.”</p>



<p>In the global battle against invasive species, studying the genetic material of plants is a crucial strategy to help understand their rapid spread and adaptability.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“When we identify the changes in DNA that enable such invasive species to spread so quickly, we gain a new weapon in our arsenal when we have to fight them,” explained Bieker.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The research team sequenced the complete genetic code of over 600 plant specimens, including those of common ragweed.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The genetic detective work carried out by the team led them to diverse museum collections and herbariums across North America and Europe, where they found specimens dating back as far as 190 years.&nbsp;</p>



<p>By comparing the genetic material of these historical samples with living plants, the researchers could identify alterations that have transpired over the years.</p>



<p>“When you compare these old specimens with the living plants you find outside today, you can also identify the changes in the genetic material that have taken place over the years. And this helps pinpoint which genes have contributed to common ragweed spreading so quickly,” said Bieker.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The analysis revealed that there are gene variants which thrive under certain climate conditions, and genetic segments that undergo modifications over time.</p>



<p>One of the team's significant findings is the genetic divergence between ragweed populations in North America, its native continent, and Europe. This difference underpins fundamental principles of genetics and evolutionary theory.&nbsp;</p>



<p>As the environmental conditions around a plant shift, for instance, when they land on a new continent, certain genes might give individual plants advantages over others. These genetic variants boost reproduction rates, enabling the advantageous genes to be more frequently inherited by the next generation.</p>



<p>“The supergenes in the European plants enabled them to evolve rapidly during the invasion,” explained Professor Martin. These supergenes have facilitated ragweed's colonization of vast regions of Europe, modifying vital plant characteristics like size and lifecycle timing.</p>



<p>“These are properties that have had a major impact on ragweed’s success and therefore the plants’ production of highly allergenic pollen,” said Martin, emphasizing the repercussions of ragweed's spread on global health, particularly for allergy sufferers.</p>



<p>What is remarkable about this study is not only its findings, but also the techniques that were used for the analysis. The rapid advancements in genetics over recent years have enabled research methods previously thought impossible. This investigation, in particular, demonstrates how innovative genetic methodologies can breathe new life into old scientific collections, extracting fresh and enlightening insights.</p>



<p>“This research shows the power in studying old specimens in herbariums and other museum collections. They can inform us about the recent spread, and sometimes very rapid evolution, of invasive species that have been strongly influenced by human activity,” said Martin.</p>



<p>In the future, these findings might serve as the basis for effective strategies to curb the spread of common ragweed. While the prospect is a long-term one, it certainly offers a glimmer of hope to those who suffer from seasonal allergies.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-invasive-species">More about invasive species</h2>



<p>Invasive species are plants, animals, or pathogens that are non-native (or alien) to an ecosystem and whose introduction causes or is likely to cause harm. They can affect the environment, the economy, or even human health.</p>



<h3 id="h-environmental-impacts">Environmental Impacts</h3>



<p>Invasive species can disrupt biodiversity by outcompeting native species for resources such as food, water, and habitat. Some invasive species are predators or pathogens that directly kill native species. Others alter habitats in ways that native species cannot tolerate or to which they cannot adapt. In the worst cases, invasive species can cause local extinctions of native species and drastically alter ecosystem functions.</p>



<h3 id="h-economic-impacts">Economic Impacts</h3>



<p>Invasive species can cause extensive economic damage. They can harm agricultural productivity through crop damage and loss of livestock. In forests, invasive insects and diseases can kill large numbers of trees, affecting timber production. Invasive aquatic plants and animals can disrupt commercial and recreational fishing, boating, and other water-related industries. Furthermore, managing invasive species is costly.</p>



<h3 id="h-human-health-impacts">Human Health Impacts</h3>



<p>Some invasive species can harm human health. For instance, some invasive plants produce allergens. Alien insects like mosquitoes can transmit diseases. And some invasive animals, such as rodents, are carriers of various diseases.</p>



<h3 id="h-examples-of-invasive-species">Examples of invasive species</h3>



<p>The zebra mussel in the Great Lakes of North America, the brown tree snake in Guam, the cane toad in Australia, and the lionfish in the Caribbean and the Southeast U.S. waters are all examples of invasive species.</p>



<p>Managing and controlling alien species is a significant conservation challenge. It involves preventing their introduction, detecting and eradicating newly established invaders, and controlling and mitigating the impacts of established invasive species.&nbsp;</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Supergenes drove the rapid spread of common ragweed

The ever-increasing expansion of the common ragweed plant, known scientifically...

<p>A groundbreaking study published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adg1213"><em>Science Advances</em></a> suggests that the catastrophic Australian bushfires in 2019-2020 precipitated a chain of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-may-cause-stingrays-to-move-toward-danger/">climate</a> interactions leading to a chilling effect on the Tropical Pacific. This cooling, thousands of miles away from the burning Australian shores, eventually triggered the formation of a multi-year La Niña event, a phenomenon that has only recently dissipated.</p>



<p>La Niña events, characterized by cooler-than-average sea surface temperatures in the equatorial Pacific, have historically exerted substantial influence on North America's winter climate.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These weather oscillations typically induce drier and warmer conditions in the southwest U.S., foster increased precipitation in the Pacific Northwest, and bring about colder temperatures in Canada and northern parts of the U.S. Due to the potential for their emergence to be anticipated months in advance, La Niña events play a crucial role in seasonal climate forecasting.</p>



<p>However, the recent wave of La Niña events, observed over three consecutive winters starting from 2020-21, signifies a rare climate phenomenon. The pattern is only the third streak of its kind in the historical record, dating back to 1950. Moreover, unlike previous instances, this La Niña chain did not succeed a potent El Niño event, which characteristically manifests as a warming of the Tropical Pacific.</p>



<p>"Many people quickly forgot about the Australian fires, especially as the COVID pandemic exploded, but the Earth system has a long memory, and the impacts of the fires lingered for years," said study lead author John Fasullo, a scientist at the <a href="https://ncar.ucar.edu/">National Center for Atmospheric Research</a> (NCAR).</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The researchers set out to investigate the potential climate impacts of the Australian fires, which charred an estimated 46 million acres. With large-scale events like these or major volcanic eruptions known to shift the odds towards a La Niña event, the team leveraged an advanced computer model, the Community Earth System Model version 2, to carry out two sets of simulations.</p>



<p>Both simulation sets started from the same point, August 2019, prior to the escalation of the Australian fires. One incorporated the observed wildfire emissions from the catastrophic blazes, while the other simulated average wildfire emissions typically used in long-term climate model simulations.</p>



<p>Contrary to the direct sunlight-reflecting action of high-altitude volcanic emissions, wildfire emissions have a different modus operandi. These fire-originated aerosols, enveloping the Southern Hemisphere, intensified the brightness of cloud decks, particularly off the coast of Peru.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The amplified brightness led to a cooling and drying of the air, consequently shifting the junction of the northern and southern trade winds. This overall climatic shift incited a sustained cooling of the Tropical Pacific ocean, a critical component in the formation of La Niña events.</p>



<p>Discussing the complexity of the climate interactions, Fasullo said, "It’s a Rube Goldberg of climate interactions that we were only able to identify because our model now represents specific details in the evolution of smoke and cloud-aerosol interactions, a recent improvement to its capabilities.”</p>



<h2 id="h-significance-of-the-study">Significance of the study</h2>



<p>The research, primarily funded by the U.S. National Science Foundation (NCAR's sponsor), NASA, and the U.S. Department of Energy, has far-reaching implications for future climate forecasts. It throws light on the failure of several forecasts to predict the onset of the three-year La Niña, which had been indicating "neutral" conditions as late as June 2020.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The research emphasizes the significance of utilizing coupled Earth system models, which consider both atmospheric and oceanic components, as essential forecasting tools. Furthermore, it points to the need for accurate representation of wildfire emissions in both seasonal and long-range climate projections.</p>



<p>“As the climate changes, the emissions from wildfires will also change,” said Fasullo. “But we don’t have that feedback in the model. It is the goal of our current work to incorporate these effects as realistically as possible.”</p>



<p>This material is based upon work supported by the National Center for Atmospheric Research, a major facility sponsored by the National Science Foundation and managed by the University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Any opinions, findings and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.</p>



<h2 id="h-global-impacts-of-la-nina">Global impacts of La Niña</h2>



<p>La Niña can have wide-reaching effects that influence weather patterns and climate conditions worldwide. Here's a broad overview of some of the impacts typically associated with La Niña:</p>



<p>North America</p>



<p>La Niña tends to bring colder and snowier winters to the northern tier of the United States and drier, warmer conditions to the southwestern states. The Pacific Northwest may experience wetter weather, while the Southeast could be warmer and drier. Canada often sees colder temperatures during a La Niña event.</p>



<h3>South America</h3>



<p>La Niña can result in excessive rainfall over Colombia, Ecuador, and northern Peru, increasing the risk of flooding. In contrast, it can cause drier conditions in southeastern South America, including parts of Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay, leading to drought.</p>



<h3>Asia and Australia</h3>



<p>Southeast Asia, especially Indonesia, the Philippines, and Australia, often see more rainfall during a La Niña event. This increased rainfall can sometimes result in flooding. Conversely, India may experience a weaker monsoon season.</p>



<h3>Africa</h3>



<p>East Africa, including Kenya, Somalia, and Tanzania, may receive above-average rainfall during the short rains of October to December, which can lead to flooding. Meanwhile, southern Africa can experience drier than normal conditions, increasing the risk of drought.</p>



<h3>Atlantic hurricanes</h3>



<p>La Niña can contribute to an intensification of the Atlantic hurricane season because it decreases the vertical wind shear over the Caribbean Sea and tropical Atlantic Basin, which makes conditions more favorable for tropical storm development.</p>



<p>These are general tendencies and can be influenced by other climatological factors. It is also important to note that while La Niña events can often be predicted months in advance, there is still a level of uncertainty associated with predicting specific weather outcomes during these events. Climate scientists are continually working to improve our understanding and prediction of these global effects.</p>



<p><em>—--</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Australian bushfires triggered rare multi-year La Niña

A groundbreaking study published in the journal Science Advances suggests...

<p>In recent decades, eelgrass meadows have significantly declined in the southern Bohus county in Sweden, and in many areas have disappeared completely.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Since eelgrass serves as a habitat or nursery for a variety of aquatic organisms, such as young cod, crabs, and shrimp, they are highly important for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-biodiversity-crisis-is-actually-worse-than-we-thought/">biodiversity</a>, and their decline could thus have disastrous consequences for many coastal ecosystems. </p>



<p>Moreover, since eelgrass roots also bind the sediment, they prevent erosion and limit resuspension of sediment in the water.</p>



<p>For over a decade, a team of researchers from the <a href="https://www.gu.se/en">University of Gothenburg</a> has been working on the restoration of eelgrass meadows. Their most recent assessment of this initiative is highly positive, showing that fauna returned rapidly once the eelgrass started to grow again.&nbsp;</p>



<p>In fact, already in the second summer, the biodiversity in the planted meadows was almost the same as in the old established meadows. The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/rec.13887"><em>Restoration Ecology</em></a><em>.</em>&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-research-was-conducted">How the research was conducted</h2>



<p>During the summer of 2019, the scientists planted eelgrass shoots in four test plots of different sizes on the seabed, with different spacing between the shoots. </p>



<p>By autumn 2020, new populations of invertebrates that live or burrow in bottom sediments were already thriving in the young meadows.</p>



<p>“The recolonization has been very rapid. After the first three-month growing season, up to 80 percent of the invertebrates had returned to the newly planted eelgrass,” said study senior author Eduardo Infantes, a marine biologist at Gothenburg.</p>



<p>Observations have also revealed that size did not play a major role in the recovery of biodiversity in the meadows. Even if eelgrass did not have time to grow to the same density as in an established meadow, after only two growing seasons, the level of biodiversity was just as high as in old meadows.</p>



<p>“This is good news for future restorations and new plantings of eelgrass meadows. We can plant new smaller plots with fewer shoots and this saves money because it is an expensive method for restoring biodiversity on the seabed,” Infantes concluded.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-eelgrass">More about eelgrass&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Eelgrass, which belongs to the genus Zostera, is a group of species of submerged aquatic plants that live in marine environments along coastlines. Here are some key facts about it:</p>



<h3 id="h-habitat">Habitat</h3>



<p>Eelgrass is found in temperate and cold waters in the Northern Hemisphere. It thrives in shallow coastal areas, lagoons, and estuaries where sunlight can reach the seafloor.</p>



<h3 id="h-appearance">Appearance</h3>



<p>As the name suggests, eelgrass has long, ribbon-like leaves which often form dense underwater meadows. These grass-like leaves are usually bright green, and the plant can produce small flowers and fruits.</p>



<h3 id="h-role-in-the-ecosystem">Role in the ecosystem&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Eelgrass beds are very important ecologically. They provide valuable habitats and nurseries for many species of fish and invertebrates. They also help to improve water quality by absorbing nutrients, and their root systems stabilize the seafloor, preventing erosion.</p>



<h3 id="h-threats-and-conservation">Threats and conservation</h3>



<p>Eelgrass populations have declined in many places due to factors such as pollution, coastal development, dredging, and disease. </p>



<p>Climate change is also a potential threat, as changes in sea level or water temperature could negatively affect eelgrass. Various conservation efforts are underway to protect and restore eelgrass habitats.</p>



<h3 id="h-scientific-research">Scientific research&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Eelgrass is the subject of much scientific research. For example, it has been found to sequester carbon dioxide at a much higher rate than terrestrial forests, making it an important potential tool in the fight against climate change.</p>



<h2 id="h-eelgrass-and-climate-change">Eelgrass and climate change&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Eelgrass, like other types of seagrass, plays a significant role in climate change mitigation. Here's how:</p>



<h3 id="h-carbon-sequestration">Carbon sequestration</h3>



<p>Eelgrass meadows are exceptional at sequestering carbon, trapping it in the sediment below. They can absorb and store carbon dioxide from the atmosphere at rates over ten times faster than forests on land. </p>



<p>This process, known as "blue carbon" sequestration, helps to mitigate the impacts of increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide levels, which is a primary driver of global climate change.</p>



<h3 id="h-coastal-protection">Coastal protection</h3>



<p>Eelgrass also acts as a buffer against coastal erosion, which can be exacerbated by climate change. Rising sea levels and increased storm surges can lead to significant erosion, and eelgrass beds help protect coastlines by stabilizing sediment and dampening wave action.</p>



<h3 id="h-biodiversity-and-resilience">Biodiversity and resilience</h3>



<p>Eelgrass beds are biodiversity hotspots, providing food and shelter for a wide range of marine life. Biodiversity often equates to ecosystem resilience, and maintaining healthy, diverse ecosystems is key in the face of climate change.</p>



<p>However, eelgrass is also vulnerable to climate change. Rising sea temperatures can lead to increased prevalence of diseases that affect eelgrass. </p>



<p>Changes in salinity and nutrient levels, ocean acidification, and increased storm intensity can also negatively impact eelgrass meadows.</p>



<p>In the face of climate change, conserving and restoring eelgrass meadows are crucial actions. Despite their importance, these ecosystems are often overlooked in climate policy. Increasing awareness about the value of "blue carbon" ecosystems can help drive conservation efforts and support sustainable management of these critical habitats.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Eelgrass meadows are underestimated biodiversity hotspots

In recent decades, eelgrass meadows have significantly declined in the...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lHHxOej4QfE
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Researchers found a correlation between Alzheimer's disease and traffic pollution.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invisible-threat-in-urban-air"><strong>Invisible threat in urban air</strong></h2>



<p>City dwellers face an unseen danger with every breath. New findings from Emory University researchers suggest that fine particulate matter from <a href="http://earth.com/news/traffic-related-air-pollution-might-increase-alzheimers-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vehicle emissions may significantly elevate the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease</a>. The study examined brain tissue samples from 224 individuals who had confirmed diagnoses and volunteered their brains for scientific research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disturbing-connections-emerge"><strong>Disturbing connections emerge</strong></h2>



<p>Scientists analyzed neuritic plaques — protein clusters that characterize Alzheimer's — while mapping each participant's exposure to PM2.5 particles based on residential location and surrounding traffic density. The correlation proved more alarming than anticipated. Individuals experiencing higher pollution exposure showed nearly double the likelihood of elevated plaque accumulation in brain tissue.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-timing-matters"><strong>Timing matters</strong></h2>



<p>The research team discovered that pollution exposure during the final year before death demonstrated the strongest association with brain changes. This timeline suggests relatively rapid impacts from environmental toxins on neural health. The connection remained robust even after accounting for various demographic and health factors.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-vulnerability-patterns"><strong>Genetic vulnerability patterns</strong></h2>



<p>Perhaps most concerning, people lacking the APOE gene—which naturally predisposes individuals to Alzheimer's — exhibited more than twice the susceptibility to pollution-related brain damage. Study author Dr. Anke Huels noted this indicates environmental elements like air contamination could trigger the disease in cases where hereditary factors don't explain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-public-health-implications"><strong>Public health implications</strong></h2>



<p>These findings, published in <em><a href="https://www.neurology.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neurology</a></em>, underscore the critical importance of air quality regulations in urban planning. The research suggests that implementing stricter emission controls and promoting alternative transportation could serve as powerful tools in Alzheimer's prevention.</p>



<p>As cities worldwide grapple with growing traffic congestion and aging populations, this study highlights an urgent need for comprehensive approaches to environmental health that protect both our lungs and our minds.</p>



<p>—–</p>



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<p>—–</p>



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<p>—–</p>

Traffic fumes may trigger Alzheimer's

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lHHxOej4QfE Researchers found a correlation between Alzheimer's disease and traffic...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



<p>Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



<p>The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



<p>At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.</p>



<p>"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



<p>The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.</p>



<p>The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a></em> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.</p>



<p>—–</p>



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<p>—–</p>



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<p>—–</p>

Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K0DuSr87SHY
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">57 million-year ice age mystery solved by Australian scientists.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-earth-became-a-frozen-wasteland">When Earth became a frozen wasteland</h2>



<p>Imagine Earth as a giant snowball, frozen solid from the North Pole to the equator. This wasn't the plot of a science fiction movie – it was our planet's reality 700 million years ago during an extreme ice age that has puzzled scientists for decades.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-discovery">The discovery</h2>



<p>Australian researchers from the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sydney</a> have finally cracked one of geology's greatest mysteries: what caused the Sturtian glaciation and why it persisted for an unprecedented 57 million years. This period occurred long before dinosaurs roamed the Earth, when no complex plants or multicellular animals existed.</p>



<p>Dr. Adriana Dutkiewicz, the study's lead author, describes a world completely unlike today's climate. "Imagine the Earth almost completely frozen over," she explained. "The planet was blanketed in ice from poles to equator, and temperatures plunged."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-combination-of-climate-factors">The combination of climate factors</h2>



<p>The research team discovered that this massive freeze resulted from a "double whammy" of geological events. First, plate tectonic activity reduced volcanic carbon dioxide emissions to historically low levels. Volcanic activity typically releases CO2 into the atmosphere, creating a greenhouse effect that keeps Earth warm.</p>



<p>Simultaneously, weathering of volcanic rocks in what is now Canada actively absorbed atmospheric CO2, further reducing greenhouse gas concentrations. When atmospheric carbon dioxide levels dropped below 200 parts per million – less than half of today's levels – glaciation engulfed the entire planet.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-climate-implications">Modern climate implications</h2>



<p>Published in the journal <em><a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/geology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geology</a></em>, this research provides crucial insights into Earth's climate system. While geological climate changes occur over millions of years, the study emphasizes that human-induced climate change is happening at a pace ten times faster than previously observed natural changes, highlighting the urgent need to understand our planet's delicate climate balance.</p>



<p>—–</p>



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<p>—–</p>

What caused the planet's longest ice age

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K0DuSr87SHY 57 million-year ice age mystery solved by Australian scientists....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the opposite.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-contrasting-climate-response">A contrasting climate response</h2>



<p>Most coastal towns are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sinking-land-will-intensify-the-effects-of-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preparing for higher sea levels</a>, but <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-no-longer-has-to-worry-about-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Greenland presents</a> a different scenario during climate change. The ground there is rising at a remarkable rate. Over the past decade, some areas have lifted about 20 centimeters, which translates to roughly 2 meters per century. This rate significantly exceeds current projections for sea level rise.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geological-rebound-process-through-climate-change">Geological rebound process through climate change</h2>



<p>The mechanism behind this phenomenon is straightforward. As the ice sheet melts, the immense weight is removed from the bedrock, causing the land to rebound upward. This process resembles the way compressed material springs back when pressure is released.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-monitoring-networks">Scientific monitoring networks</h2>



<p>Researchers at the <a href="https://www.dtu.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technical University of Denmark</a> are documenting this uplift using the GNET network, consisting of 61 GPS stations positioned around Greenland's coast. These sensors can detect movement with millimeter precision, providing detailed measurements of the ongoing changes.</p>



<p>The data reveal that current uplift rates exceed the gradual rebound occurring since the last ice age ended approximately 12,000 years ago. This acceleration corresponds directly with increased ice sheet melting rates.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coastal-transformation">Coastal Transformation</h2>



<p>This uplift is actively reshaping Greenland's coastline. New islands and rocky formations, called "skerries," are emerging as previously submerged land surfaces rise above the water level. This represents a notable contrast to global concerns about rising seas.</p>



<p>The study, published in Geophysical Research Letters, demonstrates the varied regional impacts of climate change. While many locations face rising water levels, Greenland's bedrock is literally rising above the surrounding seas.</p>



<p>The full study was recently published in <em><a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2023GL104851" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a></em>.</p>



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<p>—–</p>



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<p>—–</p>

Greenland's ground rises while coasts worldwide face higher seas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to implement the latest AI Agent building platform.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-agent-training-transforms-the-workplace-fear-factor-into-a-competitive-advantage">AI agent training transforms the workplace 'fear factor' into a competitive advantage</h2>



<p>Organizations that offer comprehensive artificial intelligence training to their workers find remarkable value that extends well beyond basic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mind-wandering-might-be-more-productive-than-you-think/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">productivity improvements</a>. Emerging research demonstrates that carefully crafted AI training programs <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-does-not-replace-human-creativity-but-enhances-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enhance</a> corporate performance, lower operational costs, and dramatically improve employee psychological well-being by turning workplace uncertainty into professional empowerment.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-widespread-ai-anxiety-crisis-among-us">Addressing the widespread 'AI anxiety' crisis among us</h2>



<p>A staggering 53% of employees expressed concern that the use of AI tools to automate work tasks could make them appear disposable to their employers, according to <a href="https://www.microsoft.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microsoft</a>'s 2024 workplace survey. Such pervasive worry about being substituted by machines has caused what researchers have termed "AI technostress" – a psychological state that can result in occupational burnout and poorer mental well-being.</p>



<p>Data published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a> showed that belief in AI learning ability was a moderator in the link between technology adoption and work pressure, and higher confidence significantly lowered negative psychological responses. Workers provided ample training to become competent with AI software have significantly lower stress.</p>



<p>Companies like <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a> have platforms for building what are known as "AI Agents".  In essence, AI Agents are simply tools that employees can build for themselves or their teams quickly and inexpensively.   MindStudio will even train entire companies, from the CEO on down, at no cost. By letting MindStudio empower employees, companies avoid hiring more IT staff, buying more software, and implementing solutions to problems that do not exist.</p>



<p>MindStudio even has partners locally for companies, like <a href="http://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dominnus</a> with offices in the Carolinas, California, and Denver, to help build AI Agents and support employees as they become resident AI experts for their organization.  The training provided by MindStudio is applicable across other AI Agent building platforms as well.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-productivity-through-focused-learning">Revolutionary productivity through focused learning</h2>



<p>Organizations that implement large-scale AI training programs achieve dramatic outcomes. Employees performed tasks significantly better when they utilized AI support compared to when they didn't, according to <a href="https://www.nngroup.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nielsen Norman Group</a> research findings. Their study documented productivity increases of 66% for a variety of professional tasks.</p>



<p>Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis research finds workers record 33% higher productivity in time working with generative AI tools. The benefit is equivalent to 5.4% of work time savings for AI users – around 2.2 hours per week for full-time workers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psychological-well-being-benefits-through-ai-competence">Psychological well-being benefits through AI competence</h2>



<p>The emotional transformation when employees are provided with proper technology training is a fundamental transformation from fear to professional confidence. A survey of 600 employees across industries, carried out by ScienceDirect, proved that AI capabilities strengthen work environment commitment and improve job satisfaction.</p>



<p>A <a href="https://www.lut.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LUT University</a> study discovered that AI adoption has no direct effect on workers' well-being but does so indirectly through working conditions like task optimization and safety protocols. Strategically deployed AI that involves correct training can actually increase workplace mental well-being.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-replacement-anxiety-to-partnership-confidence">From 'replacement anxiety' to 'partnership confidence'</h2>



<p>Although 35% of those interviewed in recent McKinsey studies were concerned about workforce displacement, firms with large-scale training initiatives witness such fears dissipate quickly. The World Economic Forum found that two out of three respondents believe AI competencies will enhance their career prospects and job marketability.</p>



<p>This shift from fear to trust has measurable implications for job satisfaction. Applied Sciences research indicates AI can create tailored wellness programs based on individual employee requirements.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-financial-benefits-of-increased-retention">Financial benefits of increased retention</h2>



<p>The mental health advantages of AI learning have a direct impact on organizational bottom lines in the form of a positive feedback cycle with high retention of employees. Recent ROI research validates that artificial intelligence learning has a beneficial impact on employee turnover and satisfaction levels.</p>



<p>PriceWaterhouseCoopers' research documents 20% to 30% improvements in productivity, market speed, and revenue in organizations that attempt systematic AI adoption through comprehensive training.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-advantages-of-ai-enabled-teams">Environmental advantages of AI-enabled teams</h2>



<p>AI training has unforeseen environmental benefits as it makes the work environment more efficient. According to a study in Scientific Reports, the carbon footprint in writing and illustrating work is significantly lower when AI performs it compared to humans. AI software produces 130 to 1,500 times less CO2 equivalent per page of text created than human authors.</p>



<p>In addition, AI-driven remote work functionality significantly reduces environmental impact. Research by Cornell University and Microsoft indicates that remote workers reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to 54% by not commuting daily to offices. Hybrid workers working remotely two to four days a week can reduce their carbon footprint by 11% to 29%.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cumulative-organizational-advantages">Cumulative organizational advantages</h2>



<p>The compounding gains of better mental well-being, reduced turnover, increased productivity, and environmental benefits flow to enterprises from the pairing. McKinsey analysis estimates the long-term AI potential at $4.4 trillion in incremental productivity growth opportunity from business use cases.</p>



<p>As of now, 75% of knowledge workers globally utilize generative AI, mirroring widespread adoption patterns. Organizations that provide organized training and assistance see the most favorable results in productivity, worker satisfaction, and ecological sustainability.</p>



<p>The research overwhelmingly indicates that companies that invest in proper AI education, like that offered through <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a>, establish win-win scenarios where employees are both more empowered and less stressed, and companies enjoy the gains of increased productivity, reduced turnover, and improved mental health outcomes throughout their workforce.</p>



<p>For more on MindStudio's free AI training for companies, visit the website's of MindStudio and Dominnus from the links below.</p>



<p>The research was published across a variety of peer-reviewed journals, including <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a>, <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence</a>, and <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci">Applied Sciences</a>.</p>



<p id="block-9bd989d6-2fd3-4580-957f-6cacce134f08">-----</p>



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<p id="block-1f9a227a-ec37-4140-81b8-ffa4a7cc6689">-----</p>



<p>MindStudio.AI: <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.mindstudio.ai</a></p>



<p>Dominnus: <a href="https://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.dominnus.com</a></p>

AI agent training boosts mental health and profits

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-natural-solution-to-disease-through-crop-modification">A natural solution to disease through crop modification.</h2>



<p>The agricultural industry stands at a crossroads between productivity and environmental responsibility, and crop modification often carries a negative connotation. While chemical pesticides have long been the go-to solution for crop protection, their harmful effects on ecosystems and human health have prompted scientists to seek alternatives. The recent breakthrough by <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southampton</a> researchers offers a promising path forward through the precise manipulation of plant-associated microbial communities.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-microbial-partnerships">The science behind microbial partnerships</h2>



<p>Plants naturally harbor diverse ecosystems of bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms that function as biological allies. These microscopic partners contribute to disease resistance, nutrient absorption, and stress tolerance. However, until now, scientists lacked the tools to deliberately reshape these communities to enhance crop protection.</p>



<p>The Southampton team's approach centered on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-plant-microbiomes-the-future-of-crop-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modifying lignin biosynthesis genes in rice plants</a>. This strategic intervention altered the plant's metabolic output, creating conditions that favored beneficial bacterial populations while suppressing harmful ones. The result was a living defense system embedded within the plant itself.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-global-food-security">Implications for global food security</h2>



<p>The successful demonstration against Xanthomonas oryzae, the pathogen responsible for bacterial blight in rice, represents more than a laboratory achievement. Rice feeds nearly half the world's population, and bacterial blight causes devastating crop losses annually. Traditional control methods rely heavily on pesticides that contaminate soil and water systems.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-disease-resistance">Looking Beyond Disease Resistance</h2>



<p>While disease protection represents the immediate application, the research framework opens doors to broader agricultural improvements. Future developments could engineer microbiomes to enhance nutrient uptake, reducing dependence on synthetic fertilizers. This dual benefit addresses both crop productivity and environmental sustainability.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-forward">The path forward</h2>



<p>As this technology advances from laboratory to field applications, it promises to reshape sustainable agriculture. The ability to program plants with their own biological defense systems could herald a new era where crops protect themselves naturally, reducing chemical inputs while maintaining yields necessary for global food security.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44335-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Communications</em></a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Revolutionizing agriculture through microbiome engineering

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4 Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease A natural...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



<p>Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?</p>



<p>The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What was acid rain?</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The science behind it</strong></h2>



<p>Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.</p>



<p>While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The crisis at its peak</strong></h2>



<p>During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Environmental devastation</strong></h2>



<p>The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.</p>



<p>By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.</p>



<p>Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Economic impact</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The solution: government action and technology</strong></h2>



<p>Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The Clean Air Act of 1990</strong></h2>



<p>The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Cap-and-trade success</strong></h2>



<p>Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.</p>



<p>The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Technology advances</strong></h2>



<p>Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.</p>



<p>The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today"><strong>Why we don't hear about it today</strong></h2>



<p>Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Success doesn't make news</strong></h2>



<p>There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Mission accomplished</strong></h2>



<p>The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone"><strong>Is it really gone?</strong></h2>



<p>The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.</p>



<p>EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What this teaches us</strong></h2>



<p>The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.</p>



<p>Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.</p>



<p>Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.</p>



<p>This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.</p>



<p>Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.</p>



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



<p><strong>Sources:</strong> <em>This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.</em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Frequently Asked Questions</strong></h2>



<p><strong>1. Is acid rain completely gone?</strong> No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.</p>



<p><strong>2. How long did solving take?</strong> Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.</p>



<p><strong>3. What made the solution successful?</strong> Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.</p>



<p><strong>4. Do other countries have acid rain problems?</strong> Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.</p>



<p><strong>5. Could acid rain return?</strong> Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.</p>



<p><strong>6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"?</strong> The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a></p>



<p>-----</p>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



<p>A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. </p>



<p>Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. </p>



<p>Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. </p>



<p>Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. </p>



<p>The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.</p>



<p>Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.</p>



<p>Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.</p>



<p>This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. </p>



<p>The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the <em><a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a></em>.</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

<p>Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. </p>



<p>The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



<p>Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. </p>



<p>Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.</p>



<p>Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. </p>



<p>They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).</p>



<p>Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.</p>



<p>Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.</p>



<p>This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.</p>

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"]</div>



<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.</p>



<p>“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. </p>



<p>The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.</p>



<p>“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”</p>



<p>The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"]</div>



<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. </p>



<p>"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."</p>



<p>"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.</p>



<p>"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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<p>Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.</p>



<p>According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."</p>



<p>Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;</p>



<p>ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. </p>



<p>Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> </em>Staff Writer </p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.</p>



<p>"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Goddard</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.</p>



<p>In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.</p>



<p>The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.</p>



<p>The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.</p>



<p>The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. </p>



<p>Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.</p>



<p>Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.</p>



<p>From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard</em></p>



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<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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<p>Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;</p>



<p>During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how  Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.</p>



<p>According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. </p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;</em></p>



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<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.</p>



<p>“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”</p>



<p>The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.</p>



<p>The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.</p>



<p>“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science</em></p>



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<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

Today’s Video of the Day from the University of Miami...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.</p>



<p>"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.</p>



<p>"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."</p>



<p>"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."</p>



<p>According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.</p>



<p>"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



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<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes how Earth is unique in our solar system for its ability to sustain liquid water on its surface. But now, the water cycle is shifting as the climate warms, and scientists must find ways to predict how these changes will affect water availability.</p>



<p>Overall, 96 percent of Earth's water is saltwater, and nearly all of freshwater is found in ice and groundwater. These sources of water are linked as it passes through solid, liquid and gas phases.</p>



<p>In a warmer climate, the water cycle will be transformed. It will be easier for water to evaporate and form clouds, and storms will become more frequent and intense. Some regions will get too much water, while others will be left without enough water. In addition, soil moisture will be lost - which threatens food security.</p>



<p>Scientists are using satellite data from over the last 40 years to track changes that are happening in the water cycle. This will ultimately help us prepare for extreme events and better manage our water resources, according to ESA.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA</em></p>



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<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Tracking changes in Earth's water cycle

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Saturn,-,High,Resolution,3d,Images,Presents,Planets,Of,The

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard Space Flight Center</a> features images of Saturn from NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope. The photographs capture the start of the mysterious "spoke season" on Saturn - when unexplained features appear on its rings. </p>



<p>According to NASA, both the cause of the spokes and their seasonal variability have yet to be fully explained by planetary scientists.</p>



<p>"Like Earth, Saturn is tilted on its axis and therefore has four seasons, though because of Saturn's much larger orbit, each season lasts approximately seven Earth years. Equinox occurs when the rings are tilted edge-on to the Sun," explains NASA.</p>



<p>"The spokes disappear when it is near summer or winter solstice on Saturn. (When the Sun appears to reach either its highest or lowest latitude in the northern or southern hemisphere of a planet.) As the autumnal equinox of Saturn's northern hemisphere on May 6, 2025, draws near, the spokes are expected to become increasingly prominent and observable."</p>



<p>Experts believe that the spokes may be a product of the planet's variable magnetic field. When magnetic fields interact with solar wind, an electrically charged environment is created. This phenomenon is visible on Earth as the northern lights.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Scientists think that the smallest, dust-sized icy ring particles can become charged as well, which temporarily levitates those particles above the rest of the larger icy particles and boulders in the rings," says NASA.</p>



<p>The spokes were first observed in the early 1980s by NASA's Voyager mission. Depending on the angle of the rings, the spokes can appear dark or light.</p>



<p>"Thanks to Hubble's OPAL program, which is building an archive of data on the outer solar system planets, we will have longer dedicated time to study Saturn’s spokes this season than ever before," said NASA senior planetary scientist Amy Simon, head of the Hubble Outer Planet Atmospheres Legacy (OPAL) program.</p>



<p>"Despite years of excellent observations by the Cassini mission, the precise beginning and duration of the spoke season is still unpredictable, rather like predicting the first storm during hurricane season."</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;</em></p>



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<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Mysterious "spoke season" captured on Saturn

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