<p>Plastics fill <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-bottles-shed-dangerous-fragments-into-drinking-water/">trash</a> cans, roadside ditches, and coastlines. A new peer-reviewed study argues they also form a durable record of how people live, shop, travel, and throw things away.</p>



<p>The United Nations Environment Program (<a href="https://www.unep.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNEP</a>) puts annual plastic production at about 400 million tons, a startling <a href="https://www.unep.org/resources/report/drowning-plastics-marine-litter-and-plastic-waste-vital-graphics" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">estimate</a>. </p>



<p>Lead author Professor John Schofield of the <a href="https://www.york.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of York</a>, also affiliated with <a href="https://www.flinders.edu.au/">Flinders</a> University, brings an archaeologist’s eye to this modern layer of human debris.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-the-anthropocene">Understanding the Anthropocene</h2>



<p>The Anthropocene is the name scientists use to describe this new chapter in Earth’s history where humans have become the dominant force shaping the planet. </p>



<p>For most of Earth’s past, natural processes like volcanoes, ice ages, and asteroid impacts drove big changes. </p>



<p>But now, human activities - <a href="https://www.earth.com//news/more-warnings-fossil-fuels-are-causing-climate-health-and-biodiversity-crises/">burning fossil fuels</a>, cutting down forests, building cities, and producing massive amounts of plastic waste - are altering the climate, ecosystems, and even the chemistry of the oceans and atmosphere on a global scale. </p>



<p>Think of it like this - humanity has taken the steering wheel of Earth’s future, for better or worse.</p>



<p>You can see evidence of the Anthropocene everywhere. Rising global temperatures, melting glaciers, and stronger storms show how human-driven climate change affects the weather. </p>



<p>Plastic waste has spread so far that tiny fragments are in the <a href="https://www.earth.com//news/human-plastics-waste-found-deepest-part-mediterranean-ionian-sea-calypso-deep/">deepest parts of the ocean</a> and even inside animals (and people). </p>



<p>We’ve changed the course of rivers, wiped out species, and created new materials that will last thousands of years in the geologic record. </p>



<p>When future scientists dig through Earth’s layers, they’ll spot a sharp line that marks this human age.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plastics-in-the-archaeological-record">Plastics in the archaeological record</h2>



<p>An archaeologist studies the <a href="https://www.earth.com//news/donating-clothes-to-charity-has-a-dark-side-exported-dumped-worsens-waste/">material traces</a> of human activity to understand behavior and change over time. </p>



<p>The case here is simple, everyday objects made of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hidden-plastic-graveyard-uncovered-in-the-deep-mediterranean-sea/">plastic</a> enter the archaeological record the moment they are discarded, and they persist.</p>



<p>The authors describe the Plastic Age as a period that began almost everywhere in the 1950s. </p>



<p>Because it started at roughly the same time across the globe, the layer it leaves behind is unusually synchronized and tightly linked to consumer culture and fossil fuels.</p>



<p>At sea, at least 5.25 trillion pieces of plastic are floating, based on a global <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0111913" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analysis</a>. That gives researchers an immense, if troubling, dataset that stretches from urban rivers to remote gyres.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-archaeological-reading-of-plastics">Archaeological reading of plastics</h2>



<p>Bags, bottles, and fibers can be dated by logos, bar codes, and manufacturing features. Polymers and additives leave fingerprints that tie objects to industries and design choices.</p>



<p>Archaeologists also think in terms of life cycles. An item moves from use to discard, then cultural and natural forces shuffle and break it apart, which explains why plastics pile up far from where people used them.</p>



<p>“Only recently have archaeologists started taking an interest in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-rain-forests-are-trapping-microplastics-from-the-sky/">plastics</a>, and it is vital that they do,” said <a href="https://www.york.ac.uk/archaeology/people/john-schofield/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Professor Schofield</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plastics-as-archaeological-markers">Plastics as archaeological markers</h2>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-environment-day-2025-plastic-pollution-is-choking-our-planet/">Plastics</a> can also serve as time markers in the same way pottery shards or stone tools help date earlier sites. </p>



<p>A soda bottle with a logo change or a supermarket bag tied to a specific decade can lock a layer of soil or sediment into a clear window of time. </p>



<p>These items are what archaeologists call type fossils, objects that anchor material to a defined historical period.</p>



<p>Because plastic objects are mass-produced, their design features and chemical composition often tie directly to industries and even single years of production. </p>



<p>This precision means future archaeologists could build timelines of consumer habits, packaging trends, or technological shifts with far greater accuracy than for many earlier materials.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-landfills-to-lunar-dust">From landfills to lunar dust</h2>



<p>Each year, an estimated 19 to 23 million tons of plastic leak into aquatic ecosystems, according to UNEP, a sobering <a href="https://www.unep.org/topics/chemicals-and-pollution-action/plastic-pollution" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">estimate</a>. </p>



<p>That leakage turns rivers, lakes, and coasts into repositories that future researchers can read.</p>



<p>Archaeological thinking now reaches <a href="https://researchnow.flinders.edu.au/en/publications/plastics-in-outer-space" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">space</a> where plastics in insulation blankets, wiring, and protective layers ride on satellites and landers. </p>



<p>As missions end, fragments weather and join orbital debris or fall back toward Earth.</p>



<p>Remote places record these signals in different ways. In soils, microfibers work into layers; in ice, particles get locked into annual bands that track sources and transport.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-defining-plastic-terms">Defining plastic terms</h2>



<p>Scientists use the word microplastics for pieces under about 5 millimeters and nanoplastics for particles below about 1 micrometer. </p>



<p>Size matters, because it controls how pieces travel, where they settle, and what organisms can take them up.</p>



<p>Another useful idea is the technosphere, the total mass of human-made stuff interacting with living systems. Plastics are a major part of that, and their durability gives today’s habits a long tail.</p>



<p>Some researchers also talk about a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41579-019-0308-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plastisphere</a>, the communities of microbes that live on plastic surfaces and change how those surfaces sink, float, and move. </p>



<p>These details help archaeologists and ecologists read transport routes and residence times.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-managing-plastic-archive">Managing plastic archive</h2>



<p>Treat the environment as an active archive, not a passive dump. That means recording what enters it while cutting off flows at the moment objects move from use to discard.</p>



<p>Focus on the handoff points where choices are made, like festivals, ports, campuses, and delivery hubs. Small changes at these nodes can shift the pattern of what ends up in soils, waterways, and air.</p>



<p>The ethical question is real. Plastics threaten wildlife and people, yet they also record a chapter in human history that will matter to those who come after us.</p>



<p>The authors suggest documenting without excusing. Catalog the evidence with the same care used at ancient sites, and use what it shows to reduce harm now.</p>



<p>The study is published in <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/cambridge-prisms-plastics/article/archaeological-and-systemic-context-for-the-plastic-age-theorising-the-formation-of-contemporary-and-future-archaeological-records/5FC76AE71E7B5FD53AFAD98BA7830B41" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Cambridge Prisms: Plastics</em></a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Plastics form an important archaeological record of modern human culture, says a new study

Plastics fill trash cans, roadside ditches, and coastlines. A new peer-reviewed study argues they also form a durable record of how people live, shop, travel, and throw things away. The United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) puts annual plastic production at about 400 million tons, a startling estimate. Lead author Professor John Schofield of the University of York, also affiliated with Flinders University, brings an archaeologist’s eye to this modern layer of human debris. Understanding the Anthropocene The Anthropocene is the name scientists use to describe this new...

Big,Ben,And,Shining,Orange,Sun,Heat,Wave,In,London

<p>A recent study led by the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/">University of Oxford</a> has found that climate change is causing the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heat-index-is-greatly-underestimated-on-the-hottest-days/">hottest days</a> in North-West Europe to warm at double the rate of average summer days, particularly in England, Wales, and Northern France. The research suggests that extreme heat events – such as UK’s massive heatwave last summer – are likely to become more common in the near future.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Moreover, the experts discovered that although current climate models accurately predict the warming of average summer days, they greatly underestimate the rate at which the hottest days are warming compared to real-life observations.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“These findings underline the fact that the UK and neighboring countries are already experiencing the effects of climate change, and that last year’s heatwave was not a fluke. Policy makers urgently need to adapt their infrastructure and health systems to cope with the impacts of higher temperatures,” said study author Matthew Patterson, a postdoctoral fellow in Climate Dynamics at Oxford.</p>



<p>By analyzing data from the past 60 years (1960-2021) recording the maximum daily temperature (provided by the European Center for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts), Patterson discovered that while the maximum recorded temperature varied between years, the hottest days for North-West Europe had warmed at twice the rate of average summer days.&nbsp;</p>



<p>For instance, while average summer days temperatures in England and Wales increased by about 0.26C per decade, the temperatures in the hottest days increased by 0.58C per decade. This faster warming of the hottest days was not observed to this extent in other regions in the Northern Hemisphere.</p>



<p>According to Patterson, the reason causing this faster warming may be linked to hot air transported north from Spain. Since Spain is warming faster than countries in North-West Europe, the air carried in from this region is considerably hotter than the ambient air in the north.&nbsp;</p>



<p>One such phenomenon occurred in 2022, when a plume of hot air carried north from Spain and the Sahara led to massive heatwaves. However, further research is needed to verify these hypotheses.</p>



<p>“Understanding the warming rate of the hottest days will be important if we are to improve climate model simulation of extreme events and make accurate predictions about the future intensity of such events. If our models underestimate the rise in extreme temperatures over the coming decades, we will underestimate the impacts this will have,” Patterson concluded.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2023GL102757"><em>Geophysical Research Letters</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<h2 id="h-global-warming-and-human-health">Global warming and human health</h2>



<p>Global warming, a type of climate change, has significant potential impacts on human health, both directly and indirectly. These impacts can be categorized into several broad areas:</p>



<h3 id="h-heat-related-illnesses-and-deaths">Heat-related illnesses and deaths</h3>



<p>Rising temperatures can increase the likelihood of heat strokes, heat exhaustion, and other heat-related illnesses. This is particularly concerning for vulnerable populations such as the elderly, children, and those with existing health conditions.</p>



<h3 id="h-air-quality">Air quality</h3>



<p>Warmer temperatures can increase the concentration of pollutants like ozone in the air, exacerbating respiratory conditions like asthma and bronchitis. Additionally, higher temperatures can enhance the production of allergens such as pollen, leading to more severe and prolonged allergy seasons.</p>



<h3 id="h-vector-borne-diseases">Vector-borne diseases</h3>



<p>Warmer climates can extend the range of disease-carrying vectors like mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas, potentially leading to a rise in diseases such as malaria, dengue fever, Lyme disease, and Zika virus.</p>



<h3 id="h-water-and-food-supply-impacts">Water and food supply impacts</h3>



<p>Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns can affect the availability and quality of water and food supplies. For example, droughts can lead to water shortages, and warmer temperatures can increase the risk of food contamination.</p>



<h3 id="h-mental-health-impacts">Mental health impacts</h3>



<p>The effects of climate change, such as extreme weather events, can lead to mental health problems such as stress, anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder.</p>



<h3 id="h-extreme-weather-events">Extreme weather events</h3>



<p>Global warming can increase the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as storms, floods, droughts, and wildfires. These can directly cause injuries and deaths, as well as indirectly affect health by causing displacement, damaging infrastructure, and disrupting essential services such as healthcare.</p>



<p>To mitigate these effects, it's crucial to undertake both mitigation strategies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adaptation strategies to prepare for and respond to the health risks associated with climate change.</p>



<h2 id="h-rising-temperatures-and-wildlife">Rising temperatures and wildlife</h2>



<p>Rising temperatures due to global warming can have profound impacts on wildlife and biodiversity. Here are several ways this can occur:</p>



<h3 id="h-habitat-loss">Habitat Loss</h3>



<p>One of the most significant impacts of rising temperatures is the potential for habitat loss. For instance, warmer temperatures are causing Arctic ice to melt, threatening species like polar bears and seals that depend on sea ice for survival. Similarly, warmer temperatures can also dry out wetlands, harm coral reefs, and lead to forest die-offs.</p>



<h3 id="h-altered-timing-of-natural-events">Altered Timing of Natural Events</h3>



<p>Many species rely on the timing of natural events, such as flowering or insect emergence, for survival. For example, birds may migrate and breed based on the length of daylight. If these patterns are disrupted by changing temperatures, it can lead to mismatches between animals and their food sources.</p>



<h3 id="h-threat-to-cold-adapted-species">Threat to Cold-adapted Species</h3>



<p>Species adapted to cold climates, such as penguins, snow leopards, and many species of fish, may struggle to survive as temperatures rise.</p>



<h3 id="h-spread-of-diseases-and-invasive-species">Spread of Diseases and Invasive Species</h3>



<p>Warmer temperatures can allow disease vectors and invasive species to move into new areas, impacting native wildlife. For example, warmer winters have allowed pine beetles to devastate North American forests they couldn't previously inhabit due to cold.</p>



<h3 id="h-changes-in-food-availability">Changes in Food Availability</h3>



<p>Changes in temperature can affect the availability of food sources for many species. For example, changes in sea temperature can affect the abundance and location of fish stocks, impacting the birds and mammals that rely on them for food.</p>



<h3 id="h-species-distribution-and-migration">Species Distribution and Migration</h3>



<p>Warmer temperatures can cause changes in species distribution and migration patterns. Some species may move to higher altitudes or latitudes to find cooler conditions, potentially leading to competition with other species.</p>



<p>In many cases, wildlife's ability to adapt to rising temperatures is hindered by other human impacts, such as habitat destruction and pollution. Therefore, efforts to protect wildlife from climate change often involve addressing these other threats as well.</p>



<p>—--</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Brutal effects of climate change have already arrived in the UK

A recent study led by the University of Oxford has...

<p>At the beginning of 2023, the U.S. <a href="https://www.epa.gov/">Environmental Protection Agency</a> (EPA) proposed new rules for maximum allowable levels in drinking water for six per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). Although these human-made so-called “<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forever-chemicals-are-raining-down-all-over-the-world/">forever chemicals</a>” have been widely used since the 1940s in various industrial and consumer products due to their unique properties, such as oil and water resistance, temperature resistance, and low friction, they can persist for a very long time in the environment, accumulate in the food chain, and lead to a number of health risks.</p>



<p>Unfortunately, according to a recent study led by the&nbsp;<a href="https://seas.harvard.edu/">Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences</a>&nbsp;(SEAS), in various sites across the U.S. – particularly in the vicinity of military bases – drinking water currently contains significantly higher levels of PFAS than EPA’s new guidance would allow.</p>



<p>PFAS are present in fire retardant foams which are widely used by the U.S. military for fire training drills and fighting fires in the form of <em>aqueous film forming foam </em>(AFFF), which is one of the largest sources of PFAS contamination in drinking water.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The problem with monitoring the levels of these chemicals in and around military bases stems from the fact that PFAS compounds come in two forms – a precursor and a terminal form. While the terminal compounds do not degrade under normal environmental conditions, the precursor ones are usually transformed through biological and environmental processes into terminal forms. </p>



<p>Since the EPA’s draft drinking water rules are for six terminal compounds, they fail to take into account the massive presence of precursor compounds in military fire-retardant foams.</p>



<p>“Many PFAS precursors present in AFFF are difficult to measure. This work shows that they are slowly transforming into PFAS of health concern at AFFF-contaminated sites and contributing to downstream contamination,” said senior author Elsie Sunderland, a professor of Environmental Chemistry and Earth and Planetary Sciences at SEAS.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Since much of the PFAS at military sites consists of precursors which are omitted from standard analytical methods, Sunderland and her colleagues used a previously developed technique to capture all the precursors in AFFF and model the expected duration and contribution of these precursors to groundwater contamination. The analysis revealed that the contamination of two newly regulated PFAS chemicals - perfluorohexane sulfonate (PFHxS) and perfluorbutane sulfonate (PFBS) – at a military base in Cape Cod, Massachusetts is sustained by microbial precursor transformation in the soil, from which they subsequently leak into groundwater in their terminal form at concentrations thousands of times higher than EPA’s safe threshold.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to the experts, without urgent advances in remediation technology that are effective at cleaning both terminal and precursor compounds, widespread PFAS contamination of drinking water supplies at the Cape Cod military base, as well as possibly 300 other military facilities across the country, is likely to persist for centuries.</p>



<p>“The role of PFAS precursors in sustaining hazardous levels of contamination at Joint Base Cape Cod raises concern about whether exposure risks are underestimated near hundreds of other sites where they are not measured,” concluded lead author Bridger Ruyle, a postdoctoral fellow at <a href="https://carnegiescience.edu/">Carnegie Institution for Science</a> in California and former doctoral student in Sunderland’s lab.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/full/10.1021/acs.est.3c00675"><em>Environmental Science &amp; Technology</em></a>.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-forever-chemicals">More about forever chemicals&nbsp;</h2>



<p>"Forever chemicals" is a term used to describe a group of man-made chemicals that are highly persistent in the environment and in the human body – meaning they don’t break down and can accumulate over time. The most well-known and widely studied of these are per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS).</p>



<p>PFAS are a large group of more than 4,000 synthetic chemicals that are used in a wide variety of industries and products thanks to their resistance to heat, water, and oil. These characteristics have led to their use in a wide array of products, including non-stick cookware and food packaging materials.</p>



<p>However, because PFAS don't readily break down in the environment, they can contaminate soil and water and then accumulate in wildlife and humans. Once in the body, they can stay for a long time and have been associated with a number of health concerns, including certain types of cancer, hormone disruption, liver damage, and issues with the immune system.</p>



<p>In recent years, there has been increasing concern about and attention to the environmental and health impacts of PFAS, leading to efforts to limit their use and improve their management. However, their wide use and persistence make this a significant challenge.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-water-contamination">More about water contamination&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Water contamination can occur due to various factors, including both natural and human activities. Natural contamination can occur due to the presence of minerals like arsenic or fluoride in the groundwater, for instance. On the other hand, human activities can lead to water contamination through industrial effluents, sewage discharge, agricultural runoff, and more.</p>



<p>When it comes to drinking water, PFAS contamination is a major concern. These chemicals can accumulate in water sources like rivers, lakes, or groundwater, eventually making their way into the water supply.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Several methods are available for the treatment and removal of PFAS from water, such as granular activated carbon (GAC), ion exchange resins, and high-pressure membrane systems like reverse osmosis. However, these technologies can be costly and complex to implement, especially for small communities. Also, they don't destroy the PFAS but merely concentrate them, creating a challenge for safe disposal.</p>



<p>In many regions, regulations are being put in place to limit the levels of PFAS allowed in drinking water, and to mandate testing for their presence. There are also ongoing efforts to limit the use of these chemicals, to manage their disposal more effectively, and to clean up contaminated sites.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Forever chemicals are an underestimated source of water contamination

At the beginning of 2023, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency...

<p>Climate change, a global crisis, is poised to push species over their survival tipping points rather abruptly as the geographic range of these species face unprecedented <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/temperature-changes-negatively-impact-bumblebees/">temperature</a> levels. These findings come from a groundbreaking study spearheaded by a researcher at <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London</a>.</p>



<p>Published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41559-023-02070-4"><em>Nature Ecology &amp; Evolution</em></a>, the study has provided crucial predictions on when and where species worldwide are likely to encounter dangerously high temperatures due to climate change.&nbsp;</p>



<p>An international team of researchers from UCL, University of Cape Town, University of Connecticut, and University at Buffalo made this possible by examining data from an extensive list of more than 35,000 animal species.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This list included a diverse range of species, including mammals, amphibians, reptiles, birds, corals, fish, cephalopods, plankton, and seagrasses. The data covered all continents and ocean basins and was studied alongside climate projections running up to 2100.</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-on-tipping-points-was-conducted">How the study on tipping points was conducted</h2>



<p>The researchers' primary focus was on determining when areas within each species' geographic range would cross a crucial threshold of thermal exposure.&nbsp;</p>



<p>They defined this as a period of five consecutive years where temperatures consistently surpass the most extreme monthly temperature experienced by a species across its geographic range over recent history (1850-2014).</p>



<p>Crossing this thermal exposure threshold doesn't spell instant doom for the species, but it certainly rings alarm bells. There is no substantial evidence that these species could survive the higher temperatures. This means that many species could face an abrupt loss of habitat due to future climate change.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-the-researchers-learned">What the researchers learned</h2>



<p>The results revealed a worrying trend. For many animals, the thermal exposure threshold is likely to be crossed within the same decade for much of their geographic range.</p>



<p>“Climate change isn't likely to make environments gradually more challenging for animals to survive in. Rather, large portions of their geographic range are likely to become unfamiliarly hot in a short span of time," said study lead author Dr. Alex Pigot.</p>



<p>“While some animals may endure these higher temperatures, many others will need to relocate to cooler regions or evolve to adapt, something they likely can't achieve within such short timeframes.”</p>



<p>The study also underscored the devastating impact of global warming. If the planet warms by 1.5 degrees Celsius, 15 percent of studied species will be at risk of experiencing unfamiliarly hot temperatures across at least 30 percent of their existing geographic range in a single decade. However, this risk doubles to 30 percent of species at 2.5 degrees of warming.</p>



<p>“Our study is a stark reminder of the urgent need to reduce carbon emissions to alleviate the harmful effects climate change is inflicting on animals and plants, and to avert a massive extinction crisis,” said Dr. Pigot.</p>



<h2 id="h-using-the-study-results-for-conservation-efforts">Using the study results for conservation efforts</h2>



<p>The findings from this study could aid in directing conservation efforts by providing an early warning system to pinpoint when and where particular animals are likely to be at risk.</p>



<p>“Previously, we had snapshots showing the impact of climate change. But now, our data is more like a film, where you can see the changes unfold over time. This shows that for many species the risk is a bit like everything, everywhere, all at once," said study co-author Dr. Christopher Trisos.</p>



<p>“By animating this process, we hope to direct conservation efforts before it’s too late, while also showing the potentially catastrophic consequences of letting climate change continue unchecked.”</p>



<p>The researchers suggest that this pattern of abrupt exposure may be an inevitable feature of living on a round planet – more area is available to species in hotter environments, such as in low-lying areas or near the equator.</p>



<p>Previous studies by the same lead authors suggest that even if we halt climate change so that global temperatures peak and start to decline, the risks to biodiversity could persist for decades.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Furthermore, they found in another analysis similar to the current study that many species facing unfamiliar temperatures will be living alongside other animals experiencing similar temperature shocks. This situation could pose serious threats to local ecosystem functionality.</p>



<h2 id="h-the-time-to-prevent-tipping-points-is-now">The time to prevent tipping points is now</h2>



<p>The research shines a light on the impending crisis for biodiversity due to climate change and emphasizes the urgency of mitigating its impact. This study underscores the urgency of not just mitigating climate change but also preparing to protect biodiversity from the inevitable changes that will occur even if global warming is slowed or stopped.</p>



<p>Dr. Pigot and his team have given us a stark warning about the impact of climate change on biodiversity and the urgency of taking action.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The time for action is now - to reduce carbon emissions, to prepare for changes, and to protect the myriad species that share our planet. This research has provided an invaluable tool for targeting conservation efforts, and the challenge now lies in using this information before it's too late.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-climate-change-tipping-points">More about climate change tipping points</h2>



<p>Climate change tipping points refer to thresholds where a slight rise in Earth's temperature can cause significant changes in the environment and ecosystems. These changes are often abrupt and potentially irreversible. Here's a deeper look at how these tipping points affect plants, animals, and the environment.</p>



<h3 id="h-tipping-points-for-animals">Tipping Points for Animals</h3>



<p>Many animal species have specific climatic conditions in which they can survive. These conditions involve particular temperature ranges, levels of precipitation, and availability of food and water. If the climate changes and crosses these thresholds, these species may struggle to survive. For example, polar bears rely on sea ice to hunt; if the ice melts too early in the year due to rising temperatures, they have less time to find food and reproduce.</p>



<h3 id="h-plants">Plants</h3>



<p>Similar to animals, plants also have specific climatic conditions that allow them to thrive. They may not be able to survive or reproduce effectively if temperatures rise beyond a certain point, or if there are changes in precipitation patterns. Changes in climate can also make plants more susceptible to diseases, pests, and wildfires. For instance, warmer winters might not kill off pests like pine beetles, leading to large-scale tree mortality.</p>



<h3 id="h-environment">Environment</h3>



<p>Climate change can lead to a variety of environmental tipping points. This includes melting of polar ice caps and glaciers, which contributes to rising sea levels and potential flooding of coastal communities. Changes in ocean temperatures can lead to coral bleaching, a phenomenon that can devastate coral reefs and the marine species that rely on them. Warmer temperatures can also lead to more frequent and severe weather events, such as hurricanes, heatwaves, and droughts.</p>



<h3 id="h-interactions">Interactions</h3>



<p>Climate change can also lead to tipping points through interactions between species. For instance, changes in the availability of a particular plant species can affect the herbivores that rely on them for food, which in turn can impact predators. Changes in one part of an ecosystem can have cascading effects that lead to broader ecosystem changes.</p>



<h3 id="h-feedback-loops">Feedback Loops</h3>



<p>There's also the concern about feedback loops. For instance, as the Arctic warms, ice melts and reveals dark water and land that absorb more sunlight, leading to further warming and melting – this is known as the ice-albedo feedback loop. Another example is the thawing of permafrost, which can release stored methane, a potent greenhouse gas, which then contributes further to global warming.</p>



<h3 id="h-global-scale">Global Scale</h3>



<p>On a larger scale, scientists worry about tipping points in the Earth's climate system that could lead to a much warmer world. For instance, the melting of the Greenland ice sheet could eventually raise sea levels by several meters. The dieback of the Amazon rainforest could release vast amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, exacerbating global warming.</p>



<p>These tipping points, once crossed, could lead to significant and largely irreversible changes. Understanding and predicting these thresholds is a crucial part of climate change research and underscores the urgent need for global action to mitigate climate change.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Climate change will abruptly push species over their tipping points

Climate change, a global crisis, is poised to push species...

<p>In an intriguing turn of events in space exploration, astronomers have revealed the discovery of an Earth-sized exoplanet, designated LP 791-18 d, potentially veiled in volcanic activity.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This distant world may witness volcanic eruptions as frequent as those seen on Jupiter's moon Io, renowned as the most volcanically active body in our solar system.</p>



<p>The discovery was made possible by the relentless work of astronomers who scrutinized data from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/tess-transiting-exoplanet-survey-satellite">NASA's TESS</a> (Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite) and the retired Spitzer Space Telescope. To further validate their findings, the team also relied on a host of ground-based observatories.</p>



<p>Merrin Peterson, an alumnus of the Trottier Institute for Research on Exoplanets (iREx) based at the <a href="https://www.umontreal.ca/en/">University of Montreal</a>, spearheaded the research. The results of the study were recently published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/"><em>Nature</em></a>.</p>



<h2 id="h-what-we-know-about-lp-791-18-d">What we know about LP 791-18 d</h2>



<p>Björn Benneke, an iREx astronomy professor who was a significant contributor to the research, shed light on the planet's unique features.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“LP 791-18 d is tidally locked, which means the same side constantly faces its star,” he explained. “The day side would probably be too hot for liquid water to exist on the surface. But the volcanic activity that we suspect pervades the planet could uphold an atmosphere, which may, in turn, allow water to condense on the night side.”</p>



<p>The exoplanet orbits a petite red dwarf star in the southern constellation Crater, roughly 90 light-years away from us. The team's estimates suggest that LP 791-18 d is just slightly larger and denser than Earth.</p>



<p>Before this discovery, astronomers had already identified two other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernova-explosions-could-damage-distant-planets/">planets</a> within the same system, tagged as LP 791-18 b and c. The innermost planet, b, surpasses Earth by about 20% in size. Meanwhile, the outer planet, c, is approximately 2.5 times the size of Earth and boasts more than seven times its mass.</p>



<p>The intriguing dynamics of this system emerge during each orbit. Both planets d and c have a close encounter, during which the heavier planet c exerts a gravitational tug on planet d, resulting in a somewhat elliptical orbit.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This gravitational dance causes planet d to deform slightly with each orbit, which in turn could generate sufficient internal friction to heat the planet's core, triggering surface volcanism - a phenomenon akin to the gravitational effects of Jupiter and its moons on Io.</p>



<h2 id="h-lp-791-18-d-lives-inside-the-habitable-zone">LP 791-18 d lives inside the habitable zone</h2>



<p>LP 791-18 d resides on the inner fringe of the habitable zone, the region around a star where scientists theorize the existence of liquid water on a planet's surface. Assuming the planet exhibits as much geological activity as the researchers suspect, an atmosphere could be sustained. This would allow temperatures to plummet enough on the planet's dark side for water to condense.</p>



<p>The team already secured observing time for planet c on the James Webb Space Telescope, and they believe planet d presents an equally promising candidate for atmospheric studies.</p>



<p>Jessie Christiansen, a research scientist at NASA's Exoplanet Science Institute at Caltech, emphasized the implications of these findings.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“A big question in astrobiology, the field that broadly studies the origins of life on Earth and beyond, is if tectonic or volcanic activity is necessary for life,” she said. “In addition to potentially providing an atmosphere, these processes could churn up materials that would otherwise sink down and get trapped in the crust, including those we think are important for life, like carbon.”</p>



<h2 id="h-the-enduring-value-of-the-spitzer-space-telescope">The enduring value of the Spitzer Space Telescope</h2>



<p>Finally, these discoveries underscore the enduring value of Spitzer's mission, despite its decommission in January 2020.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“It is incredible to read about the continuation of discoveries and publications years beyond Spitzer’s end of mission,” said Joseph Hunt, Spitzer project manager at NASA's <a href="https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/">Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> in Southern California. "That really shows the success of our first-class engineers and scientists. Together they built not only a spacecraft but also a data set that continues to be an asset for the astrophysics community.”</p>



<p>The enduring legacy of the Spitzer Space Telescope is evident in the new findings about LP 791-18 d. The data it collected over its operational lifespan continues to unveil new worlds, fostering a deeper understanding of the universe.</p>



<p>The discovery of LP 791-18 d, a world that might resemble a fiery, volcanic version of our own, stirs up excitement and curiosity in the scientific community. Its unique features and dynamics also open up new questions regarding the conditions required for life to exist.</p>



<p>As our quest for understanding the universe continues, it's discoveries like these that fuel our collective imagination and deepen our knowledge of the cosmos.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Undoubtedly, the study of LP 791-18 d and its system will provide invaluable insights into the mechanisms that govern other celestial bodies, perhaps even shedding light on the mysteries of our own planet.</p>



<p>As we await further observations from the James Webb Space Telescope, the scientific community is abuzz with anticipation, eager to unveil more secrets of LP 791-18 d.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This discovery is not just an achievement in the field of exoplanetary research; it's a testament to human curiosity and the relentless pursuit of understanding the universe that surrounds us.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-hunt-for-habitable-exoplanets">More about the hunt for habitable exoplanets</h2>



<p>The search for habitable exoplanets — planets that orbit stars outside our solar system — is a hot topic in the field of astronomy and astrobiology. Scientists aim to find worlds that could potentially support life as we know it.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This primarily involves seeking planets, such as LP 791-18 d, that are not only within the habitable zone, also known as the "Goldilocks zone," of their respective stars, but also have conditions that could support liquid water - a crucial ingredient for life as we know it.</p>



<h2 id="h-the-goldilocks-zone">The Goldilocks zone</h2>



<p>To begin, the "Goldilocks zone" is a term used to define the region around a star where the conditions are just right - not too hot, not too cold - for liquid water to exist on a planet's surface. This zone's location depends on the star's size and temperature. For instance, a small, relatively cool star's habitable zone would be much closer to the star compared to the habitable zone around a larger, hotter star.</p>



<p>In the hunt for these potentially habitable exoplanets, scientists primarily use two methods: the transit method and the radial velocity method.</p>



<p>The transit method involves observing the light coming from a star and looking for periodic dimming. This dimming suggests that a planet is passing in front of the star, blocking some of its light. NASA's <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/kepler/overview/index.html">Kepler Space Telescope</a> and TESS (Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite) have been remarkably successful in finding exoplanets using this method.</p>



<p>On the other hand, the radial velocity method - also known as Doppler spectroscopy - involves observing the star's light for periodic shifts in its color. These shifts suggest that a planet is pulling on the star as it orbits, causing the star to move towards and away from us in a regular pattern.</p>



<h2 id="h-complexity-of-determining-if-life-can-exist-on-an-exoplanet">Complexity of determining if life can exist on an exoplanet</h2>



<p>While these methods can identify exoplanets and provide some information about their size, orbit, and mass, determining whether these planets are truly habitable is a much more complex task.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Scientists use computer models to simulate the planets' potential atmospheres and surface conditions based on their size, distance from their star, and their star's temperature.</p>



<p>The <a href="https://webb.nasa.gov/">James Webb Space Telescope</a> will provide even more sophisticated tools for characterizing the atmospheres of exoplanets. It's expected to detect and analyze the chemical composition of exoplanet atmospheres, offering clues about whether these worlds could support life.</p>



<p>Although LP 791-18 d shows promise being in the "Goldilocks zone,", no exoplanet has been confirmed as habitable, and the search continues. However, several potentially habitable exoplanets have been found. These include Proxima Centauri b, located in the habitable zone of the nearest star to our solar system, and the seven Earth-sized planets in the TRAPPIST-1 system.</p>



<p>The hunt for habitable exoplanets is not just about finding alien life. It's also about understanding the conditions that make life possible and how common these conditions might be in the universe. Each discovery brings us one step closer to answering the fundamental question: Are we alone in the universe?</p>



<p><em>Image Credit: NASA</em></p>



<p>—--</p>



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New exoplanet: Earth-sized world, dubbed LP 791-18 d, is covered in volcanoes

In an intriguing turn of events in space exploration, astronomers...

<p>Although they occupy only seven percent of our planet’s land area, tropical rainforests are the Earth’s largest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/carbon-sinks-are-a-powerful-weapon-against-climate-change/">carbon sinks</a>, storing between 25 and 40 percent of global soil carbon and thus mitigating to a certain extent some of climate change’s most severe impacts.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to a new study led by <a href="https://www.colostate.edu/">Colorado State University</a> (CSU) and supported by the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/">National Science Foundation</a>, climate change will significantly affect the carbon storage capacities of tropical rainforests, with persistent drying caused by reductions in rainfall leading to carbon loss from the most fertile soils.</p>



<p>“Tropical forests can be really sensitive to reductions in rainfall and they have some of the largest stores of carbon on Earth. As climate is drying, that carbon is vulnerable,” said study lead author Daniela Cusack, an associate professor of Ecosystem Science and Sustainability at CSU.</p>



<p>“All that carbon that’s stored in rainforests right now is like a bank. We’re banking all that carbon and anything that releases that carbon is going to exacerbate climate change and impact everybody.”</p>



<p>By assessing the effects of natural seasonal drying and persistent reductions in rainfall on carbon fluxes in tropical forests, the experts discovered that these phenomena suppress the release of carbon dioxide.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“There was some resilience at first, which makes sense because these are seasonal forests, so they’re used to a dry season,” Cusack explained. “But it seems like after that initial resilience, we’re hitting a threshold where things are shifting more rapidly in some tropical forests.”</p>



<p>The ecosystem model that the experts used predicted that chronic drying would increase the release of carbon dioxide from wetter and more fertile tropical forests, while decreasing carbon dioxide fluxes from drier forests.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“We had predicted that the wettest site would be most sensitive to drying. It’s the least adapted to drier conditions,” Cusack said.</p>



<p>The scientists expected that, as the wettest sites dry down, they would become more favorable for microbes that decompose carbon in soil and turn it into carbon dioxide. Surprisingly though, the investigation revealed that the wettest sites lost the least carbon, while the most fertile ones lost the most.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These findings suggest that different tropical forests will respond differently – and on different time frames - to climate change, and that the most fertile soils across the tropics could be the first to lose high amounts of carbon as the planet keeps warming.</p>



<p>“This research adds to our understanding of the relationship between tropical forest conditions and carbon sequestration,” said NSF’s program director Tom Evans. “Tropical rainforests are an important carbon sink, and this research documents that different types of tropical forest regimes exhibit different responses to changing climate conditions.”</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/2022GB007473"><em>Global Geochemical Cycles</em></a><em>.</em>&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-the-future-of-tropical-rainforests">The future of tropical rainforests&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The future of tropical rainforests is a topic of concern and interest due to their critical importance for biodiversity, climate regulation, and human well-being. Here are some key aspects that are currently being discussed and addressed by scientists, environmentalists, and policymakers:</p>



<h3 id="h-deforestation">Deforestation</h3>



<p>Deforestation remains a significant threat to tropical rainforests. The expansion of agriculture, logging, and infrastructure development, driven by economic interests, poses a severe risk to these ecosystems. Efforts are being made to promote sustainable land-use practices, increase protected areas, and enforce stricter regulations to combat deforestation.</p>



<h3 id="h-climate-change">Climate Change</h3>



<p>Climate change is expected to impact tropical rainforests in multiple ways. Rising temperatures, altered rainfall patterns, and increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events can affect the distribution and health of rainforest ecosystems. Mitigating climate change through global efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions is crucial for the long-term survival of these forests.</p>



<h3 id="h-biodiversity-loss">Biodiversity Loss</h3>



<p>Tropical rainforests are home to an incredible array of plant and animal species. However, deforestation and habitat fragmentation threaten biodiversity by reducing available habitats and disrupting ecological processes. Conservation initiatives, such as the creation of protected areas, habitat restoration, and species conservation programs, are vital for preserving biodiversity in rainforest regions.</p>



<h3 id="h-indigenous-rights-and-local-communities">Indigenous Rights and Local Communities</h3>



<p>Recognizing and respecting the rights of indigenous peoples and local communities who live in or depend on rainforest ecosystems is crucial. Their traditional knowledge and sustainable practices can contribute to the conservation and sustainable management of these forests. Empowering these communities to participate in decision-making processes and supporting their livelihoods are important for the future of rainforest conservation.</p>



<h3 id="h-technology-and-innovation">Technology and Innovation</h3>



<p>Technology can play a significant role in monitoring and managing tropical rainforests. Advances in remote sensing, satellite imagery, and data analysis enable more accurate monitoring of deforestation and forest health. Additionally, sustainable practices such as agroforestry, which combines agriculture and forestry, can provide alternative livelihoods while conserving forested areas.</p>



<h3 id="h-international-collaboration">International Collaboration</h3>



<p>Addressing the challenges facing tropical rainforests requires global collaboration. Governments, organizations, and individuals need to work together to implement effective policies, share knowledge and resources, and support initiatives that prioritize rainforest conservation. International agreements like the Paris Agreement and initiatives like REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation) aim to address these issues.</p>



<p>It is important to note that the future of tropical rainforests depends on the collective efforts of governments, organizations, and individuals to protect and sustainably manage these invaluable ecosystems. By promoting sustainable practices, reducing deforestation, combating climate change, and supporting local communities, we can contribute to a more positive future for tropical rainforests.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



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Tropical forests are losing their carbon storage capacity

Although they occupy only seven percent of our planet’s land...

<p>Over 80 percent of habitats within the European Union are currently classified as vulnerable, leading to butterflies declining and other adverse effects on the functional capacity of wildlife habitats and the services they offer to humans. To address this issue, the European Commission has introduced a fresh set of regulations known as the “<a href="https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/nature-and-biodiversity/nature-restoration-law_en">Nature Restoration Law</a>.” </p>



<p>This law is a crucial component of the <a href="https://environment.ec.europa.eu/strategy/biodiversity-strategy-2030_en">EU Biodiversity Strategy 2030</a>, which is scheduled to be released in May 2023, and aims to establish binding objectives for the restoration of diverse ecosystems throughout the entire EU. Within two years of the law taking effect, member states are required to submit plans outlining their strategies for achieving these targets and provide evidence of the effectiveness of their implemented measures.</p>



<p>However, this will be far from easy, since there are only a few indicators that can reliably show the state of biodiversity. For most plant and animal species, there is a lack of comparable data across Europe that could be used to assess the status of populations. Fortunately, there are a few exceptions, such as bats, birds, and butterflies, for which a larger amount of data is currently available.</p>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mystery-solved-when-butterflies-evolved-and-what-plants-they-used-for-food/">Butterflies</a> in particular are ideal bioindicators since they live in a wide range of habitats and react sensitively to environmental changes. Moreover, they are attractive and popular, making it relatively easy to motivate volunteers to participate in scientifically oriented butterfly counts.&nbsp;</p>



<p>For instance, since the establishment of the citizen science project Butterfly Monitoring Germany in 2005, such programs have been developed all across Europe, leading to over 5,000 volunteers currently participating in butterfly monitoring efforts, with data collected and analyzed in the central <a href="https://butterfly-monitoring.net/">European Butterfly Monitoring Scheme</a> (eBMS). This data can then be used to track the population development of individual species and identify common trends for the inhabitants of certain habitats.</p>



<p>This is the idea behind the recent “<a href="https://assets.vlinderstichting.nl/docs/290cb16a-e90f-4c5b-a7df-9b954d511cfa.pdf">Butterfly Grassland Indicator 1990-2020</a>,” which is based on the population trends of 17 butterfly species inhabiting Europe’s meadows and pastures.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This indicator currently shows that, across the 27 EU members states, only the Orange Tip&nbsp;(<em>Anthocharis cardamines</em>) butterfly is displaying a moderate increase, while three species - the Large Skipper (<em>Ochlodes sylvanus</em>), the Common Copper (<em>Lycaena phlaeas</em>), and the Meadow Brown (<em>Maniola jurtina</em>) - are stable.</p>



<p>Meanwhile, butterflies are declining across five species, including the Common Blue (<em>Polyommatus icarus</em>) and the Wall Brown (<em>Lasiommata megera</em>). </p>



<p>“The biggest loser in recent years has been the large blue (<em>Phengaris arion</em>), which for example has disappeared completely in the Netherlands,” said Josef Settele, an agricultural ecologist at the <a href="https://www.ufz.de/">Helmholtz Center for Environmental Research</a> (UFZ).&nbsp;For the remaining species among the 17 grassland butterflies, there is either no clear trend or insufficient data. If the analysis is extended to Europe as a whole, the situation is even more dire, with no species on the rise and only three currently stable.</p>



<p>According to the experts, the issue of butterflies declining across populations is mainly due to changes in agriculture. In Northwestern Europe, the intensive use of meadows and pastures and the heavy employment of fertilizers have particularly unfavorable effects. On the rest of the continent, the main problem is the complete abandonment of cultivation.</p>



<p>In order to reverse these negative trends, scientists and policymakers should urgently promote the sustainable use of meadows and pastures, while creating new valuable habitats and better connecting the already existing ones. Moreover, effective climate change mitigation could also play a significant role in protecting butterfly populations.</p>



<p>“Despite all efforts, these insects are still declining in many parts of Europe. We hope that the upcoming Nature Restoration Law can stop this decline so that our children can also enjoy butterflies in flower-rich grasslands,” concluded Chris van Swaay, an expert in Conservation Biology at Butterfly Conservation Europe.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-why-butterflies-are-declining">More about why butterflies are declining</h2>



<p>Butterfly populations have been experiencing significant declines worldwide for several decades. The causes are multifaceted, and factors contributing to butterfly decline include:</p>



<h3 id="h-habitat-loss-and-fragmentation">Habitat Loss and Fragmentation</h3>



<p>This is perhaps the most significant reason for the decline in butterfly populations. Natural habitats are being destroyed at an alarming rate due to human activities such as urbanization, intensive agriculture, and deforestation.&nbsp;</p>



<p>These activities not only reduce the amount of space available for butterflies but also result in fragmented habitats that make it difficult for butterflies to migrate and find the resources they need for survival.</p>



<h3 id="h-climate-change-and-butterflies-declining-populations">Climate Change and butterflies declining populations</h3>



<p>Changes in weather patterns, increased temperatures, and higher frequency of extreme weather events can disrupt butterfly life cycles and affect their survival. Some butterfly species are particularly sensitive to temperature changes, and global warming could lead to mismatches in the timing of butterfly emergence and the availability of food resources.</p>



<h3 id="h-pesticides-and-pollution">Pesticides and Pollution</h3>



<p>The use of chemical pesticides in agriculture can directly kill butterflies or reduce their food sources. Similarly, air and water pollution can have detrimental effects on butterfly populations.</p>



<h3 id="h-invasive-species">Invasive Species</h3>



<p>Non-native plants and animals can outcompete native species for resources, change habitats, or even prey on butterflies directly.</p>



<h3 id="h-disease-and-parasites">Disease and Parasites</h3>



<p>Disease and parasites can also contribute to butterfly decline, especially when combined with other stressors that weaken butterfly populations.</p>



<p>To combat this phenomenon of butterflies declining, conservation efforts are being made, such as creating butterfly-friendly habitats, reducing pesticide use, and conducting research to better understand the needs and threats to butterfly species. Many of these efforts involve public participation, like citizen science projects where people help monitor butterfly populations and report sightings.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



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Grassland butterflies declining all over Europe

Over 80 percent of habitats within the European Union are...

<p>Unprecedented, scorching temperatures around the world are on the horizon, warns the <a href="https://public.wmo.int/en">World Meteorological Organization</a> (WMO). Greenhouse gases coupled with an impending <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellite-detects-early-warning-signs-of-an-el-nino-event/">El Niño</a> event are anticipated to thrust our planet into new thermal territory over the next five years.</p>



<p>The WMO's latest update presents a daunting 66% likelihood that at least one year between 2023 and 2027 will see the annual average near-surface global temperature exceed 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 id="h-dire-warnings-from-the-wmo">Dire warnings from the WMO</h2>



<p>Furthermore, there's a staggering 98% chance that one or more of the upcoming five years will set new warmth records, with the five-year span as a whole anticipated to be the hottest yet recorded.</p>



<p>WMO Secretary-General, Professor Petteri Taalas, clarified, “This report does not mean that we will permanently exceed the 1.5°C level specified in the Paris Agreement which refers to long-term warming over many years."&nbsp;</p>



<p>Nevertheless, the WMO is adamant about the imminent risk of breaching the 1.5°C threshold temporarily with increasing frequency.</p>



<p>“A warming El Niño is expected to develop in the coming months and this will combine with human-induced climate change to push global temperatures into uncharted territory," said Professor Taalas.</p>



<h2 id="h-impact-of-these-scorching-temperatures">Impact of these scorching temperatures</h2>



<p>The impact of this trend, he highlighted, will extend beyond mere scorching temperatures and meteorological records. It also has the potential implications for health, food security, water management, and the environment at large. He urged preparedness in face of these unprecedented climatic challenges.</p>



<p>The UK's Met Office, leading the WMO's climate predictions, indicates that the five-year mean exceeding the 1.5°C threshold holds a less intimidating but still significant 32% likelihood. The odds of breaching the 1.5°C mark, even temporarily, have been on the rise since 2015, when the likelihood was virtually nil. By contrast, between 2017 and 2021, the odds had grown to a notable 10%.</p>



<p>Dr Leon Hermanson, a Met Office expert scientist who spearheaded the report, expressed concern over the forecast. “Global mean temperatures are predicted to continue increasing, moving us away further and further away from the climate we are used to,” he stated.</p>



<h2 id="h-the-report-also-highlighted-several-key-points">The report also highlighted several key points:</h2>



<p>The average global temperature in 2022 stood roughly 1.15°C above the 1850-1900 average. La Niña conditions over the past three years have momentarily slowed the long-term warming, but with La Niña's end in March 2023 and an impending El Niño, the currently scorching temperatures are expected to rise even further in 2024.</p>



<p>Every year between 2023 and 2027 is predicted to record an annual mean global near-surface temperature between 1.1°C and 1.8°C above the 1850-1900 average – a time when industrial activities and human behaviors had yet to contribute significantly to greenhouse gas emissions.</p>



<p>The likelihood of at least one year in the next five breaking the 2016 record temperature - a year of an exceptionally potent El Niño - is 98%.</p>



<p>The five-year average for 2023-2027 surpassing the last five years stands at a similar 98% chance.</p>



<p>The Arctic is warming at an alarming rate, with the temperature anomaly predicted to be over three times the global mean anomaly throughout the next five northern hemisphere winters.</p>



<p>Rainfall patterns from May to September 2023-2027, compared to the 1991-2020 average, predict more rain in the Sahel, northern Europe, Alaska, and northern Siberia, and less in the Amazon and parts of Australia.</p>



<h2 id="h-can-the-paris-agreement-help-prevent-these-scorching-temperatures">Can the Paris Agreement help prevent these scorching temperatures?</h2>



<p>The Paris Agreement, which aims to substantially reduce global greenhouse gas emissions and limit the global temperature increase and the scorching temperatures this century to 2 °C - ideally to</p>



<p>1.5 °C - is even more critical given these projections. Greenhouse gases, primarily human-induced, are causing not only global temperatures to rise but also leading to increased ocean heating and acidification, more rapid melting of sea ice and glaciers, rising sea levels, and an uptick in extreme weather events.</p>



<p>The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change asserts that the risks climate change poses to both natural and human systems are significantly higher for global warming of 1.5 °C compared to the current state, and far more severe at 2 °C.</p>



<h2 id="h-underscoring-the-urgency-of-these-findings">Underscoring the urgency of these findings</h2>



<p>The urgency of these findings is underscored by the timing of the report's release, just ahead of the World Meteorological Congress (22 May to 2 June). The Congress will focus on bolstering weather and climate services to aid in climate change adaptation.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Key items on the agenda include the ongoing Early Warnings for All initiative, aiming to protect people from increasingly extreme weather, and the development of a new Greenhouse Gas Monitoring Infrastructure to better inform climate mitigation efforts.</p>



<p>The rallying cry from the scientific community is clear: increasing global temperatures are a reality we must face. It's not just about hotter summers; it's about a fundamental shift in our planet's climate system. The question now is, how will we respond? The time for preparation and action is now. After all, our future, as these predictions indicate, is likely to be warmer than our past.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-global-warming-and-scorching-temperatures">More about global warming and scorching temperatures</h2>



<p>Global warming refers to the long-term increase in Earth's average temperature due to human activities, primarily the emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O). This gradual rise in scorching temperatures, which began during the Industrial Revolution, has accelerated in recent decades, with the warmest years on record occurring since the late 20th century.</p>



<p>The primary driver of global warming is the greenhouse effect. Certain gases in Earth's atmosphere, known as greenhouse gases, trap heat from the sun, preventing it from escaping back into space. This natural process is vital for life as it keeps the planet warm enough to sustain it.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, human activities such as burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas) for energy and deforestation have increased the concentration of these gases in the atmosphere, enhancing the greenhouse effect and causing the planet to heat up more than it naturally would.</p>



<p>The effects of global warming are widespread and potentially devastating. They include:</p>



<h3 id="h-rising-sea-levels">Rising Sea Levels</h3>



<p>As global temperatures rise, these scorching temperatures have a direct impact on polar ice caps and glaciers melt, adding more water to the oceans. Additionally, the water in the oceans expands as it warms. Both these factors contribute to a rise in sea levels, which can lead to coastal flooding and the loss of habitable land.</p>



<h3 id="h-increased-frequency-and-severity-of-extreme-weather-events">Increased Frequency and Severity of Extreme Weather Events</h3>



<p>Global warming contributes to more frequent and intense weather events such as heatwaves, droughts, heavy rainfall, and hurricanes. These can have devastating effects on human societies and natural ecosystems.</p>



<h3 id="h-ocean-acidification">Ocean Acidification</h3>



<p>The oceans absorb about a quarter of the CO2 humans produce. When CO2 dissolves in seawater, it forms carbonic acid, leading to ocean acidification. This change in ocean chemistry is harmful to marine life, particularly organisms with calcium carbonate shells or skeletons, such as corals, shellfish, and some types of plankton.</p>



<h3 id="h-scorching-temperatures-and-their-impact-on-biodiversity">Scorching temperatures and their Impact on Biodiversity</h3>



<p>Global warming affects ecosystems and habitats, threatening wildlife and biodiversity. Some species may be unable to survive or reproduce in warmer conditions or may be unable to move to more suitable habitats, leading to population declines or even extinction.</p>



<h3 id="h-human-health-risks">Human Health Risks</h3>



<p>Warmer temperatures can lead to heat-related illnesses and deaths. They can also contribute to the spread of diseases carried by vectors such as mosquitoes and ticks, which thrive in warmer climates.</p>



<p>Addressing global warming requires international cooperation and significant changes in how we produce and consume energy. The Paris Agreement, a global effort to combat climate change, aims to limit global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels, and to pursue efforts to limit the scorching temperatures increase to 1.5 degrees Celsius. </p>



<p>Achieving these goals will require transitioning to renewable energy sources, increasing energy efficiency, protecting and restoring forests, and developing technologies to remove CO2 from the atmosphere.</p>



<p>—--</p>



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Scorching temperatures will soon set new records around the world

Unprecedented, scorching temperatures around the world are on the horizon,...

<p>Long-spined <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-urchins-can-tolerate-hot-acidic-ocean-water/">sea urchins</a> (<em>Diadema antillarum</em>) are vital herbivores that graze on algae. If left unchecked, algae often outcompete corals for space and resources, blanket them, block their light, and ultimately kill them. Thus, by feeding upon them, sea urchins are crucial for maintaining coral health and balance in marine ecosystems.</p>



<p>Unfortunately, in late January 2022, <em>Diadema </em>die-offs started to be reported in St. Thomas in the U.S. Virgin Islands. By late March, urchins from the Lesser Antilles, Jamaica, and the Mexican Caribbean began to be affected too, and by June mortalities were spiking in most of the Great Antilles, Florida, and Curaçao, leading to declines of 85 to 95 percent in sea urchin populations.</p>



<p>Recently, an international team of 42 scientists funded by the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/">National Science Foundation</a> (NSF) has managed to identify the culprit behind these severe die-offs: <em>Philaster apodigitiformis</em>, a unicellular eukaryote belonging to a group of 8,000 species called ciliates. Although <em>P. apodigiformis </em>has been known to infect fish, this is the first time that it was found to infect and cause mass mortality in invertebrates.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Rarely are we afforded the opportunity to understand marine disease events in this detail, where we can actually work out a cause of it,” said study lead author Ian Hewson, a marine ecologist at <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/">Cornell University</a>.</p>



<p>Although scientists are not yet sure how to treat <em>P. apodigitiformis </em>infections, discovering the identity of this parasite could help them develop strategies for maintaining the health of sea urchins that are currently being raised for restocking efforts across these regions.</p>



<p>“There’s a long history of&nbsp;<em>Diadema</em>&nbsp;die-off; the big one happened in the 1980s, with the cause still unknown, and cascaded into a loss of 80-90 percent of the coral cover in the Caribbean,” said Dan Thornhill, a program director in NSF’s <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/div/index.jsp?div=OCE">Division of Ocean Sciences</a>.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“There were a lot of factors involved, but the urchin die-off was the tipping point. It’s an ecological tragedy. It’s fairly rare and exciting to identify the parasite or pathogen behind one of these diseases in marine ecosystems, and to do it this quickly is impressive.”</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adg3200"><em>Science Advances</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-infectious-parasites">More about infectious parasites&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Infectious parasites are organisms that infect hosts, such as humans, animals, and plants, causing various diseases. These parasites can be categorized into three main types: protozoa, helminths, and ectoparasites.</p>



<h3 id="h-protozoa">Protozoa</h3>



<p>These are microscopic, single-celled organisms that can multiply in humans. They are typically transmitted through the fecal-oral route (for example, through contaminated food or water or person-to-person contact). They can also be transmitted through vectors, such as mosquitoes.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Some common diseases caused by protozoan parasites include malaria (caused by Plasmodium species), amoebic dysentery (caused by Entamoeba histolytica), and giardiasis (caused by Giardia lamblia).</p>



<h3 id="h-helminths">Helminths</h3>



<p>Also known as parasitic worms, these are larger and more complex organisms. They include flatworms (like tapeworms and flukes) and roundworms (like hookworms, pinworms, and trichinella).&nbsp;</p>



<p>Helminths usually cannot multiply in humans. They are typically transmitted through soil-transmitted routes (i.e., eggs present in human feces are deposited on soil and can infect others if ingested or if they penetrate the skin).</p>



<h3 id="h-ectoparasites">Ectoparasites</h3>



<p>These are parasites that live on the surface of the host. They include lice, fleas, ticks, and mites. Ectoparasites can transmit diseases from one host to another. Lyme disease (caused by Borrelia burgdorferi and transmitted by ticks) and plague (caused by Yersinia pestis and transmitted by fleas) are examples of diseases transmitted by ectoparasites.</p>



<p>Infectious parasites can cause a range of symptoms from mild discomfort to severe illness and death, depending on the type of parasite, the number of parasites, and the individual's health status. They are more common in areas with poor sanitation and unsafe water sources.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Many preventive strategies focus on improving sanitation, providing safe drinking water, and educating communities about personal hygiene. Treatment usually involves specific anti-parasitic drugs. In some cases, preventive treatments may be administered to at-risk populations.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-sea-urchins">More about sea urchins&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Sea urchins are marine invertebrates found in oceans worldwide. Their interactions with the environment, including their response to climate change, are complex and multifaceted. Here are a few key points to understand:</p>



<h3 id="h-role-in-ecosystems">Role in Ecosystems</h3>



<p>Sea urchins play a crucial role in marine ecosystems, particularly in kelp forests where they are a keystone species. They feed on kelp and help maintain balance in the ecosystem.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, in the absence of their natural predators (like sea otters or some species of fish and lobsters), their population can explode, leading to overgrazing and what's known as an "urchin barren."</p>



<h3 id="h-climate-change-impact-on-sea-urchins">Climate Change Impact on Sea Urchins</h3>



<p>Climate change has been linked to changes in sea urchin populations and behavior. Warming waters may alter the habitats of sea urchins, pushing them towards the poles.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Additionally, ocean acidification, another result of increased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, can impact the ability of sea urchins to form and maintain their calcium carbonate shells.</p>



<h3 id="h-sea-urchins-and-carbon-sequestration">Sea Urchins and Carbon Sequestration</h3>



<p>Research has suggested that sea urchins may play a role in carbon sequestration. Kelp forests, which sea urchins help regulate, are excellent at capturing and storing carbon.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, if urchin populations become too large due to a loss of predators or other factors, they can overgraze and destroy these kelp forests, releasing stored carbon back into the atmosphere and negatively impacting this natural carbon sink.</p>



<h3 id="h-effect-of-sea-urchin-s-diet">Effect of Sea Urchin's Diet</h3>



<p>Some studies have shown that the diet of sea urchins might affect their resilience to climate change. For instance, urchins that feed on a certain type of algae seem to be more resilient to ocean acidification.</p>



<h3 id="h-sea-urchins-as-a-resource">Sea Urchins as a Resource</h3>



<p>In some regions, sea urchins are harvested for their roe, which is a delicacy in many cuisines. Changes in climate could potentially affect the availability of this resource.</p>



<p>The relationship between sea urchins and climate change is an active area of research, and new insights are likely to emerge as scientists learn more about these intriguing creatures and their role in the marine ecosystem.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/eric-ralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a>.</p>

Experts identify the parasite causing mass mortality in sea urchins

Long-spined sea urchins (Diadema antillarum) are vital herbivores that graze...

<p>In the twilight hours of this evening, and for the following week, observers of the night sky will have the chance to witness an ethereal spectacle that has been dubbed the "Da Vinci glow." This enigmatic light show, anticipated to occur around the period of the New Moon on May 19, is named in honor of the Italian genius who first decoded its cause over half a millennium ago.</p>



<p>Leonardo da Vinci, remembered primarily for his extraordinary contributions to art and science, is often associated with masterpieces such as the Mona Lisa and innovative designs that were far ahead of his time. Yet, in the realm of astronomy, he made a remarkable discovery that is less frequently acknowledged.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Da Vinci solved the puzzle of Earthshine, a celestial phenomenon that imparts a ghostly illumination to the Moon's surface.</p>



<p>"When the Moon is a thin crescent, you can often see the dark part of the moon shining faintly. At first glance, this may seem quite mysterious as the crescent is the part of the Moon that is illuminated by the sun – so where does the light from the unilluminated part of the Moon come from? In fact, what we are seeing is light from the Earth being reflected back from the Moon! Hence the name Earthshine," explained Professor Don Pollacco of the <a href="https://warwick.ac.uk/">University of Warwick</a>.</p>



<p>In essence, Earthshine results from the sun's light reflecting off the Earth's surface and then bouncing back off the Moon's surface into our field of vision. Although this ghostly glow can usually be observed for several days before and after each New Moon, its visibility peaks during springtime at mid-northern latitudes. This increased visibility is due to the Moon's position directly above the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-sun-may-be-the-original-source-of-earths-water/">Sun</a> at the time of its setting each evening.</p>



<p>However, Earthshine can become difficult to perceive as the Moon's illumination intensifies. "As the Moon is more fully illuminated, its brightness increases hugely, and the faint Earthshine gets difficult to see," explained Professor Pollacco.</p>



<p>NASA has recognized Leonardo da Vinci's insightful understanding of the Earthshine phenomenon. The space agency stated: "When you think of Leonardo Da Vinci, you probably think of the Mona Lisa or 16th-century submarines or, maybe, a certain suspenseful novel. That's old school. From now on, think of the Moon."&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Little-known to most, one of Leonardo's finest works is not a painting or an invention, but rather something from astronomy: He solved the ancient riddle of Earthshine."</p>



<p>While Da Vinci was largely accurate in his understanding, he did make a few misinterpretations. He reportedly believed that Earth's oceans were the main source of Earthshine, while modern scientific understanding suggests clouds and sea ice reflect the most light. Yet, these minor inaccuracies, which NASA refers to as "quibbles," do not diminish the significance of da Vinci's central discovery.</p>



<p>Given clear weather conditions, those eager to view the "Da Vinci glow" should look to the eastern sky from May 15 to May 17, before sunrise. As reported by LiveScience, the Moon will be at its lowest illumination of seven percent on Wednesday.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Following the New Moon, Earthshine can be observed in the western sky from May 21 to May 23, with the Moon's illumination being around five per cent on Sunday.</p>



<p>In essence, the "Da Vinci glow" offers us a chance to connect with the past, appreciating not only the beauty of the cosmos but also the enduring impact of Leonardo da Vinci's pioneering scientific inquiries.</p>



<h2 id="h-mysteries-of-the-moon">Mysteries of the Moon</h2>



<p>The Moon, Earth's only natural satellite, has been the subject of wonder, scientific study, and exploration for centuries. Despite our increasing understanding, there are still many aspects of the Moon that remain mysterious:</p>



<h3 id="h-origin-of-the-moon">Origin of the Moon</h3>



<p>The most widely accepted theory about the Moon's origin is the Giant Impact Hypothesis, also known as the Theia Impact. This theory suggests that a Mars-sized body named Theia collided with the early Earth around 4.5 billion years ago, and the debris from this impact eventually coalesced to form the Moon. However, this theory still has its complications and unanswered questions, such as the Moon's isotopic composition being almost identical to Earth's, which is an unexpected outcome of this hypothesis.</p>



<h3 id="h-moonquakes">Moonquakes</h3>



<p>Just like Earth, the Moon experiences quakes. However, the source of these moonquakes is less clear. Some are likely caused by the gravitational interaction between the Earth and the Moon, but others seem to be linked to the cooling and contracting of the Moon's interior, causing it to "crack" and create seismic activity.</p>



<h3 id="h-lunar-water">Lunar Water</h3>



<p>The discovery of water ice in shadowed lunar craters by various lunar missions, including NASA's LCROSS, has raised many questions about the source and extent of lunar water. Understanding how much water is on the Moon, where it's located, and how it got there is crucial for future lunar exploration and potential human habitation.</p>



<h3 id="h-far-side-of-the-moon">Far Side of the Moon</h3>



<p>The Moon's far side (often incorrectly referred to as the "dark side") is very different from the side that faces Earth. It has a thicker crust and is heavily cratered, with a scarcity of lunar maria (large, dark, basaltic plains). The reasons for these differences remain a topic of ongoing research.</p>



<h3 id="h-transient-lunar-phenomena">Transient Lunar Phenomena</h3>



<p>For centuries, observers have reported short-lived changes in the appearance of the lunar surface. These events, known as Transient Lunar Phenomena (TLPs), include reports of unusual light patterns, color changes, or brief obscurations. The causes of TLPs are still not fully understood, with suggested explanations ranging from outgassing to impacts to electrostatic phenomena.</p>



<h3 id="h-magnetic-anomalies">Magnetic Anomalies</h3>



<p>The Moon has a very weak magnetic field compared to Earth, but there are certain regions with localized magnetic fields much stronger than the average lunar field. These "magnetic anomalies" are still not fully understood, but some suggest they are remnants from an earlier period when the Moon had a global magnetic field.</p>



<p>These mysteries, and others, continue to make the Moon a fascinating object of study, as scientists strive to deepen our understanding of Earth's celestial companion.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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The Da Vinci Glow will illuminate tonight's crescent moon

In the twilight hours of this evening, and for the...

<p>The Egyptian cotton leafworm (<em>Spadoptera littoralis</em>) – a moth species found throughout the Mediterranean Basin, as well as in Africa and the Middle East – is currently a widespread <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natural-ecosystems-pest-control/">pest</a> in France. Since moth larvae are highly polyphagous, feeding upon a variety of different species, they cause damage to a diversity of crops, including corn, cotton, peppers, legumes, and tomatoes.&nbsp;</p>



<p>As part of increased efforts to reduce pesticide levels, scientists currently struggle to develop effective biocontrol methods to fight crop pests, such as strategies to disrupt their reproduction or trap them through the use of sex pheromones. However, since pheromone synthesis is expensive, other control strategies may be needed.&nbsp;</p>



<p>A team of scientists led by the <a href="https://www.sorbonne-universite.fr/en">Sorbonne University</a> in Paris has recently investigated the evolution of olfactory receptors in the Egyptian cotton leaf worms. The research, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2221166120"><em>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</em></a>, represents an important step forward toward the development of such strategies.</p>



<p>In 2019, the experts identified OR5, an olfactory receptor in the Egyptian cotton leafworm which plays a critical role in recognizing the main component in the female sex pheromones. In the current study, they explored this receptor’s evolutionary trajectory within <em>Spodoptera </em>to clarify its specificity and functionality.&nbsp;</p>



<p>By combining a computational approach to model the 3D structure of OR5 with the resurrection of its ancestral receptors in the laboratory, the researchers found that OR5 most likely emerged around seven million years ago, as an essential tool in the reproduction of two&nbsp;<em>Spodoptera</em>&nbsp;species - the Egyptian cotton leafworm and the tobacco cutworm (<em>S. litura</em>).&nbsp;</p>



<p>The experts also used site-directed mutagenesis -&nbsp;a technique which introduces one or more precise mutations into a specific gene to investigate the functional impacts on the encoded protein. They identified eight amino acids (AAs) that structure the receptor’s specific characteristics.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Since previous studies suggested that only one or two AA substitutions might be sufficient to change the functionality of ecologically important receptors, the discovery of such a large number of AAs behind OR5 is quite puzzling and requires further investigations.</p>



<p>Clarifying how olfactory receptors emerge and acquire their specificity during evolution can help scientists anticipate the development of resistance to pheromone-based products employed to protect crops. These findings could help devise new biocontrol strategies relying on both agonist molecules (which occupy receptors to the exclusion of the key pheromone compound) and antagonist molecules (which block the receptor from being activated by the key pheromone compound).</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-the-egyptian-cotton-leafworm">More about the Egyptian cotton leafworm</h2>



<p>The Egyptian cotton leafworm, also known as the Spodoptera littoralis or the Mediterranean Brocade, is a major pest of cotton and many other crops. Native to Africa, it has spread to parts of Europe and Asia and is particularly problematic in the Mediterranean region.</p>



<p>The adult moth is brown and has a wingspan of 3-4 cm. The larvae, or caterpillars, are the damaging stage of the life cycle. They are initially green but turn brown as they mature, with light and dark stripes along the body.</p>



<p>The larvae feed on the leaves, buds, and bolls of the cotton plant, causing significant damage. They can completely defoliate a plant if the infestation is heavy. After feeding, they pupate in the soil and emerge as adults to repeat the cycle.</p>



<p>The Egyptian cotton leafworm can have multiple generations per year, and its population can increase rapidly under favorable conditions. It can overwinter as pupae in the soil, allowing it to survive in colder climates.</p>



<p>Control methods for the Egyptian cotton leafworm include the use of insecticides, biological control agents such as parasitic wasps and Bacillus thuringiensis (a bacterium that produces toxins harmful to certain insects), and cultivation of cotton varieties that are resistant to the pest. Integrated pest management strategies, which combine multiple methods of control, are often the most effective.</p>



<p>Due to the importance of Egyptian cotton in the global textile industry, the Egyptian cotton leafworm is a significant concern for farmers, scientists, and policymakers. Efforts to manage and control this pest are critical for maintaining the productivity and sustainability of cotton production.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-crop-pests">More about crop pests</h2>



<p>Crop pests are organisms that cause significant damage to crops in agriculture. They can be insects, birds, mammals, nematodes, fungi, bacteria, viruses, and weeds. The damage caused by these pests can significantly reduce the yield and quality of crops, leading to economic losses for farmers.</p>



<h3 id="h-some-common-types-of-crop-pests-include">Some common types of crop pests include:</h3>



<h4 id="h-insects">Insects</h4>



<p>Insects are the most common type of crop pests. Examples include aphids, beetles, caterpillars, and weevils. They can damage crops by feeding on plant tissues, transmitting diseases, or both.</p>



<h4 id="h-nematodes">Nematodes</h4>



<p>These are tiny, worm-like organisms that live in the soil and feed on the roots of plants, which can stunt growth and reduce yield.</p>



<h4 id="h-fungi">Fungi</h4>



<p>Fungi can cause diseases in crops, such as rusts, smuts, and mildews. They can damage crops by producing toxins, causing rot, or disrupting the water and nutrient transport within the plant.</p>



<h4 id="h-bacteria-and-viruses">Bacteria and Viruses</h4>



<p>These can cause diseases in crops. Bacterial diseases include bacterial wilt, fire blight, and bacterial leaf spot. Viruses can cause diseases like tobacco mosaic virus, potato virus Y, and cucumber mosaic virus.</p>



<h4 id="h-birds-and-mammals">Birds and Mammals</h4>



<p>Larger pests like birds and mammals can also cause significant damage. Birds can peck at fruits and seeds, while mammals like rodents can gnaw on stems and roots. Larger mammals like deer can trample and eat crops.</p>



<h4 id="h-weeds">Weeds</h4>



<p>Weeds compete with crops for resources like light, water, and nutrients. They can also harbor pests and diseases, making them harder to control.</p>



<p>Controlling crop pests is a complex task that involves a combination of cultural practices (crop rotation, intercropping, use of resistant varieties), biological control (use of predators, parasites, or pathogens of the pests), chemical control (pesticides), and other methods like the use of genetically modified crops.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The goal is to keep pest populations below the level at which they would cause economic damage, a concept known as the economic threshold.</p>



<p>—-</p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:andrei.ionescu5891@gmail.com"><em>Andrei Ionescu</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>



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Understanding crop pest evolution to develop biocontrol strategies

The Egyptian cotton leafworm (Spadoptera littoralis) – a moth species...

<p>In an ambitious new partnership, researchers from the <a href="https://www.ku.dk/english/">University of Copenhagen</a> and Aarhus University are teaming up with several industry partners to create a sustainable co-production model for fish, shrimp, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seaweed-superfood-could-help-ease-global-food-crisis/">seaweed</a>. The innovative project, called "SeaFree," aims to revolutionize the aquaculture industry over the next four years.</p>



<p>The heart of SeaFree is an advanced, land-based closed cycle that cleverly uses residual nutrients and carbon dioxide from fish and shrimp farming. These waste products will be repurposed to cultivate high-value seaweed, creating an eco-friendly system that benefits both the food and healthcare sectors.</p>



<h2 id="h-the-goals-of-the-seafree-project">The goals of the SeaFree project</h2>



<p>Professor Marianne Thomsen from the Department of Food Science at the University of Copenhagen explained the project's key goals: "The project aims to use seaweed production to absorb and convert emissions from land-based aquaculture into a high-value product."</p>



<p>The seaweed, rich in umami flavor and health benefits, will be used in dietary supplements to prevent diabetes and fuel sustainable food innovations.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"In addition to capturing emissions that would have otherwise been emitted into the atmosphere and aquatic environment, the seaweed produced is both healthy and rich in umami flavor," said Thomsen.</p>



<p>SeaFree's budget of DKK 14.4 million (€1.9m) is generously provided by Innovation Fund Denmark. The project is a collective effort, featuring partnerships with companies including Pure Algae, DryingMate, Food Diagnostics, Sigrid Therapeutics, XOventure GmbH/Rigi Care, KOST, SOF Odden Caviar, and HanseGarnelen.</p>



<h2 id="h-seafree-only-requires-a-40-foot-container">SeaFree only requires a 40-foot container</h2>



<p>The operational nucleus of the project is a 40-foot container fitted with eight one-thousand-liter tanks. This cutting-edge Plug’n’Play technology unit, brimming with export potential, combines salt water, CO2, nutrients, and LED lights to grow a full batch of seaweed in just one week - an astoundingly short harvest period.</p>



<p>Thomsen explains the technology's potential impact on the aquaculture industry: "SeaFree represents the latest in recycling technology for land-based shrimp and fish farming. Besides capturing emissions, the system also recirculates surplus heat from the plants to the Plug'n'Play technology."&nbsp;</p>



<p>She further explained that the project incorporates an innovative technology that uses surplus heat to dry the seaweed for the healthcare industry, making SeaFree a model of sustainable and efficient production.</p>



<p>The result of this groundbreaking project is a set of climate-friendly products: fish, shrimp, and sea lettuce—a nutrient-dense seaweed species packed with fiber and protein. Sea lettuce, apart from being used in various dietary supplements, also serves as a healthy side dish to seafood meals.</p>



<h2 id="h-next-steps-take-this-global">Next steps – take this global</h2>



<p>According to Thomsen, part of SeaFree's mission is to raise public awareness of seaweed as a key ingredient in delicious home-cooked meals. She is also optimistic about the global potential of farming fish and seaweed as envisioned by SeaFree. Implementing this method across all the world's land-based shrimp and fish farms could drastically reduce the carbon footprint of global food systems.</p>



<p>The fusion of aquaculture and seaweed cultivation in closed systems, as per the SeaFree model, holds promise as a significant new Danish export market.</p>



<p>Professor Thomsen underscores the global applicability of the SeaFree technology, marketed as "SeaFree Synergy Solutions."&nbsp;</p>



<p>She noted that they are already in discussions with South Korea, a country showing keen interest in the technology and the project’s development. "On a global level, it will be possible to implement the technology anywhere in the world. As for the technology’s environmental benefits, they are unequivocal."</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-aquaculture">More about aquaculture</h2>



<p>Aquaculture, also known as aquafarming, is the practice of farming aquatic organisms such as fish, crustaceans, mollusks, and aquatic plants. It involves cultivating freshwater and saltwater populations under controlled conditions, and is an alternative to harvesting wild marine life.</p>



<p>Aquaculture comes in many forms, and each type has different requirements and impacts on the environment.</p>



<h3 id="h-marine-aquaculture">Marine Aquaculture</h3>



<p>Also known as mariculture, it involves the cultivation of species that live in the ocean. This can range from shellfish like oysters and mussels to seaweed and fish species like salmon. Marine aquaculture can take place in the open ocean, or in ponds or tanks on land.</p>



<h3 id="h-freshwater-aquaculture">Freshwater Aquaculture</h3>



<p>This involves the rearing of aquatic organisms in freshwater environments. These can include ponds, lakes, man-made reservoirs, and tanks. The species cultivated can range from freshwater fish like tilapia and catfish to crustaceans and plants.</p>



<h3 id="h-algaculture">Algaculture</h3>



<p>A form of aquaculture that involves the farming of algae. Algae are incredibly diverse and can be used for a variety of purposes, including food, biofuel, and as a means to mitigate carbon emissions.</p>



<h3 id="h-integrated-multi-trophic-aquaculture-imta">Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA)</h3>



<p>This is a practice in which the waste produced by one species serves as food for another. For example, fish waste can provide nutrients for plants or shellfish. This creates a system where waste is minimized, mirroring natural ecosystem interactions.</p>



<p>Aquaculture has both benefits and drawbacks. On the positive side, it can contribute to food security by providing a growing global population with a reliable source of high-quality protein. It also plays a part in economic growth, particularly in developing countries, by creating jobs and improving balance of trade.</p>



<p>However, if not managed properly, aquaculture can also have negative environmental impacts. These can include water pollution, habitat destruction, and the spread of diseases to wild fish populations. Intensive farming can also lead to problems with fish welfare and can contribute to the overfishing of certain species, used as feed for farmed fish.</p>



<p>In recent years, sustainable practices in aquaculture have been promoted to mitigate these issues. These include better management of fish health, reducing the reliance on wild-caught fish for feed, and developing systems like the one in the SeaFree project, where waste is recycled and used to grow other valuable products.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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SeaFree: New technology turns waste from fish farming into seaweed

In an ambitious new partnership, researchers from the University of...

<p>Imagine strolling along a beach, splashing in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/discovery-ancient-ocean-floor-surrounds-the-earths-core/">ocean</a>, or even floating through the air. Now, imagine that you're leaving traces of your DNA behind everywhere you go. As unlikely as it sounds, a new study from the <a href="https://www.ufl.edu/">University of Florida</a> suggests that's exactly what's happening.</p>



<p>Everywhere we go, from a muggy day in Florida to the chilly climes of Ireland, we're shedding our DNA. We're coughing it, spitting it, and even flushing it into countless environments. It's not just in the obvious places like the beach or the ocean, either.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This human genetic material can be found in riverways, in the air, and in almost every corner of the globe, excluding only the most isolated islands and remote mountaintops.</p>



<h2 id="h-how-the-study-was-conducted">How the study was conducted</h2>



<p>The researchers found our DNA's ubiquity to be both a scientific gift and an ethical conundrum.&nbsp;</p>



<p>They sequenced this widespread DNA and found it of such high quality that they could identify disease-associated mutations and determine the genetic ancestry of nearby populations. In some cases, they could even match genetic information to individual participants who had voluntarily offered their DNA for recovery.</p>



<p>Professor David Duffy, who spearheaded the project, believes that these environmental DNA samples, if handled ethically, could yield significant benefits for various fields from medicine and environmental science to archaeology and criminal forensics.</p>



<p>"Researchers could track cancer mutations from wastewater or uncover hidden archaeological sites by looking for human DNA," Duffy suggested. He added that detectives could even identify suspects from the DNA floating in the air at a crime scene.</p>



<p>But the extraction of this level of personal information requires extreme caution. Scientists and regulators are now facing the ethical dilemmas associated with inadvertently, or intentionally, gathering human genetic information from unexpected sources like sand, water, or even a person’s breath.</p>



<h2 id="h-results-of-the-study-call-for-ethical-safeguards">Results of the study call for ethical safeguards</h2>



<p>The team's paper, published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/natecolevol/"><em>Nature Ecology and Evolution</em></a>, highlights the ease with which they collected human DNA from almost every location they explored.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Professor Duffy expressed his surprise at the amount and quality of human DNA they discovered. "In most cases, the quality is almost equivalent to if you took a sample from a person.”</p>



<p>The potential to identify individuals through these means underlines the need for ethical safeguards in this area of research. This study had the approval of the University of Florida's institutional review board, which ensures that research adheres to ethical guidelines.</p>



<p>“It’s standard in science to make these sequences publicly available. But that also means if you don’t screen out human information, anyone can come along and harvest this information," said Professor Duffy.</p>



<p>"Do you need to get consent to take those samples? Or institute some controls to remove human information?”</p>



<h2 id="h-success-stories-for-wildlife-preservation">Success stories for wildlife preservation</h2>



<p>The team has successfully applied environmental DNA, or eDNA, to study endangered sea turtles and their susceptibility to viral cancers at UF's Whitney Laboratory for Marine Bioscience and Sea Turtle Hospital. They retrieved useful DNA from turtle tracks in the sand, a technique that greatly expedited their research.</p>



<p>The researchers expected to find human eDNA in their turtle samples and many other places they explored. With modern genetic sequencing technology, it's now relatively easy to sequence the DNA of every organism in an environmental sample.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The question was, how much human DNA would be present, and would it be intact enough to yield useful information?</p>



<p>Their research took them to the ocean and rivers near the Whitney Lab, sand from isolated beaches, and even a remote island where people had never set foot. In a test conducted in collaboration with the National Park Service, they were able to retrieve DNA from the footprints of voluntary participants in the sand and sequence parts of their genomes, all with their consent.</p>



<p>Professor Duffy also tested the technique in his native Ireland. Along a river that meanders through a town and out to sea, he discovered human DNA at every point, except for the remote mountain stream where the river originates, far from human settlement.</p>



<h2 id="h-indoor-testing-works-as-well-as-outdoor">Indoor testing works as well as outdoor</h2>



<p>The research wasn't limited to outdoor locations. They also collected air samples from a veterinary hospital, managing to recover DNA matching the staff, the animal patient, and even common animal viruses.</p>



<p>The evidence is clear: human eDNA can be easily sampled from a multitude of environments. Duffy believes it's now time for policymakers and the scientific community to address issues of consent and privacy, and weigh them against the potential benefits of studying this unintentional DNA trail.</p>



<p>"Any time we make a technological advance, there are beneficial things that the technology can be used for and concerning things that the technology can be used for. It’s no different here," Duffy said. He wants to bring these issues to light early, giving policymakers and society the time they need to develop appropriate regulations.</p>



<p>This groundbreaking research from the University of Florida has illuminated the potential of environmental DNA as a tool for scientific discovery.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, as we leave traces of ourselves in the sand, the water, and even the air, the question of how to protect our genetic privacy becomes increasingly pertinent. As we move forward, the balance between scientific progress and ethical responsibility will be crucial.</p>



<h2 id="h-more-about-dna">More about DNA&nbsp;</h2>



<p>DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is a molecule that carries the genetic instructions used in the growth, development, functioning, and reproduction of all known living organisms and many viruses. Here's a more in-depth look at its various characteristics and importance:</p>



<h3 id="h-structure">Structure</h3>



<p>DNA is made up of two long, twisted strands that form a double helix structure. Each strand is composed of repeating units called nucleotides. Every nucleotide is made up of three parts: a sugar molecule (deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and one of four nitrogenous bases — adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G).</p>



<p>In the DNA double helix, the two strands are held together by hydrogen bonds between the bases. Adenine always pairs with thymine, and cytosine always pairs with guanine. This complementary base pairing enables the base pairs to be copied accurately during DNA replication.</p>



<h3 id="h-replication">Replication</h3>



<p>DNA replication is the process by which DNA makes a copy of itself during cell division. The double helix is unwound by enzymes, and each strand of the original DNA molecule serves as a template for the production of the complementary strand. This replication process allows genetic information to be passed from cell to cell and from parents to offspring.</p>



<h3 id="h-genes-and-chromosomes">Genes and Chromosomes</h3>



<p>DNA is organized into structures called chromosomes. Humans typically have 46 chromosomes (23 from each parent) in each cell. Segments within these chromosomes are known as genes. Each gene serves as a blueprint for making a specific protein. Proteins, in turn, perform a vast array of functions within the organism, from catalyzing metabolic reactions to responding to stimuli to providing structure to cells and organisms.</p>



<h3 id="h-dna-sequencing-and-genetic-code">DNA Sequencing and Genetic Code</h3>



<p>The precise order of the bases in a stretch of DNA - known as the DNA sequence - forms the genetic code, which carries the instructions for building an organism's cells and for running those cells. The Human Genome Project, completed in 2003, sequenced the entire human genome for the first time, revealing around 20,500 genes.</p>



<h3 id="h-role-in-heredity-and-variation">Role in Heredity and Variation</h3>



<p>One of the key roles of DNA is in heredity. Offspring inherit their DNA from their parents. This inheritance is why offspring resemble their parents, both in physical traits and in susceptibility to certain diseases. But DNA also allows for variation, through mutations (changes in the DNA sequence). While many mutations are harmful, some can be beneficial, driving evolution and species diversity.</p>



<h3 id="h-dna-technology">DNA Technology</h3>



<p>DNA technology has a wide range of applications. In medicine, it's used for genetic testing and personalized treatment. In forensics, DNA fingerprinting can identify individuals. In biotechnology, genetic engineering can modify organisms' DNA to produce desirable traits.</p>



<h3 id="h-ethical-considerations">Ethical Considerations</h3>



<p>The use of DNA technology raises various ethical considerations. Issues include privacy (in terms of DNA data), consent (for genetic testing), and potential misuse of genetic engineering (such as in creating "designer babies").</p>



<p>In summary, DNA is a complex molecule that plays a central role in life as we know it. It carries the instructions for building and maintaining organisms, and its study has revolutionized fields from medicine to ecology.</p>



<p>—-</p>



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Scientists can collect human DNA from water, air, and basically everywhere

Imagine strolling along a beach, splashing in the ocean, or...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lHHxOej4QfE
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Researchers found a correlation between Alzheimer's disease and traffic pollution.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-invisible-threat-in-urban-air"><strong>Invisible threat in urban air</strong></h2>



<p>City dwellers face an unseen danger with every breath. New findings from Emory University researchers suggest that fine particulate matter from <a href="http://earth.com/news/traffic-related-air-pollution-might-increase-alzheimers-risk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vehicle emissions may significantly elevate the risk of developing Alzheimer's disease</a>. The study examined brain tissue samples from 224 individuals who had confirmed diagnoses and volunteered their brains for scientific research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-disturbing-connections-emerge"><strong>Disturbing connections emerge</strong></h2>



<p>Scientists analyzed neuritic plaques — protein clusters that characterize Alzheimer's — while mapping each participant's exposure to PM2.5 particles based on residential location and surrounding traffic density. The correlation proved more alarming than anticipated. Individuals experiencing higher pollution exposure showed nearly double the likelihood of elevated plaque accumulation in brain tissue.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-timing-matters"><strong>Timing matters</strong></h2>



<p>The research team discovered that pollution exposure during the final year before death demonstrated the strongest association with brain changes. This timeline suggests relatively rapid impacts from environmental toxins on neural health. The connection remained robust even after accounting for various demographic and health factors.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetic-vulnerability-patterns"><strong>Genetic vulnerability patterns</strong></h2>



<p>Perhaps most concerning, people lacking the APOE gene—which naturally predisposes individuals to Alzheimer's — exhibited more than twice the susceptibility to pollution-related brain damage. Study author Dr. Anke Huels noted this indicates environmental elements like air contamination could trigger the disease in cases where hereditary factors don't explain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-public-health-implications"><strong>Public health implications</strong></h2>



<p>These findings, published in <em><a href="https://www.neurology.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neurology</a></em>, underscore the critical importance of air quality regulations in urban planning. The research suggests that implementing stricter emission controls and promoting alternative transportation could serve as powerful tools in Alzheimer's prevention.</p>



<p>As cities worldwide grapple with growing traffic congestion and aging populations, this study highlights an urgent need for comprehensive approaches to environmental health that protect both our lungs and our minds.</p>



<p>—–</p>



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<p>—–</p>

Traffic fumes may trigger Alzheimer's

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lHHxOej4QfE Researchers found a correlation between Alzheimer's disease and traffic...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



<p>Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



<p>The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



<p>At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.</p>



<p>"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



<p>The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.</p>



<p>The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a></em> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.</p>



<p>—–</p>



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<p>—–</p>

Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K0DuSr87SHY
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">57 million-year ice age mystery solved by Australian scientists.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-earth-became-a-frozen-wasteland">When Earth became a frozen wasteland</h2>



<p>Imagine Earth as a giant snowball, frozen solid from the North Pole to the equator. This wasn't the plot of a science fiction movie – it was our planet's reality 700 million years ago during an extreme ice age that has puzzled scientists for decades.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-discovery">The discovery</h2>



<p>Australian researchers from the <a href="https://www.sydney.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Sydney</a> have finally cracked one of geology's greatest mysteries: what caused the Sturtian glaciation and why it persisted for an unprecedented 57 million years. This period occurred long before dinosaurs roamed the Earth, when no complex plants or multicellular animals existed.</p>



<p>Dr. Adriana Dutkiewicz, the study's lead author, describes a world completely unlike today's climate. "Imagine the Earth almost completely frozen over," she explained. "The planet was blanketed in ice from poles to equator, and temperatures plunged."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-combination-of-climate-factors">The combination of climate factors</h2>



<p>The research team discovered that this massive freeze resulted from a "double whammy" of geological events. First, plate tectonic activity reduced volcanic carbon dioxide emissions to historically low levels. Volcanic activity typically releases CO2 into the atmosphere, creating a greenhouse effect that keeps Earth warm.</p>



<p>Simultaneously, weathering of volcanic rocks in what is now Canada actively absorbed atmospheric CO2, further reducing greenhouse gas concentrations. When atmospheric carbon dioxide levels dropped below 200 parts per million – less than half of today's levels – glaciation engulfed the entire planet.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-climate-implications">Modern climate implications</h2>



<p>Published in the journal <em><a href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/geology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geology</a></em>, this research provides crucial insights into Earth's climate system. While geological climate changes occur over millions of years, the study emphasizes that human-induced climate change is happening at a pace ten times faster than previously observed natural changes, highlighting the urgent need to understand our planet's delicate climate balance.</p>



<p>—–</p>



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<p>—–</p>

What caused the planet's longest ice age

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K0DuSr87SHY 57 million-year ice age mystery solved by Australian scientists....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the opposite.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-contrasting-climate-response">A contrasting climate response</h2>



<p>Most coastal towns are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sinking-land-will-intensify-the-effects-of-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preparing for higher sea levels</a>, but <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-no-longer-has-to-worry-about-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Greenland presents</a> a different scenario during climate change. The ground there is rising at a remarkable rate. Over the past decade, some areas have lifted about 20 centimeters, which translates to roughly 2 meters per century. This rate significantly exceeds current projections for sea level rise.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geological-rebound-process-through-climate-change">Geological rebound process through climate change</h2>



<p>The mechanism behind this phenomenon is straightforward. As the ice sheet melts, the immense weight is removed from the bedrock, causing the land to rebound upward. This process resembles the way compressed material springs back when pressure is released.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-monitoring-networks">Scientific monitoring networks</h2>



<p>Researchers at the <a href="https://www.dtu.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technical University of Denmark</a> are documenting this uplift using the GNET network, consisting of 61 GPS stations positioned around Greenland's coast. These sensors can detect movement with millimeter precision, providing detailed measurements of the ongoing changes.</p>



<p>The data reveal that current uplift rates exceed the gradual rebound occurring since the last ice age ended approximately 12,000 years ago. This acceleration corresponds directly with increased ice sheet melting rates.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coastal-transformation">Coastal Transformation</h2>



<p>This uplift is actively reshaping Greenland's coastline. New islands and rocky formations, called "skerries," are emerging as previously submerged land surfaces rise above the water level. This represents a notable contrast to global concerns about rising seas.</p>



<p>The study, published in Geophysical Research Letters, demonstrates the varied regional impacts of climate change. While many locations face rising water levels, Greenland's bedrock is literally rising above the surrounding seas.</p>



<p>The full study was recently published in <em><a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2023GL104851" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a></em>.</p>



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<p>—–</p>

Greenland's ground rises while coasts worldwide face higher seas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to implement the latest AI Agent building platform.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-agent-training-transforms-the-workplace-fear-factor-into-a-competitive-advantage">AI agent training transforms the workplace 'fear factor' into a competitive advantage</h2>



<p>Organizations that offer comprehensive artificial intelligence training to their workers find remarkable value that extends well beyond basic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mind-wandering-might-be-more-productive-than-you-think/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">productivity improvements</a>. Emerging research demonstrates that carefully crafted AI training programs <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-does-not-replace-human-creativity-but-enhances-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enhance</a> corporate performance, lower operational costs, and dramatically improve employee psychological well-being by turning workplace uncertainty into professional empowerment.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-widespread-ai-anxiety-crisis-among-us">Addressing the widespread 'AI anxiety' crisis among us</h2>



<p>A staggering 53% of employees expressed concern that the use of AI tools to automate work tasks could make them appear disposable to their employers, according to <a href="https://www.microsoft.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microsoft</a>'s 2024 workplace survey. Such pervasive worry about being substituted by machines has caused what researchers have termed "AI technostress" – a psychological state that can result in occupational burnout and poorer mental well-being.</p>



<p>Data published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a> showed that belief in AI learning ability was a moderator in the link between technology adoption and work pressure, and higher confidence significantly lowered negative psychological responses. Workers provided ample training to become competent with AI software have significantly lower stress.</p>



<p>Companies like <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a> have platforms for building what are known as "AI Agents".  In essence, AI Agents are simply tools that employees can build for themselves or their teams quickly and inexpensively.   MindStudio will even train entire companies, from the CEO on down, at no cost. By letting MindStudio empower employees, companies avoid hiring more IT staff, buying more software, and implementing solutions to problems that do not exist.</p>



<p>MindStudio even has partners locally for companies, like <a href="http://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dominnus</a> with offices in the Carolinas, California, and Denver, to help build AI Agents and support employees as they become resident AI experts for their organization.  The training provided by MindStudio is applicable across other AI Agent building platforms as well.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-productivity-through-focused-learning">Revolutionary productivity through focused learning</h2>



<p>Organizations that implement large-scale AI training programs achieve dramatic outcomes. Employees performed tasks significantly better when they utilized AI support compared to when they didn't, according to <a href="https://www.nngroup.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nielsen Norman Group</a> research findings. Their study documented productivity increases of 66% for a variety of professional tasks.</p>



<p>Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis research finds workers record 33% higher productivity in time working with generative AI tools. The benefit is equivalent to 5.4% of work time savings for AI users – around 2.2 hours per week for full-time workers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psychological-well-being-benefits-through-ai-competence">Psychological well-being benefits through AI competence</h2>



<p>The emotional transformation when employees are provided with proper technology training is a fundamental transformation from fear to professional confidence. A survey of 600 employees across industries, carried out by ScienceDirect, proved that AI capabilities strengthen work environment commitment and improve job satisfaction.</p>



<p>A <a href="https://www.lut.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LUT University</a> study discovered that AI adoption has no direct effect on workers' well-being but does so indirectly through working conditions like task optimization and safety protocols. Strategically deployed AI that involves correct training can actually increase workplace mental well-being.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-replacement-anxiety-to-partnership-confidence">From 'replacement anxiety' to 'partnership confidence'</h2>



<p>Although 35% of those interviewed in recent McKinsey studies were concerned about workforce displacement, firms with large-scale training initiatives witness such fears dissipate quickly. The World Economic Forum found that two out of three respondents believe AI competencies will enhance their career prospects and job marketability.</p>



<p>This shift from fear to trust has measurable implications for job satisfaction. Applied Sciences research indicates AI can create tailored wellness programs based on individual employee requirements.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-financial-benefits-of-increased-retention">Financial benefits of increased retention</h2>



<p>The mental health advantages of AI learning have a direct impact on organizational bottom lines in the form of a positive feedback cycle with high retention of employees. Recent ROI research validates that artificial intelligence learning has a beneficial impact on employee turnover and satisfaction levels.</p>



<p>PriceWaterhouseCoopers' research documents 20% to 30% improvements in productivity, market speed, and revenue in organizations that attempt systematic AI adoption through comprehensive training.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-advantages-of-ai-enabled-teams">Environmental advantages of AI-enabled teams</h2>



<p>AI training has unforeseen environmental benefits as it makes the work environment more efficient. According to a study in Scientific Reports, the carbon footprint in writing and illustrating work is significantly lower when AI performs it compared to humans. AI software produces 130 to 1,500 times less CO2 equivalent per page of text created than human authors.</p>



<p>In addition, AI-driven remote work functionality significantly reduces environmental impact. Research by Cornell University and Microsoft indicates that remote workers reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to 54% by not commuting daily to offices. Hybrid workers working remotely two to four days a week can reduce their carbon footprint by 11% to 29%.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cumulative-organizational-advantages">Cumulative organizational advantages</h2>



<p>The compounding gains of better mental well-being, reduced turnover, increased productivity, and environmental benefits flow to enterprises from the pairing. McKinsey analysis estimates the long-term AI potential at $4.4 trillion in incremental productivity growth opportunity from business use cases.</p>



<p>As of now, 75% of knowledge workers globally utilize generative AI, mirroring widespread adoption patterns. Organizations that provide organized training and assistance see the most favorable results in productivity, worker satisfaction, and ecological sustainability.</p>



<p>The research overwhelmingly indicates that companies that invest in proper AI education, like that offered through <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a>, establish win-win scenarios where employees are both more empowered and less stressed, and companies enjoy the gains of increased productivity, reduced turnover, and improved mental health outcomes throughout their workforce.</p>



<p>For more on MindStudio's free AI training for companies, visit the website's of MindStudio and Dominnus from the links below.</p>



<p>The research was published across a variety of peer-reviewed journals, including <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a>, <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence</a>, and <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci">Applied Sciences</a>.</p>



<p id="block-9bd989d6-2fd3-4580-957f-6cacce134f08">-----</p>



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<p>MindStudio.AI: <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.mindstudio.ai</a></p>



<p>Dominnus: <a href="https://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.dominnus.com</a></p>

AI agent training boosts mental health and profits

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-natural-solution-to-disease-through-crop-modification">A natural solution to disease through crop modification.</h2>



<p>The agricultural industry stands at a crossroads between productivity and environmental responsibility, and crop modification often carries a negative connotation. While chemical pesticides have long been the go-to solution for crop protection, their harmful effects on ecosystems and human health have prompted scientists to seek alternatives. The recent breakthrough by <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southampton</a> researchers offers a promising path forward through the precise manipulation of plant-associated microbial communities.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-microbial-partnerships">The science behind microbial partnerships</h2>



<p>Plants naturally harbor diverse ecosystems of bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms that function as biological allies. These microscopic partners contribute to disease resistance, nutrient absorption, and stress tolerance. However, until now, scientists lacked the tools to deliberately reshape these communities to enhance crop protection.</p>



<p>The Southampton team's approach centered on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-plant-microbiomes-the-future-of-crop-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modifying lignin biosynthesis genes in rice plants</a>. This strategic intervention altered the plant's metabolic output, creating conditions that favored beneficial bacterial populations while suppressing harmful ones. The result was a living defense system embedded within the plant itself.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-global-food-security">Implications for global food security</h2>



<p>The successful demonstration against Xanthomonas oryzae, the pathogen responsible for bacterial blight in rice, represents more than a laboratory achievement. Rice feeds nearly half the world's population, and bacterial blight causes devastating crop losses annually. Traditional control methods rely heavily on pesticides that contaminate soil and water systems.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-disease-resistance">Looking Beyond Disease Resistance</h2>



<p>While disease protection represents the immediate application, the research framework opens doors to broader agricultural improvements. Future developments could engineer microbiomes to enhance nutrient uptake, reducing dependence on synthetic fertilizers. This dual benefit addresses both crop productivity and environmental sustainability.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-forward">The path forward</h2>



<p>As this technology advances from laboratory to field applications, it promises to reshape sustainable agriculture. The ability to program plants with their own biological defense systems could herald a new era where crops protect themselves naturally, reducing chemical inputs while maintaining yields necessary for global food security.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44335-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Communications</em></a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Revolutionizing agriculture through microbiome engineering

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4 Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease A natural...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



<p>Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?</p>



<p>The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What was acid rain?</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The science behind it</strong></h2>



<p>Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.</p>



<p>While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The crisis at its peak</strong></h2>



<p>During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Environmental devastation</strong></h2>



<p>The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.</p>



<p>By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.</p>



<p>Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Economic impact</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The solution: government action and technology</strong></h2>



<p>Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The Clean Air Act of 1990</strong></h2>



<p>The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Cap-and-trade success</strong></h2>



<p>Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.</p>



<p>The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Technology advances</strong></h2>



<p>Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.</p>



<p>The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today"><strong>Why we don't hear about it today</strong></h2>



<p>Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Success doesn't make news</strong></h2>



<p>There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Mission accomplished</strong></h2>



<p>The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone"><strong>Is it really gone?</strong></h2>



<p>The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.</p>



<p>EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What this teaches us</strong></h2>



<p>The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.</p>



<p>Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.</p>



<p>Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.</p>



<p>This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.</p>



<p>Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.</p>



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



<p><strong>Sources:</strong> <em>This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.</em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Frequently Asked Questions</strong></h2>



<p><strong>1. Is acid rain completely gone?</strong> No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.</p>



<p><strong>2. How long did solving take?</strong> Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.</p>



<p><strong>3. What made the solution successful?</strong> Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.</p>



<p><strong>4. Do other countries have acid rain problems?</strong> Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.</p>



<p><strong>5. Could acid rain return?</strong> Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.</p>



<p><strong>6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"?</strong> The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a></p>



<p>-----</p>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



<p>A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. </p>



<p>Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. </p>



<p>Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. </p>



<p>Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. </p>



<p>The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.</p>



<p>Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.</p>



<p>Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.</p>



<p>This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. </p>



<p>The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the <em><a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a></em>.</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

<p>Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. </p>



<p>The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



<p>Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. </p>



<p>Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.</p>



<p>Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. </p>



<p>They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).</p>



<p>Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.</p>



<p>Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.</p>



<p>This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.</p>

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"]</div>



<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.</p>



<p>“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. </p>



<p>The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.</p>



<p>“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”</p>



<p>The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="EjmSP20gQK-2593093-12187" type="single"]</div>



<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. </p>



<p>"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."</p>



<p>"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.</p>



<p>"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



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Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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<p>Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.</p>



<p>According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."</p>



<p>Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;</p>



<p>ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. </p>



<p>Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> </em>Staff Writer </p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> features a visual dataset of.methane emissions from wetlands across the globe. Atmospheric methane levels have reached record highs in recent years, and wetlands are a major source of these emissions.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Methane is an important greenhouse gas that contributes substantially to global warming. On a molecule by molecule basis, methane is much more efficient at trapping heat than carbon dioxide, the main driver of warming," says NASA.</p>



<p>"Though human activities, including agriculture, oil and natural gas production and use, and waste disposal, collectively contribute the majority of methane to the atmosphere, about a third of total methane emissions comes from wetlands."&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to NASA, understanding methane emissions from wetlands and other natural sources is critically important for scientists and policymakers who are working to combat climate change by reducing emissions from human activities.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Goddard</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Wetlands are a major source of methane emissions

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.</p>



<p>In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.</p>



<p>The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.</p>



<p>The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.</p>



<p>The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. </p>



<p>Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes how record-breaking heat expressed itself around the world in 2022.</p>



<p>Scientists have determined that 2022 was the 5th warmest year since 1880. Furthermore, the last nine consecutive years have been the warmest on record.</p>



<p>From devastating floods and wildfires to natural disasters like Hurricane Ian, 2022 showed us yet again how a warming climate affects people across the globe.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"As we look back at 20:22 and years past, we see that each year we better understand the challenges we face and how important it is to meet them," says NASA.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: NASA Goddard</em></p>



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<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

2022 illustrated the consequences of a warming climate

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<p>Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;</p>



<p>During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how  Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.</p>



<p>According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. </p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;</em></p>



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<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://welcome.miami.edu/">University of Miami</a> Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science explores how changes in water temperatures have affected tiger shark habitats and movements in the North Atlantic Ocean. The study reveals that rising temperatures have caused the sharks to shift toward the poles over the past 40 years.</p>



<p>“Tiger shark annual migrations have expanded poleward, paralleling rising water temperatures,” explained study lead author Neil Hammerschlag. “These results have consequences for tiger shark conservation, since shifts in their movements outside of marine protected areas may leave them more vulnerable to commercial fishing.”</p>



<p>The researchers analyzed nine years of tracking data from satellite-tagged tiger sharks, combined with four decades of conventional tag and recapture data provided by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Cooperative Shark Tagging Program.</p>



<p>The experts found that during the last decade of record heat, for every one-degree Celsius increase in water temperatures, tiger sharks migrated further poleward by over 400 kilometers. They also migrated two weeks earlier than usual to waters off the northeastern coast of the United States.</p>



<p>“Given their role as apex predators, these changes to tiger shark movements may alter predator-prey interactions, leading to ecological imbalances, and more frequent encounters with humans,” concluded Professor Hammerschlag.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: University of Miami Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science</em></p>



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<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Tiger sharks are shifting poleward as temperatures rise

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> is focused on the melt ponds that emerge during the spring and summer on the Greenland Ice Sheet, which is the largest ice mass in the northern hemisphere.</p>



<p>"Melt ponds are vast pools of open water that form on both sea ice and ice sheets and are visible as turquoise-blue pools of water in this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image," says ESA.</p>



<p>"When snow and ice melts atop glaciers, water flows in channels and streams and collects in depressions on the surface. These melt ponds can speed up the melting of the surrounding ice since they greatly reduce the ice’s ability to reflect sunlight."</p>



<p>"This can create a positive feedback where an increasing number of melt ponds absorb more heat which causes ice cover to melt even faster."</p>



<p>According to ESA, Greenland has been hit with a late-season heatwave that began in early September. This caused the type of melt event that usually occurs in the middle of summer.</p>



<p>"In a recent paper published in Nature Climate Change, scientists found that major sea-level rise from the melting of the Greenland ice cap is now ‘inevitable’ even if the burning of fossil fuels were to halt overnight," says ESA. "Using satellite observations of Greenland ice loss and ice cap from 2000 to 2019, the team found the losses will lead to a minimum rise of 27 cm regardless of climate change."</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



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<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Melt ponds on the Greenland Ice Sheet

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> describes how Earth is unique in our solar system for its ability to sustain liquid water on its surface. But now, the water cycle is shifting as the climate warms, and scientists must find ways to predict how these changes will affect water availability.</p>



<p>Overall, 96 percent of Earth's water is saltwater, and nearly all of freshwater is found in ice and groundwater. These sources of water are linked as it passes through solid, liquid and gas phases.</p>



<p>In a warmer climate, the water cycle will be transformed. It will be easier for water to evaporate and form clouds, and storms will become more frequent and intense. Some regions will get too much water, while others will be left without enough water. In addition, soil moisture will be lost - which threatens food security.</p>



<p>Scientists are using satellite data from over the last 40 years to track changes that are happening in the water cycle. This will ultimately help us prepare for extreme events and better manage our water resources, according to ESA.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA</em></p>



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<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Tracking changes in Earth's water cycle

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Saturn,-,High,Resolution,3d,Images,Presents,Planets,Of,The

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard Space Flight Center</a> features images of Saturn from NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope. The photographs capture the start of the mysterious "spoke season" on Saturn - when unexplained features appear on its rings. </p>



<p>According to NASA, both the cause of the spokes and their seasonal variability have yet to be fully explained by planetary scientists.</p>



<p>"Like Earth, Saturn is tilted on its axis and therefore has four seasons, though because of Saturn's much larger orbit, each season lasts approximately seven Earth years. Equinox occurs when the rings are tilted edge-on to the Sun," explains NASA.</p>



<p>"The spokes disappear when it is near summer or winter solstice on Saturn. (When the Sun appears to reach either its highest or lowest latitude in the northern or southern hemisphere of a planet.) As the autumnal equinox of Saturn's northern hemisphere on May 6, 2025, draws near, the spokes are expected to become increasingly prominent and observable."</p>



<p>Experts believe that the spokes may be a product of the planet's variable magnetic field. When magnetic fields interact with solar wind, an electrically charged environment is created. This phenomenon is visible on Earth as the northern lights.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Scientists think that the smallest, dust-sized icy ring particles can become charged as well, which temporarily levitates those particles above the rest of the larger icy particles and boulders in the rings," says NASA.</p>



<p>The spokes were first observed in the early 1980s by NASA's Voyager mission. Depending on the angle of the rings, the spokes can appear dark or light.</p>



<p>"Thanks to Hubble's OPAL program, which is building an archive of data on the outer solar system planets, we will have longer dedicated time to study Saturn’s spokes this season than ever before," said NASA senior planetary scientist Amy Simon, head of the Hubble Outer Planet Atmospheres Legacy (OPAL) program.</p>



<p>"Despite years of excellent observations by the Cassini mission, the precise beginning and duration of the spoke season is still unpredictable, rather like predicting the first storm during hurricane season."</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;</em></p>



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<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Mysterious "spoke season" captured on Saturn

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