Parents pass down more than genes. Their everyday choices shape how children see the world. 



A new study from São Paulo State University (<a href="https://www.international.unesp.br" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNESP</a>) in Brazil shows how this works with physical activity. Children copy the habits of their parents, whether active or sedentary.



The researchers tracked 182 children and teenagers, aged 6 to 17, along with their parents. They used accelerometers, devices that measure movement with precision. 



The results were clear: children with inactive parents spent more time sitting. Children with active <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parent-children-relationships-are-key-to-lifelong-well-being/">parents</a> were less sedentary.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mothers-play-a-bigger-role">Mothers play a bigger role</h2>



The study also revealed something striking. Mothers influenced their children’s activity levels more strongly than fathers. Their effect was more than double. 



The exact reason is still uncertain, but daily routines could explain part of it. Mothers often spend more time shaping schedules around meals, homework, and television.



“The results indicate that parents’ level of physical activity can directly influence their children’s habits. In other words, when parents maintain a more active routine, their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/singing-to-babies-is-a-powerful-way-to-boost-their-mood/">children</a> are less likely to remain seated for long periods,” Diego Christofaro noted. 



Christofaro is a professor at the Faculty of Science and Technology (FCT-UNESP) at the Presidente Prudente campus and the lead author of the article published in the journal Sports Medicine and Health Science.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sedentary-lifestyles-rising">Sedentary lifestyles rising</h2>



The findings matter because inactivity in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/even-before-they-crawl-babies-can-feel-their-own-heartbeat/">childhood</a> is already a public health concern. In Brazil, 11% to 38% of children and adolescents are overweight. Sedentary routines contribute directly to this problem. 



The risks go beyond weight gain. Research links too much sitting with heart problems, back pain, poor sleep, anxiety, and depression.



Once these patterns start, they are hard to change. A child who spends long hours sitting is likely to carry those habits into adult life. That makes early action vital.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kids-copy-parents-activity">Kids copy parents’ activity</h2>



The home environment explains much of this. Children often copy their parents’ screen habits. If parents watch hours of television, children usually do too. When limits on screen time are missing, the hours grow longer.



But the opposite is also true. When parents swap sitting for exercise, children follow their lead. 



In one Canadian study, every 20 minutes of vigorous parental activity added 5 to 10 minutes of moderate activity in children. Kids don’t just listen to words; they notice actions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-parents-education-shapes-activity">Parents’ education shapes activity</h2>



Education changes the picture as well. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/parents-who-use-humor-have-better-relationships-with-their-children/">Parents</a> with higher education levels tend to set more structured routines. They often balance screen time with sports or outdoor play. 



Parents with higher levels of education also recognize the harm of excessive sitting and take steps to prevent it.



Awareness is powerful. A parent who knows the risks of long sedentary hours is more likely to limit television, encourage outdoor play, or join their child in activity. Those choices add up over time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-value-of-support">The value of support</h2>



Support at home makes staying active easier. Equipment, safe spaces, and shared activities all matter. Families who play sports together or go for walks often see children grow up more active. 



Shared routines also create memories, tying positive feelings to exercise and movement. 



On the other hand, when support is missing, even motivated children face obstacles. A lack of safe places to play or no encouragement from parents can keep them sitting.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-message-for-public-health">A message for public health</h2>



“Sedentary habits are the result of multiple factors, such as lack of access, time, and places where physical activity can be practiced,” noted Christofaro. 



“However, our study shows that parents’ habits can affect their children’s health. Therefore, we believe that these results can support public policies and campaigns aimed at promoting a more active lifestyle in the family environment.”



The study showed that parent-child links in sedentary behavior appeared only when parents were insufficiently active. In families where parents stayed active, those links weakened. That means active parents can protect children from inheriting sedentary patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-parents-set-activity-goals">Parents set activity goals</h2>



Brazil’s health guidelines recommend that children and adolescents spend at least 60 minutes a day on moderate to vigorous physical activity. 



Parents should aim for 150 minutes of activity each week. These targets are not just numbers. They represent habits that can shape family health across generations.



Children copy what they see. Parents who sit less and move more give their children a model worth repeating. Small daily choices - walking instead of sitting, playing instead of watching - can ripple through a child’s life, reducing risks and building healthier futures.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666337625000691?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sports Medicine and Health Science</a>.



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Family fitness: Active parents raise active kids

Parents pass down more than genes. Their everyday choices shape how children see the world. A new study from São Paulo State University (UNESP) in Brazil shows how this works with physical activity. Children copy the habits of their parents, whether active or sedentary. The researchers tracked 182 children and teenagers, aged 6 to 17, along with their parents. They used accelerometers, devices that measure movement with precision. The results were clear: children with inactive parents spent more time sitting. Children with active parents were less sedentary....

Young children have a sense of self that is comparable to that of older kids and adults, according to a new study. The findings reveal that an individual's understanding of self-worth develops early in life, and failure has a negative influence much earlier than previously realized.

"Young children's self-concepts are not qualitatively different from those of older children and adults," said senior author Andrei Cimpian of <a href="https://www.nyu.edu/">New York University</a>. “Young children can think of themselves as possessing abstract traits and abilities, and they can also reason about their self-worth, which has implications for self-esteem.”

Cimpian pointed out that self-awareness at a young age also has a downside. She explained that, “this level of maturity in reasoning about the self also means that young children can become dispirited in the face of failure and are not the undaunted optimists that previous theories have described.”

Cimpian and a team of psychology researchers wanted to challenge the theory that young <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/children-higher-iqs-live-longer/">children</a> are not capable of reasoning about their individual talents and self-worth. The experts set out to understand if young children can think about themselves in terms of their abilities and distinguishing qualities, such as being smart, or if they are mainly focused on concrete behaviors and outcomes, such as getting a good grade. To find out, the researchers developed a series of assessments and tested children ranging from four to seven years old. 

The participants were presented with several hypothetical scenarios. The children were asked to imagine they could not complete a task despite their best efforts. They were sometimes told the task was easy and other times they were told it was difficult. In addition, some children were told the task was done at the request of a parent or teacher, while others were told it was self-initiated. They were then asked specific questions regarding their skills and self-esteem.

The results of the study showed that children as young as four have the ability to reason about their talents and sense of self-worth based on context. When told they failed an easy task, children doubted their skills but did not doubt their overall self-worth. On the other hand, they lowered their estimation of global self-worth when informed they failed a task that an adult had requested for them to complete.

The study, which appears in the journal <a href="https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/childdevelopment/index.html">Child Development</a>, suggests that the influence of others can negatively affect a child's self-esteem at a very young age.

“In light of this new work, we need to think carefully about, and investigate, ways of supporting young children's motivation and engagement with important--but often difficult--activities such as school,” said Cimpian.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Children form their sense of self-worth as early as age 4

Young children have a sense of self that is comparable...

A new study from <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London</a> (UCL) has found that a short lesson in mindfulness can go a long way with heavy drinkers. Learning how to experience a heightened sense of self-awareness helped individuals significantly cut back on their alcohol consumption.

The study, published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/ijnp">International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology</a>, was led by Dr. Sunjeev Kamboj of the UCL Clinical Psychopharmacology Unit.

"We found that a very brief, simple exercise in mindfulness can help drinkers cut back, and the benefits can be seen quite quickly," said Dr. Kamboj.

The research was focused on 68 heavy <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moderate-drinking-health-benefits/">drinkers</a> who were not to the point of having an alcohol use disorder. Half of the individuals were taught mindfulness, a practice that promotes calmness, self-acceptance, and living in the moment. 

The 11-minute training session, which was delivered through audio recordings, helped the participants realize their alcohol cravings were only temporary so they would not give in to them as easily. After training, the subjects were asked to practice what they had learned over the next week.

The research team taught the other half of participants relaxation strategies as a control condition. This technique seemed to be have the same potential for reducing alcohol use. The study was double-blind, which means that neither the researchers nor the subjects were aware of which type of therapy was being used.

The group who studied mindfulness consumed 9.3 fewer units of alcohol in the following week compared to their consumption level during the week before the study. For the individuals who learned relaxation techniques, however, there was no notable reduction in alcohol consumption.

"Practicing mindfulness can make a person more aware of their tendency to respond reflexively to urges,” said Dr. Kamboj. “By being more aware of their cravings, we think the study participants were able to bring intention back into the equation, instead of automatically reaching for the drink when they feel a craving.”

Because heavy drinking often leads to severe alcohol problems, the researchers are hopeful that further research can give more insight into how mindfulness training may help to empower heavy drinkers before they develop a full blown disorder. According to co-author Shirley Serfaty, this practice may also help with other substance abuse issues.

"Some might think that mindfulness is something that takes a long time to learn properly, so we found it encouraging that limited training and limited encouragement could have a significant effect to reduce alcohol consumption," said co-author Damla Irez.
--
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Practicing mindfulness helps heavy drinkers slow down

A new study from University College London (UCL) has found...

It seems that extroverts and introverts differ on more than just social behavior. According to a new study, extroverts with lower incomes are more likely to purchase more luxury goods to make up for the deficit in perceived social status, whereas introverts are less inclined to spend outside their means.

The study examined spending habits, income, and different personality types of a wide array of individuals in the UK. Researchers from the <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London</a> compiled the data and found that personality was a powerful motivator of spending habits, especially for people with lower <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/higher-incomes-more-exercise/">incomes</a>. 

The study suggests that a lower income leads to a higher likelihood of spending on goods and services that are associated with higher status in society. Because extroverts are known for being outgoing, sociable, and focused on society’s opinions of them, they may be inclined to spend more on items that appear to elevate their status.

“It's clear from our study that an extroverted personality is a driver for low-income individuals purchasing more luxury goods, and this is most likely to compensate for a perceived low social status that isn't as keenly felt by introverts. We saw very little difference in the spending habits of introverts and extroverts with high incomes," said co-author Blaine Landis from University College London’s School of Management. 

The study was published in Psychological Science and collected data from 718 UK banking customers over 12 months. The researchers asked participants to answer a short personality questionnaire that was then matched to individual spending habits. Researchers made sure to factor in other markers that indicate spending habits like age, sex, and number of dependents. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Low income extroverts purchase more luxury goods

It seems that extroverts and introverts differ on more than...

Oil, gas, and fracking wells are a huge contributor to methane emissions, second only to the cattle industry. According to the <a href="https://www.epa.gov/">EPA</a>, in 2015, oil and gas operations contributed to 29 percent of the United States’ methane emissions overall. There are millions of active wells worldwide that are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/air-pollution-cardiovascular-disease/">polluting the air</a>, contaminating the soil, affecting ground water, and in turn, heavily impacting populations that live in close proximity to them. 

A new study from researchers at the <a href="https://www.psehealthyenergy.org/">PSE Healthy Energy Institute</a>, <a href="http://berkeley.edu/">University of California, Berkeley</a>, and<a href="https://www.hmc.edu/"> Harvey Mudd College</a>, is the first of its kind to closely track and record how many people live within a harmful distance of active oil and gas wells, along with the health risks associated with those conditions. The study, published in Environmental Health Perspectives, discovered that an estimated 17.6 million people live within one mile of an active oil or gas well in the United States.

Living that close to oil operations puts people at higher risk of cancers, increased asthma and respiratory problems, heart and neurological problems, and there is a higher likelihood of being hospitalized. The research also found that living within a mile of oil and gas wells can create adverse birth defects, smaller babies, and a higher risk of preterm births. 

The study aimed to target the pollution caused by oil and gas wells and its effects on the health of those residents within close proximity to operations. 

“Our study was specifically designed to determine how many Americans have increased health risks from potential exposure to pollutants emitted from oil and gas development,” said Eliza Czolowski, lead author of the study. 

Czolowski and her colleagues also found that the type of the drilling or oil production did not matter, as both fracking (a method of extracting oil and gas by using highly pressurized sand, water and chemicals) and conventional oil and gas wells generate the same pollutants.

This innovative and expansive study shows the costly ramifications of living in close proximity to active oil and gas wells. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Millions who live near oil and gas wells exposed to pollutants

Oil, gas, and fracking wells are a huge contributor to...

A new study from the<a href="https://www.bumc.bu.edu/busm/"> Boston University School of Medicine</a> has linked dementia to lack of REM sleep in earlier years. 

According to the research, being in a REM state for a shorter amount of time and taking longer to enter REM are both independently associated with a greater risk of developing dementia later in life. 

The study was published in the medical journal of the American Academy of Neurology and examined 321 test patients over the age of 60 who had participated in an overnight sleep study between 1995 and 1998. The study participants were then analyzed every 12 years to observe any possible risks of developing dementia.  

The researchers found as the years went on that a lack of REM sleep was correlated with a 9 percent increase in the risk of developing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dementia-expensive-families/">dementia</a> and an 8 percent increase in developing Alzheimer's disease dementia. 

Consequently, while less REM sleep could increase risk of dementia, sleeping too much can also be a high risk marker. Earlier in the year, the researchers reported that people who sleep more than 9 hours each night are twice as likely to develop dementia in 10 years compared, to those who sleep for nine hours or less.

"Different stages of sleep may differentially affect key features of Alzheimer's disease. Our findings implicate REM sleep mechanisms as predictors of dementia," said Matthew Pase from the department of Neurology at Boston University.

The human body needs the right amount of REM sleep each night to function properly, and lack of sleep has been attributed to severely depreciated motor skills, poor memory retention, and lowered cognitive functioning. Studies like this help promote the importance of getting enough REM sleep each night, and in turn, lower the risks of developing dementia. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Not getting enough REM sleep increases risk of dementia

A new study from the Boston University School of Medicine...

The realities of climate change are felt with increasing severity each year. We have seen record breaking heat waves in parts of Europe and Asia, increased carbon emissions, rising global temperatures, and rising sea temperatures. But the timeline for implementing policies to help reverse these potentially catastrophic effects is getting shorter and shorter. But now, Mark Z Jacobson from <a href="https://cee.stanford.edu/programs/atmosphere-energy-program">Stanford University's Atmosphere and Energy Program</a>, along with 26 of his colleagues, have created a global roadmap to transitioning 139 countries to using 100 percent renewable energy sources by the year 2050. 

Not only will these changes reduce pollution and help stave the effects of climate change, but according to Jacobson, there is potential for the creation of  millions of new long term jobs. 

"Aside from eliminating emissions and avoiding 1.5 degrees Celsius global warming and beginning the process of letting carbon dioxide drain from the Earth's atmosphere, transitioning eliminates 4-7 million air pollution deaths each year and creates over 24 million long-term, full-time jobs by these plans," said Jacobson.

The roadmap and the corresponding research has been published in Cell Press’s new journal Joule. 

The research looked at 139 of the world’s 195 countries and specifically focused on energy consumption and each country's electricity, transportation, heating and cooling, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meat-consumption-climate-change/">agricultural industries</a>.

Jacobson’s plan has been criticized for its exclusion of nuclear power, “clean coal,” and biofuels. Nuclear power has proven to be costly and risky to operate, not to mention the hazardous waste buildup from nuclear power plants that of yet have no set long term disposal places. Biofuels and coal are also not as eco-friendly as wind, solar, and water energy because of their high pollution rates. 

This plan is not the first of its kind as Jacobson is expanding on a 2015 study that looked at transitioning all 50 states to renewable energy and the mitigating challenges and costs that would have to be factored in to make it a reality. 

Naysayers of Jacobson's plans also point out the enormous costs of transitioning so much of the world to renewable energy, but Jacobson counters this by showing the higher costs that will result in following a business-as-usual model and not doing anything to hinder carbon output. 

"Both individuals and governments can lead this change. Policymakers don't usually want to commit to doing something unless there is some reasonable science that can show it is possible, and that is what we are trying to do," says Jacobson. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

By 2050, 139 countries could be powered by renewable energy

The realities of climate change are felt with increasing severity...

When you think of war, you probably first imagine two militaries made up of soldiers and combat gear going at it for a variety of reasons. For many people, the idea of danger or casualties is often confined to what the soldiers for either side experience. However, it’s often forgotten that these wars usually have to take place in an area where normal civilians live, including women and children. Even though they may not have signed up for the army, these bystanders can experience the physical and emotional toll of war just as much as any soldier.

A recent study by researchers in Israel surveyed parents and children (aged 12-14) in a region that had recently experienced an armed conflict in southern Israel. The survey included questions about the type of parenting style the parents used, the level of parental warmth, the children’s exposure to violent events, and their mental health symptoms.

“We set out to understand the effects of two aspects of parenting on children’s mental health and adjustment after exposure to the trauma of war: parenting style and parental warmth,” says Michelle Slone, a researcher at <a href="https://english.tau.ac.il/">Tel Aviv University</a>. “The motivation for this study was to trace the most beneficial aspects of parenting that could facilitate and promote children’s adjustment and positive development in a dangerous and unstable reality.”

There are many factors that can affect a child’s resilience or vulnerability to stressful events. The manner in which they are raised by their parents and the inner dynamics of their family life is one of these major factors. The researchers organized parenting styles by three different categories:
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Permissive: this parenting style provides the child with a lot of support and encouragement, but not much discipline.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Authoritarian: the child receives limited emotional support and faces strict discipline.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Authoritative: involves a combination of emotional support with discipline that is open to negotiation.</li>
</ul>
“Parenting styles and practices could be a facilitating or damaging factor in children’s adjustment to traumatic experiences, and this has not been well studied in the context of armed conflicts,” says Slone.

From the results of the survey, the researchers determined that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/children-harmful-chemicals-schools/">children</a> who have been exposed more to traumatic events exhibited more mental health symptoms, which isn’t exactly shocking. What was interesting though, was that mothers who used an authoritative parenting style actually helped protect their children against internalizing and externalizing symptoms in response to traumatic events. Furthermore, mothers exhibiting more maternal warmth also provided more protection against their children externalizing symptoms.

The permissive and authoritarian maternal parenting styles were linked to a greater internalization and externalization of symptoms from children who had high exposure to traumatic violence.

One interesting finding was that the parenting style and parental warmth of fathers had no effect on their children’s response to trauma. Roughly 88% of the primary caregivers surveyed were women, which points to them having more of an effect on the emotional well being of children. 

Although it seems simple to say, no child should ever have to experience the trauma of war. The problem is that this statement isn’t powerful enough to change the world, despite the obvious consequences. Luckily, studies such as this may help us better protect children in war zones from emotional trauma. As Slone explains, “Knowledge of these effects can guide psychologists and counselors who are faced with the task of accompanying families through traumatic circumstances and experiences.”

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

During war, parenting style can impact stress levels of kids

When you think of war, you probably first imagine two...

Adult mosquitoes depend on the nectar or honeydew of plants to get the sugar they need for survival. With this in mind, scientists developed a sweet-smelling insecticide that is not only highly effective and inexpensive but also environmentally friendly. This new eradication method may be used worldwide to help suppress diseases transmitted by mosquitoes such as Zika and malaria.

"The blend of chemicals that we use to attract mosquitoes is so powerful that they will ignore natural plant odors and attractants in order to get to our formulation," said lead researcher Agenor Mafra-Neto. "From a mosquito's point of view, it's like having an irresistible chocolate shop on every corner. The product is so seductive that they will feed on it almost exclusively, even when it contains lethal doses of insecticide."

The most common chemical insecticides that are used to control <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mosquitoes-zika-transmit-diseases/">mosquitoes</a> are sprayed over wide areas, which may threaten people, animals, and other insects. This blanket approach can also pollute the environment and promote pesticide resistance. The research team set out to develop a formula spiked with semiochemicals, or pheromones, that would successfully attract the mosquitoes to the insecticide for a much more targeted approach. 

The team collected the scents of flowers and plants that produce nectar and managed to identify their odorous compounds. They exposed mosquito antennae to thousands of these compounds to analyze their responses. The researchers also eliminated scents which attracted bees.

The team developed a semiochemical blend containing sugars and proteins to mimic 20 chemical signals that the mosquitoes found most attractive. They combined these compounds with insecticides such as pyrethroids or spinosad which produced highly-effective formulas.

The product ultimately created by the study is called Vectrax. It is safe for both indoor and outdoor use, and can be applied in the form of a spray or in a gel form. The spray produces 1-5 millimeter dollops, which help to deliver a precise dose of the insecticide as the mosquitoes visit and manipulate the dollops. 

The researchers are now testing out the product in Tanzania, where 93 percent of the population is at risk for malaria. Preliminary results showed that Vetrax reduced mosquito populations by two-thirds in only two weeks.

"If the trend continues like this, we expect that the Anopheles malaria mosquito population will soon be collapsing down to nearly zero in the treated villages," said Mafra-Neto. 

The researchers are presenting their work today at the 254th National Meeting &amp; Exposition of the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

New insecticide attracts mosquitoes with sweet pheromones

Adult mosquitoes depend on the nectar or honeydew of plants...

A new study demonstrates how supermarkets could play a role in fighting obesity by reducing the calories in their products. Using a strategy known as silent reformulation, retailers can change the recipes of food products to lower calorie content without alerting customers.

Jørgen Dejgaard Jensen is a professor at the <a href="http://www.ku.dk/english/">University of Copenhagen</a> and lead author of the study.

"Silent product reformulation may not achieve dramatic reductions in the population's calorie intake, but there seems to be little doubt that it can reduce calorie intake, and that it can do so at a relatively low cost,” said Jensen.

The researchers analyzed data from a silent reformulation that took place between March 2013 and 2014. A Danish retail chain reformulated eight of its own-brand products including mayonnaise, fruit yoghurt, pumpkin seed rye bread, toasting buns, yoghurt bread, carrot buns, whole-grain rolls, and chocolate muesli. Nutritional facts were updated on the product labels but the changes were not announced to customers. 

The study revealed that the overall calorie sales of six products dropped up to 7 percent after the reformulation. Some customers swapped out the new bread and chocolate cereal for alternatives with higher calories, which negated the calorie-reducing effects for those two product categories. For the majority of the products, however, the effects of reformulation were positive.

The researchers pointed out that potential changes in consumer behavior, such as switching out reformulated bread for another <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brand-preference-strain-relationships/">brand</a>, must be taken into consideration when measuring the success of these interventions. They said that studies which do not take this data into account may overstate the public health benefits of product reformulations. 

Professor Jensen explained that the recipe changes made in the products were only “marginal” changes that focused on maintaining the same appearance and taste. 

“Previous research has indicated that through a sequence of such marginal product reformulations, it may be possible to undertake more substantial changes in food products' nutritional characteristics, and still maintain consumers' acceptance of the products,” said Jensen.

The research team also examined whether consumer behavioral changes would negatively affect sales. They found that the product reformulations had very little impact on the retailer's sales turnover, which indicates that such health interventions can be done at a relatively low cost for the retailers. The findings of the study are published in the <a href="https://ijbnpa.biomedcentral.com/">International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Supermarkets could help you eat fewer calories without realizing

A new study demonstrates how supermarkets could play a role...

Production of myelin is crucial to neural development and the structural organization of white matter. Myelin is the fatty white substance that surrounds some nerve fibers or axons and helps insulate the nerve fibers as they send signals to and from neurons and other cells. Now, new research has shown that sensory rich experiences and new environments can play a positive role in the development of white matter and enhance myelination in children.

Myelination is the process of producing the sheath-like insulation for axons (nerve fibers). Without enough insulation, the nervous system cannot work properly, and many developmental disorders can be traced back to defects in white matter formation and myelin integrity

Thomas A. Forbes, lead author of a report published in the journal Trends in Neurosciences, discusses a crucial  “feedback loop,” wherein a pool of cells known as oligodendrocyte progenitor cells make myelin through childhood and adolescence, and the oligodendrocyte cells work in tandem with the axons.

Forbes and his fellow researcher discuss myelination in conjunction with the beneficial effects that sensory rich environments have on young developing brains. 

“The strength, duration and timing of environmental experience influences plasticity in brain circuitry, which is made up of communication cables called axons that link neurons throughout the brain and are coated by myelin, a fatty substance that helps nerve impulses speed from place to place,” says Vittorio Gallo, the study’s senior author and Chief Research Officer at <a href="https://childrensnational.org/">Children's National Health System. </a>

Sensory rich environments can help cognitive development through a variety of ways. Enriching a child’s environment through exposure to new objects and surroundings and interactions with new people and playmates has been found to increase volume and length of myelinated fibers and boost total brain volume. 

Other sensory rich activities that can boost <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/environmental-pollutant-dioxin-alters-brain-development/">brain development</a> include listening to music, active learning, and physical fitness. These positive impacts are further evidenced by the negative effects that poor nutrition, neglect, and social isolation have on basic motor skills and cognitive function and in turn myelin structure. 

The research shows how important an enriched environment is to brain development for infants and children, and offers important information for finding therapies and treatments to enhance white matter health. 

“An enriched environment not only involves the opportunity to move and participate in physical exercise and physical therapy; it is also an environment where there is novelty, new experiences and continuously active learning. It is equally important to minimize social stressors. It's all about the balance,” said Gallo. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Vibrant environments can help white matter development in kids

Production of myelin is crucial to neural development and the...

Abstinence-only education promotes abstaining from sex until marriage, but these programs have been proven to be unsuccessful time and time again, and actually do more harm than good. 

Recent research from <a href="https://www.mailman.columbia.edu/">Columbia University’s Mailman School of Public Health</a> shows that abstinence-only programs in the United States lobby false statistics, enforce gender stereotypes, subjugate young women, withhold medically accurate information, stigmatize sex education and contraceptives, and most importantly, do not prevent sexual initiation, unplanned pregnancies, or STDs. 

According to recent studies using information from several human rights organizations, abstinence-only programs also enforce harmful narratives.

Another reason abstinence-only education is doomed to fail is that people are now getting married at a later age. Research shows that most people are now getting married in their later 20’s and early 30’s, and so the gap between the age that people first have sex and first get married is around 9 years for women and 11 years for men. 

Government spending for abstinence-only education in the US is now $85 million annually and states cannot use any of that allocated money to inform or educate about contraceptives, except to point out rates of failure. 

This misinformation, along with the withholding of information about anatomy and human body function, amounts to a human rights violation, according to several organizations.

"Withholding critical health information from young people is a violation of their rights. Abstinence-only-until-marriage programs leave all young people unprepared and are particularly harmful to young people who are sexually active, who are LGBTQ, or have experienced sexual abuse,” said co-author Leslie Kantor, vice president of Education at<a href="https://www.plannedparenthood.org/"> Planned Parenthood </a>Federation of America. 

The fact that abstinence-only <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientific-education-beliefs/">education</a> has been proven to be ineffective and actually enforces harmful stereotypes and narratives should be reason enough for schools and the US government to find ways to source information accurately. This research indicates that adolescents need a comprehensive education that ultimately empowers them to make their own safe, healthy choices.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com </a>Staff Writer

Abstinence-only education proven to be unsuccessful and dangerous

Abstinence-only education promotes abstaining from sex until marriage, but these...

In an effort to downplay subpar high school experiences, people will often tell young adolescents “high school doesn’t matter after you graduate.” But how true is that really? We know that the academic side of high school is obviously imperative to continued academic success, but the social side of school is often brushed off as juvenile, and friendships short-lived.

But researchers from the <a href="http://www.virginia.edu/">University of Virginia</a> wanted to dive deeper into the long-lasting impacts of peer relationships for high school students. Their study encompassed a community sample of 169 adolescents over a decade, from ages 15 to 25. The group studied was racially, ethnically, and socioeconomically diverse. 

Individuals were assessed annually through surveys and interviews that asked questions about who their closest friends were, details about friendships and assessments analyzing feelings of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marijuana-low-doses-relieve-stress/">anxiety</a>, social acceptance, self-worth, and depression. The close friends of participants were also interviewed and asked to report on their friendships.

Friendship quality was determined from these reports by best friends of participants at age 15. The friendships that had a degree of attachment and support and allowed for intimate exchanges were considered “high-quality friendships.” Popularity was determined by the number of peers in the individual’s grade that ranked them as someone they would want to spend time with, and fully measured using nominations from all teens.

The study ultimately found that teens who prioritized close friendships early on had lower social anxiety, increased self-worth, and fewer symptoms of depression at age 25 compared to their peers. On the other hand, teens who were more popular in high school had higher levels of social anxiety as young adults.

“Our research found that the quality of friendships during adolescence may directly predict aspects of long-term mental and emotional health,” says Rachel K. Narr, PhD candidate in clinical psychology at the <a href="http://www.virginia.edu/">University of Virginia</a>, who led the study. “High school students with higher-quality best friendships tended to improve in several aspects of mental health over time, while teens who were popular among their peers during high school may be more prone to social anxiety later in life.”

The study concludes that focusing on strong, intimate friendships during adolescence can help promote long-term mental health. This may be because positive experiences with friends can help enhance positive feelings about oneself during a stage of life when personal identify is being developed. 

“Our study affirms that forming strong close friendships is likely one of the most critical pieces of the teenage social experience,” explains Joseph Allen, a professor at the <a href="http://www.virginia.edu/">University of Virginia</a>, who coauthored the study. “Being well-liked by a large group of people cannot take the place of forging deep, supportive friendships. And these experiences stay with us, over and above what happens later. As technology makes it increasingly easy to build a social network of superficial friends, focusing time and attention on cultivating close connections with a few individuals should be a priority.”

--

By <a href="mailto:certz@earth.com">Connor Ertz</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

High school friendships impact mental health later in life

In an effort to downplay subpar high school experiences, people...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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