Forests in California’s Sierra Nevada are not fragile by nature. A new study reveals that when people thin crowded tree stands and reduce fuels, the most destructive kind of wildfire drops sharply.



High-severity burned area in the Sierra Nevada now exceeds historic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-are-lagging-centuries-behind-in-climate-adaptation/">patterns</a>. The 2020 to 2021 fire seasons, coupled with a punishing drought, set the stage for a natural experiment.



The research was led by Ethan Yackulic of <a href="https://nau.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northern Arizona University</a>. He worked with partners across several environmental organizations, including the U.S. Forest Service, to track exactly how managed and unmanaged forests fared.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-thinning-projects-reduced-fire-severity">Thinning projects reduced fire severity</h2>



The team looked at 216 thinning projects initiated in 2016 across the Central Sierra and followed them through 2023. They paired each treated site with a closely matched untreated area to build a real-world test that would hold up under scrutiny.



The researchers measured changes in live tree carbon using satellite based biomass estimates and tracked fire behavior with the composite burn index (<a href="https://burnseverity.cr.usgs.gov/products/cbi" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CBI</a>), a standard field calibrated scale of fire severity. They then compared outcomes during years with and without fire.



The team paid close attention to where treatments sat on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protecting-forests-helps-birds-and-humans-in-many-ways/">landscape</a>. Large projects, especially those near fire edges, can influence how a blaze spreads.



Projects that received follow-up work like prescribed burning or extra fuel removal after thinning were also evaluated. Maintenance is routine in ecological forestry, and the team wanted to see if it measurably improved results.



“Treatments reduced average fire severity by 32 percent and the prevalence of high severity fire by 88 percent,” wrote Yackulic. That reduction did not eliminate fire. It shifted fire toward lower intensities, which keeps more trees alive and keeps more live carbon on site.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forest-thinning-projects-need-upkeep">Forest thinning projects need upkeep</h2>



Treatments larger than about 15 acres showed the strongest reductions in severity inside burn perimeters. Scale helps because bigger patches interrupt fuel continuity and give firefighters safer, wider anchors.



A separate landscape <a href="https://escholarship.org/content/qt2c13v0j9/qt2c13v0j9_noSplash_25a4e70da681c1e1f4b86c65eb1dd126.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> in the northern Sierra found that strategically placed networks of treatments reduced severity and aided recovery, reinforcing the value of placement and size across a broader area, showing landscape level gains.



Maintenance mattered too. Projects that received a second entry, such as prescribed burning, saw lower severity and held more live carbon after fire than one and done treatments. Follow through amplifies the initial investment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-thinning-forests-and-carbon-storage">Thinning forests and carbon storage</h2>



The study tracked aboveground live carbon, a proxy for the living forest and its <a href="https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-carbon-sequestration" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon sequestration</a> capacity. Treated stands lost carbon in year one because thinning removes biomass, which is expected.



From there, the signal flipped. By year seven, nearly three quarters of treated forests matched or exceeded their baseline carbon, and the average treated site gained 12.8 metric tons of carbon per hectare relative to its matched control.



During the 2020 to 2021 drought and megafire years, untreated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-are-not-adapting-fast-enough-to-climate-change/">areas</a> lost much more live carbon to high severity fire. Treated areas held steady or declined far less because the fires that did burn there were usually less intense.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-restoring-natural-fire-patterns">Restoring natural fire patterns</h2>



Historically, many of these forests burned frequently at low intensities. A U.S. Forest Service <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/psw/publications/documents/psw_gtr256/psw_gtr256.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">report</a> documents that pattern and shows how a century of fire exclusion altered structure, density, and fuels.



Thinning and burning are ways to restore that functional pattern in places where safe, low intensity fire no longer happens on its own. The goal is not to eliminate fire but to return it to a level the forest can handle.



Drought pushes trees to their limits, especially when too many stems compete for the same water. A previous analysis in the Sierra Nevada found that stands thinned before the 2012 to 2015 drought saw significantly lower drought-related mortality.



That pattern matches the new findings. Treated stands in the Central Sierra kept accumulating live carbon even through the 2020 drought period, while many untreated areas stalled or lost ground.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-supporting-forests-in-the-long-term">Supporting forests in the long term</h2>



Managers face a tough balance. Removing biomass lowers fire risk but can undercut <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-is-just-three-years-away-from-dangerous-carbon-milestone/">carbon</a> goals. Yet over a full decade in a fire-prone landscape, the evidence suggests the opposite - fuel reduction can actually support carbon objectives.



A widely cited <a href="https://research.fs.usda.gov/treesearch/63734" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">paper</a> argues for “operational resilience,” a practical target that reduces competition and surface fuels enough to handle fire and drought. The new results show that such targets are not only compatible with carbon stability, they can support it under stress.



Planning also matters. Grouping larger units along likely fire edges, then maintaining them with prescribed burns, turns them into semi-permanent speed bumps that slow and shape a blaze when it comes.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/forests-and-global-change/articles/10.3389/ffgc.2025.1498430/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Forests and Global Change</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.&nbsp;



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Forest thinning cuts wildfire severity and saves carbon

Forests in California’s Sierra Nevada are not fragile by nature. A new study reveals that when people thin crowded tree stands and reduce fuels, the most destructive kind of wildfire drops sharply. High-severity burned area in the Sierra Nevada now exceeds historic patterns. The 2020 to 2021 fire seasons, coupled with a punishing drought, set the stage for a natural experiment. The research was led by Ethan Yackulic of Northern Arizona University. He worked with partners across several environmental organizations, including the U.S. Forest Service, to track...

US government grants $3 million for CBD pain relief research. The US government will spend $3 million on medical marijuana research focusing on the effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cbd-treatment-opioid-heroin-addiction/">cannabidiol (CBD)</a> and hundreds of other chemicals found in the drug. 

On Thursday, nine research grants and funding were awarded to help determine whether or not marijuana is an effective pain reliever. 

None of the grants will go to THC research, the main psychoactive component in marijuana. 

THC has been the focus of many studies, but the increased risk of addiction and abuse are too great for THC to be considered as a viable option for pain relief. 

CBD, on the other hand, does not make you “high” because it’s non-psychoactive, and has become a trendy ingredient in cosmetics and foods.  

Marijuana is still considered a controlled substance and illegal under federal law. However, more than 30 states have legalized the drug for medicinal purposes. 

Whether or not medicinal marijuana is an effective treatment option and how to avoid the psychoactive effects of THC remains poorly understood. 

“The science is lagging behind the public use and interest. We’re doing our best to catch up here,” Dr. David Shurtleff, deputy director of the <a href="https://nccih.nih.gov/">National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health</a>, told the <a href="https://apnews.com/6c7f1be6ed7a440680aada789e61b10f">Associated Press.</a> 

The National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health is funding the research grants. 

One of the main reasons the government is investing so much into medical marijuana research is the country-wide opioid crisis. Opioids are highly addictive but were widely prescribed and used to treat pain leading to an increase in addiction and opioid-related overdoses in recent years. 

CBD and other components of marijuana may offer innovative solutions to treat and study pain. 

Only one of the research projects awarded funding will have human test subjects. 

The study, conducted by researchers from the <a href="https://www.utah.edu/">University of Utah</a>, will involve taking brain scans of participants after ingesting a CBD extract. The researchers hope to see if the CBD extract helps with lower back pain. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

US government grants $3 million for CBD pain relief research

US government grants $3 million for CBD pain relief research....

More than 1,600 scientists have called on Congress to fully fund conservation programs and help solve the growing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/decreases-biodiversity-habitat-loss/">biodiversity crisis</a>. 

Currently, up to one million species are at risk of extinction, according to the latest <a href="https://www.ipbes.net/">Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services Global Assessment</a>. 

Even though the US Endangered Species Act is considered the gold standard of conservation law, decades of underfunding have undercut its full potential. 

In a <a href="https://defenders-cci.org/sign-on/conservation-funding/">letter</a> published in the journal Science, researchers from the <a href="https://defenders.org/">Defenders of Wildlife </a>and universities across the US are asking Congress to fully fund conservation programs in order to prevent catastrophic biodiversity loss. 

“We are simply running out of time: Congress must act decisively to save endangered and threatened species now,” said Jamie Rappaport Clark, the president and CEO of Defenders of Wildlife in a statement. 

Less than 25 percent of the funding needed for species recovery has been provided in the past few decades. For example, of the $468 million that the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/">US Fish and Wildlife Service</a> needs to implement conservation effectively, the agency receives less than half that amount each year. 

Scientists have warned that we are nearing a sixth mass extinction due to the rapid rate of wildlife declines. 

The current global biodiversity crisis demands action, and adequate funding could go a long way in protecting wildlife populations. 

“The science is clear: biodiversity faces unprecedented threats and decline, with about 1 million species at risk of extinction,” said Dr. Jacom Malcom, the lead author of the letter and Director of the Center for Conservation Innovation, Defenders of Wildlife. “Scientists stand united in the need for Congress to fully fund proven conservation programs to stem the tide of extinction. We must act now before it’s too late.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Ethan Daniels

Why conservation funding is vital to solving the biodiversity crisis

More than 1,600 scientists have called on Congress to fully...

Terrestrial plants may all use the same network to control reproductive timing. Experts have investigated the genetic structure of the liverwort, which was one of the first plants to move from the ocean onto land hundreds of millions of years ago. The study revealed that since their transition onto land, plants have likely been using the same genetic tools to regulate whether they grow bigger or reproduce. 

Like mosses, liverworts are non-vascular <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/propagate-plants/">plants</a> that do not have deep roots and thrive in moist, shaded soil. Male and female liverworts can be distinguished by unique, umbrella-shaped structures that shoot up from the base of the plant.

Study co-author Professor Yuichiro Watanabe is an expert in the Department of Life Sciences at the <a href="https://www.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en/index.html">University of Tokyo</a>. He explained that liverworts have "the maximum power with the least structure."

Compared to flowering plants that are more commonly the focus of lab studies, such as thale cress, the genome of the liverwort is structurally simple. Flowering plants are "younger" and have gene duplications and redundancies that make their genomes more complicated. 

Despite its simplicity, however, the liverwort genome appears to have the same life-cycle stages along with the same level of control over them. 

[caption id="attachment_1878025" align="aligncenter" width="650"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/male-and-female-liverwort.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1878025" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/male-and-female-liverwort.jpg" alt="" width="650" height="433" /></a> Male and female liverworts (left), male and female thalli (right), Tsuzuki et al., 2019[/caption]

The genome of the liverwort species Marchantia polymorpha was first sequenced in 2017 by a team which included some of the researchers involved in the current investigation. 

The new genome analysis revealed that the liverwort has about 100 different versions of molecules called microRNAs that regulate the activity of other genes. Furthermore, eight of the liverwort microRNAs were found to be nearly identical to known thale cress microRNAs. This was a significant finding because the ancestral plants that evolved into liverworts and thale cress diverged over 450 million years ago.

"So, why keep them? We want to know what those shared microRNAs are doing, and liverworts are now a convenient model for us to investigate," said Professor Watanabe.

Humans and most other mammals are equipped at birth with the cells they need to reproduce, but plants do not develop these types of cells until after they transition from the developmental vegetative stage into the reproductive stage.

One of the microRNAs that helps flowering plants control the shift to the reproductive stage, known as microRNA156/529, is one of the eight microRNAs shared between thale cress and liverworts.

To understand why this particular microRNA was conserved over so many millions of years of evolution, the researchers created a genetically modified version of liverwort that lacked microRNA156/529. These modified liverworts were found to grow reproductive cells on their vegetative tissues rather than developing the normal umbrella-shaped reproductive structures.

"This was amazing to us. Those liverworts skipped some part of the reproductive process and the body itself becomes the reproductive organ," said Professor Watanabe.Terrestrial plants may all use the same network to control reproductive timing

The research suggests that microRNA156/529 and its molecular network are part of an important control system that is potentially used by all land plants to regulate their reproductive timing.

Professor Watanabe theorizes that, in the future, farmers will be able to predict harvest times by measuring the amount of microRNA156/529 in crops. "We hope our results inspire others to develop new applications for plant reproduction."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home">Current Biology</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: University of Tokyo

Terrestrial plants may all use the same network to control reproductive timing

Terrestrial plants may all use the same network to control...

Five years ago, countries and corporations got together to set huge goals on limiting deforestation. But months away from their first deadline, their promises on forest protection have fallen apart. 

In 2014, more than 190 world governments, major businesses and other groups gathered to endorse the <a href="https://nydfglobalplatform.org/">New York Declaration on Forests</a>. Their stated goals were to halve deforestation by 2020, and end it entirely by 2030.

With 2020 less than four months away, that first goal for forest protection has failed miserably. Deforestation hasn’t been cut by half or at all. In fact, it’s increased worldwide by more than 40% since 2014, according to a new <a href="https://forestdeclaration.org/">five-year assessment</a> by an international group of researchers.

With that drastic spike in deforestation, the goal to halve by the end of 2020 is likely impossible to meet, the <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/">New Scientist</a> reports.

“It’s wake-up call. The situation now is more dire than five years ago,” Dr. Stephanie Roe of the <a href="https://www.virginia.edu/">University of Virginia</a> told the science and tech magazine.

That’s especially true as devastating wildfires burn vast sections of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/satellites-monitor-amazon-fires/">Amazon rainforest</a> in Brazil – a country that did not sign on to the Declaration on Forests. News media have reported that many of the Amazon fires were likely set intentionally by ranchers and mining companies seeking to clear parts of the forest.

Brazil and parts of Africa have seen the worst failures when it comes to forest protection, as commercial agricultural industries seek to expand. Many groups in the Congo basin, for example, are seeking economic expansion at the expense of tree cover.

“There is pressure to allow expansion of palm oil, cocoa and other commercial land uses,” said Dr. Constance McDermott at the <a href="http://www.ox.ac.uk/">University of Oxford</a>.

But the biggest problem, scientists said, is that there has been no widespread adoption of the Declaration on Forests. Only 8% of the world’s top companies have committed to forest protection across their supply chains, for example, the report found.

“It’s still more lucrative to clear forests than protect them,” Roe told New Scientist.

While the 2020 goal is out of reach, the 2030 goal of ending deforestation can still be met, the researchers said. But it will take a lot of work, both in finding alternatives to deforestation and in restoring forests.

—

By Kyla Cathey, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Paid for by Earth.com.

Countries and businesses are missing the target on forest protection

Five years ago, countries and corporations got together to set...

Experts at the <a href="https://www.botanic.cam.ac.uk/">Cambridge University Botanic Garden</a> have finally gotten to see a giant agave plant bloom after waiting for 57 years. The rare "tequila plant" grew as much as four inches per day over the summer and is now nearly 15 feet tall. 

The much-anticipated buds started to appear on the plant in June, but the yellow flowers did not blossom until earlier this week. By the time the massive plant stopped growing, staff members were preparing for it to bust through the roof of the greenhouse.

The mysterious plant, which is related to a family of plants used to make <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/bat-friendly-tequila-species-recovery/">tequila</a>, has been growing since 1962. The appearance of yellow stalk-like flowers allowed botanists to finally identify it as likely belonging to the Agave vivipara species. 

Because it is part of the Asparagus family, the plant initially looked very similar to an asparagus spear until the flower branches emerged. Dr. Ángela Cano, who is the assistant curator at the gardens, will be able to confirm its identity as Agave vivipara when the plant produces fruits. 

The flower contains both male and female parts that will allow it to self-pollinate. "That’s why the species is called vivipara, which means that it bears its own babies like mammals," said Dr. Cano.

Monocarpic plants such as agaves only flower once, set seeds, and then die. The staff members predict their plant will remain in bloom for about a month before dying.

"The bottom section of the flower structure, or inflorescence, has started to flower, however its flowers may not look as pretty as people might expect as there aren’t any colored petals," said Dr. Gano.

"In the wild, pollinators are attracted by the massive inflorescence (flower structure), the yellow color of the stamens, the smell of the flowers - broccoli-like - and the abundant nectar they produce."

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Main Image Credit: <a href="https://www.cam.ac.uk/">University of Cambridge</a>

Rare agave plant finally blossoms after 57 years

Experts at the Cambridge University Botanic Garden have finally gotten...

How to propagate plants from cuttings. One of the easiest ways to share the joys of gardening is by sharing one of your favorite plants. Luckily, this can be done without having to part with the original!

Plant propagation is the process of replicating plants. Just like all living things, plants must reproduce for the continuation of the species. Gardeners use this process to replicate the plants they like. (Or maybe the plants are using the gardeners.)

We all know that plants can be grown from seeds. However this is not the only way to get new plants. Growing new plants from cuttings is a great way to replicate your plants. How to propagate plants from cuttings 

Propagating plants from stem cuttings has a few key advantages over growing from seed.
<ol>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">You will have a mature plant sooner. Since you start with a central stem and fully grown leaves, your cutting already has a huge head start on seedlings.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">The new plant is a genetically identical clone of the parent. In some plants like mint and apples, new seedlings are often poor quality. An apple seed is likely to produce unpalatable crab apples. A mint seed can produce plants that are not strongly fragrant. Cuttings, on the other hand, are nearly identical to their parent plant.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">You can take a cutting without getting the parent to flower. It can be difficult to get some plants to flower. When they do flower, there is no guarantee you will get viable seeds. Some plants never reproduce sexually, only spreading through cuttings. Therefore, cuttings are an easier way to propagate a plant. This can be done multiple times in a season without waiting for flowers.</li>
</ol>
These are just a few of the reasons you might want to propagate your plant from a cutting. Now let’s find out how to do it!
<h2>What You Will Need:</h2>
<ul>
 	<li style="list-style-type: none;">
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">A healthy, well established parent plant with plenty of branches. It should have plenty of actively growing green stems over 6-inches long. Different plants will have different needs. Some plants are easier than others to root. Some good starter plants to learn to take cuttings from are:
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/mentha/">Mint (Mentha):</a> Any type or mint or closely related plants like lemon balm and catnip. These are very hardy, fast-growing plants that readily take root.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<ul>
 	<li style="list-style-type: none;">
<ul>
 	<li style="list-style-type: none;">
<ul>
 	<li><a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/salvia-officinalis/">Garden Sage (Salvia officinalis):</a> Also known as culinary sage, this is the type of sage usually found in herb gardens. Surprisingly, it is <a href="https://sarawrightnature.wordpress.com/tag/differences-between-artemisia-and-salvia/">not closely related</a> to <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/artemisia-papposa/">owyhee</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/artemisia-cana/">silver sage</a> which are in the genus Artemisia. </li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<ul>
 	<li style="list-style-type: none;">
<ul>
 	<li style="list-style-type: none;">
<ul>
 	<li><a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/lavandula-leaves/">Lavender (Lavandula):</a> Another great smelling herb that can easily be propagated! Lavender produces fragrant flowers that have a calming scent.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<ul>
 	<li style="list-style-type: none;">
<ul>
 	<li style="list-style-type: none;">
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;"><a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/brugmansia/">Angel’s Trumpet (Brugmansia):</a> This semi-woody plant has beautiful trumpet shaped flowers. It is a common landscaping plant in Southern California. However, care should be taken when working with this plant as it is quite toxic.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Very sharp, clean shears or a knife.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Rooting hormone (recommended)
<ul>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Young willow leaves and sprigs contain the natural rooting hormone salicylic acid and can be used as a rooting hormone.</li>
</ul>
</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Small pots (dixie cups or reclaimed plastic containers can be used.)</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Cups filled with water</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Perlite (highly recommended)</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Potting soil</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Plastic bags large enough to fit your pots with room for a 6-inch stem</li>
</ul>
<h2>Taking Cuttings</h2>
<ol>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Before cutting your plant, make sure you have all your needed supplies easily available. Fill enough cups with water to fit all the stems you plan to cut. Only plan to cut as many stems as you can process with 30 minutes.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Prepare pots with potting soil. You may want to add extra perlite to the soil mix to improve drainage.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Locate a healthy stem on your parent plant. The stem should be large and actively growing. The leaves should look green, turgid and generally healthy. The distance between the leaves on the stem should be short.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Identify the nodes of the stem, where the leaves are attached to the stem. Find a node that is green but established, the stem should be slightly flexible at the cut. Finding the best location on the stem takes practice. You should try to get a cutting that is about 4-6 inches long. Practicing on the recommended plants will be easier as these species are very forgiving. </li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">You will want to cut very close to the selected node (for most plants, including those listed above.) <a href="http://www.cannagardening.com/taking_cuttings">Make a clean, straight cut through the stem</a> with a SHARP knife or shears. Avoid crushing the stem.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Remove the sets of leaves closest to the base of the cutting. You should have 1-2 inches of stem without leaves. Quickly move your cutting to the cup of water.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">After taking the number of cuttings you want, roll them in rooting hormone, tapping off any excess. Avoid doing this directly inside the bottle of hormone as this may decrease its potency. Skip this step if you are not using rooting hormone.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">With a finger or butter knife, make a small hole in the potting soil. You can add extra perlite to this hole to give the young roots room to breathe. Stick the cutting into the soil, burying the node covered in hormone. Do not place the plant too deep in the soil.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Water the cutting in the pot, completely drenching the soil. Your cutting will need a lot of water and humidity at the beginning.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Place a plastic bag over the cutting and pot. This acts as a kind of mini greenhouse called a humidity tent. It helps keep the plant wet since it will have trouble soaking up water without roots. You want to keep the humidity tent on for at least a week or until new growth begins to be apparent.</li>
 	<li style="font-weight: 400;">Provide the <a href="https://www.brit.co/how-to-propagate-plants-even-if-youre-a-beginner/">plant with indirect sunlight</a>. Too much sun may be too stressful for the cutting! However, too little light will prevent it from getting the energy needed to grow new roots.</li>
</ol>
If you follow these steps, you should have an abundance of plants in no time. There are many other ways to take cuttings and root plants as well. Do some reading about the plant you want to take a cutting from to learn about its needs.

Some plants can be rooted in water with no soil. Others can be rooted from a piece of a leaf. Cacti and succulents can be propagated in a similar but slightly different way. Comment below with your favorite ways to propagate plants and your favorite plants to propagate!

--

By <a href="mailto:writing@caseyhofford.com">Casey Hofford</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

How to propagate plants from cuttings

How to propagate plants from cuttings. One of the easiest...

The fall armyworm is one of the most destructive pests in the world. The armyworm is actually the larval stage of the Spodoptera frugiperda moth, but it’s in this stage that the insect can wreak havoc on crops. 

The armyworm isn’t picky and can feed on more than 80 plant species. 

Researchers are racing to find ways to control and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grass-variety-armyworm-infestations/">manage fall armyworm invasions,</a> especially in countries in Africa where in recent years, the pest has destroyed billions of dollars worth of crops. 

The fall armyworm is native to tropical and subtropical regions of the Americas but was recently detected in Nigeria in 2016, according to the <a href="http://www.fao.org/food-chain-crisis/how-we-work/plant-protection/fallarmyworm/en/">US Food and Agricultural Organization</a>. By 2017, the fall armyworm spread to 28 countries in Africa. 

Last week during trade talks between Japan’s Prime Minister Shinzo Abe and President Trump, it was agreed that Japan would buy excess <a href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-g7-summit-trump-abe-trade/trump-abe-say-u-s-and-japan-have-agreed-in-principle-on-trade-deal-idUSKCN1VF0CU">US corn because of armyworm infestations</a>. 

There are now fears that the pest will spread to Australia and Europe. 

Predators in South America and the southern US help manage fall armyworm populations. It’s still not known how the armyworm spread to Africa but the damage it can do, even in one night, is considerable.  

Roger Day from the <a href="https://www.cabi.org/">Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International</a> office in Kenya has been monitoring the fall armyworms steady march across sub-Saharan Africa, and the pest has become a main priority. 

Day and a team of researchers estimated that uncontrolled armyworm infestations could cost $6.2 billion in crop damages. 

“The caterpillars eat rice, sugar cane and maize, and can destroy a farmer’s entire crop in a night,” Day told <a href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg24332462-600-worlds-hungriest-caterpillar-is-wreaking-destruction-around-the-world/?utm_medium=email&amp;utm_source=dailynewsletter&amp;utm_campaign=05092019">New Scientist.</a> 

Currently, there are four strategies to help manage armyworm infestations according to Toby Bruce from <a href="https://www.keele.ac.uk/">Keele University</a> in the UK. 

Step one is to identify and grow crops that are more resistant to armyworms. Next, researchers have suggested growing plants next to the maize that specifically repel the moths from laying their eggs. The third strategy includes growing special crops that can lure the moths away from the maize. 

The last step involves releasing predators that can feed on the armyworms and keep infestations in check like parasitoid wasps. 

However, importing such wasps to countries in Africa will need to be conducted safely to ensure that there aren’t any risks to local biodiversity and ecosystems. 

A possible solution could be finding parasitoid wasps species that are native to Africa to control the armyworms.

Other options for managing infestations include planting genetically modified crops, but many are banned in countries in Africa and are not easily accessible for small farmers. 

So far, the armyworm has yet to make its way into Europe or Australia, but it may just be a matter of time which is why finding ways to manage and control the pests is vital. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Shutterstock/Aphakorn Fuengtee

Armyworms continue their relentless attacks on crops worldwide

The fall armyworm is one of the most destructive pests...

The discovery of a gene in the barley plant could be the key to creating <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drought-resistant-plants-enhanced/">drought resistant crops</a> in the future. 

After nearly five years of research, scientists from <a href="https://www.hw.ac.uk/">Heriot-Watt University</a> identified a gene called HvMYB1 and proved that this gene is responsible for tolerance to stressors like drought and heat in barley and other cereals.  

The study was published in the Journal of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry.

Barley has more than 39,000 genes and so finding a specific gene that helps with stress tolerance was more than a challenge.  

After the researchers identified the HvMYB1 gene, tests with plants showed that when gene expression is prominent, a plant can survive drier conditions. 

“By increasing the expression of this particular gene in test plants and simulating drought conditions, we’ve been able to prove that plants in which HvMYB1 is more prominently expressed are able to survive prolonged periods of drought,” said Peter Morris, the leader of the research. 

Cereals are staple crops and an important source of nutrients worldwide. According to Morris, 2018 was already a hard year for European cereal harvests and future crop yields will be impacted by drouts and heat waves due to climate change. 

Finding ways to help make crops heartier and “future-proof,” is crucial for food security.  

“As climate change gathers pace and we experience more extreme seasons, it is essential we can maintain continuity of supply,” said Morris. “This is significant for key industries like Scotch whisky, one of the UK’s leading export items. Our project focused specifically on barley; one of the three ingredients used in the production of Scotch whisky.” 

The <a href="https://www.scotch-whisky.org.uk/">Scotch Whisky Association</a> funded the research, but the study has broader implications beyond helping ensure the future of the UK’s whiskey exports. 

“This also has important implications for the wider cereals industry including the production of wheat, maize, and rice,” said Morris.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette,</a> <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Newly discovered barley gene could help cultivate drought resistant crops

The discovery of a gene in the barley plant could...

Plant gene breakthrough can help battle fertilizer pollution in waterways. Researchers from <a href="https://btiscience.org/">Boyce Thompson Institute</a> (BTI) have figured out the function of a pair of genes in plants that could aid farmers in phosphate capture and reduce fertilizer pollution in waterways, which is currently a massive environmental issue that can lead to mass fish die-offs among other problems.

This new discovery is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/nplants/">Nature Plants</a>.

Researchers built off of BTI Professor Maria Harrison’s prior work on plants’ symbiotic relationships with arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi. AM fungi occupy a plant’s roots and allows a plant to trade fatty acids for phosphate and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/nitrogen-runoff-killing-coral/">nitrogen</a>. AM fungi can also aid plants in recovering from stressful situations like drought. But because the AM fungi colonization is so costly, the plants pay close attention to the process.

To better understand how plants control AM fungi colonization, Harrison and colleague Lena Müller studied genes that encode short proteins called CLE peptides in two plants — Medicago truncatula and Brachypodium distachyon. These CLE peptides are important to cell development and response to stress, and they are used by a majority of plants throughout the plant kingdom.

Harrison and Müller found that two CLE genes are key modulators of the AM fungal symbiosis. One of said CLE genes, CLE53, reduces colonization rates once the roots of a plant have already been colonized, and the other, CLE33, reduces colonization rates when there is copious amounts of phosphate available to the colonized plant.

"Being able to control fungal colonization levels in plant roots and maintain the symbiosis even in higher phosphate conditions might be useful to a farmer," Harrison said. "For example, you may want the other beneficial effects of AM fungi, like nitrogen uptake and recovery from drought, as well as further uptake of phosphate.”

"You might be able to achieve these benefits by altering the levels of these CLE peptides in the plants," she added.

Müller saw the CLE peptides act via a receptor protein called SUNN and modulate the plant’s synthesis of strigolactone, which is a compound exuded by plant roots that stimulates AM fungi to grow and occupy the root. Then, once the roots are colonized or receive enough phosphate, the CLE genes suppress the synthesis of strigolactone and restrict colonization.

"In the early 2000's, researchers found that plants had a way to measure and then reduce colonization," Müller said. "But until now, nobody really understood the molecular mechanism of that dynamic."

--

By <a href="mailto:oliviagharvey24@gmail.com">Olivia Harvey</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Mike Carroll/BTI

Plant gene breakthrough can help battle fertilizer pollution in waterways

Plant gene breakthrough can help battle fertilizer pollution in waterways....

Climate change will negatively impact banana crop yields in many countries. Bananas are recognized as being the world's most important fruit crop, providing food, nutrition, and income for millions of people. A new study from the <a href="https://www.exeter.ac.uk/">University of Exeter</a> has investigated the extent to which climate change is impacting the cultivation of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/popular-banana-risk-disappearing/">bananas</a> in some major exporting countries.

Many previous studies have examined how rising temperatures and changing rainfall patterns are affecting agricultural production, but the potential impacts on important tropical crops like bananas are much less understood.

Led by Dr. Dan Bebber, the Exeter team used sophisticated modeling techniques to assess the climate sensitivity of global dessert banana productivity and yield. The study revealed that 27 countries, which account for 86 percent of banana production worldwide, have seen increased crop yields since 1961 as a result of more favorable climate conditions.

However, these gains will be substantially reduced by 2050 if climate change continues to progress at the expected rate. The findings suggest that 10 countries, including India and Brazil, are set to experience a significant decline in crop yields. For countries such as Ecuador and Honduras, on the other hand, climate change will likely boost crop yields.

"We're very concerned about the impact of diseases like Fusarium Wilt on bananas, but the impacts of climate change have been largely ignored," said Dr. Bebber. "There will be winners and losers in the coming years, and our study may stimulate vulnerable countries to prepare through investment in technologies like irrigation."

Predicting the potential impacts of climate change on banana production systems is crucial to their long-term survival. Dr. Bebber emphasizes that preparing tropical agriculture for future climate change is imperative.

Among the ten countries expected to experience a negative trend in yields are some of the largest producers, including Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Panama, and the Philippines - all of which are also major exporters. 

"An open exchange of ideas is going to be critical going forward. We believe practical solutions already exist, but these are scattered across banana producing countries," said study co-author Dr. Varun Varma. "This knowledge exchange needs to start now to counteract predicted yield losses due to climate change."

The study is published in the journal <a href="http://www.nature.com/nclimate/">Nature Climate Change</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: David Bebber

Climate change will negatively impact banana crop yields

Climate change will negatively impact banana crop yields in many...

American bellflower reveals how plants adapt to climate change. A wildflower native to Virginia is helping biologists understand how plants and animals adapt to new environments due to climate change. 

The American bellflower is a plant native to Virginia, but after the last ice age, the flower colonized new environments and expanded its range as temperatures warmed. 

Researchers from the <a href="https://www.virginia.edu/">University of Virginia </a>and <a href="https://wsu.edu/">Washington State University</a> saw a unique opportunity in studying the bellflower to see how significant climate change around 15,000 years influenced the plant to evolve and adapt. 

“The plant is ideal for study because it expanded its range when the climate last warmed and glaciers retreated,” said Laura Galloway, a co-author of the study. “We learned that migration causes evolution that is both beneficial - making it easier for plants to reproduce - and detrimental - reducing the success of that reproduction.”

Research has shown that some species working to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/american-pikas-climate-change/">adapt to environmental changes due to climate change</a>. However, many plants and animals are at risk of extinction and perhaps the past can offer clues for what to expect in the future as the impacts of climate change become more severe. 

For this study, the researchers sequenced the genome of bellflowers across their native habitats. 

After tracing patterns of genetic mutations to an area in Eastern Kentucky, the researchers theorize that this is where the plant was able to survive the last glaciation and as temperatures warmed, the flower expanded into the eastern United States.  

Populations of the flower that were furthest from their area of origin in Kentucky had evolved the ability to self-fertilize to aid reproduction, but this adaptation came at a cost, and the plant populations also gained harmful mutations. 

“These combined changes - self-fertilization and detrimental mutations - provide strong evidence that while colonizing new environments causes plants to adapt to the absence of mates in those environments - and that’s why they can now self-fertilize - at the same time, it creates genetic change that reduces overall vigor,” said Galloway. 

The study, published in the journal Evolution Letters, shows that while species can evolve and adapt to new areas, these evolutionary changes can also increase the risk of detrimental mutations that ultimately decrease survival odds. 

“While migration will lead to individuals that are better able to reproduce in the small populations expected in new habitats, it may also cause genetic change that limits their ability to survive in the long term,” said Galloway. 

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>,<a href="https://www.earth.com/"> Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

American bellflower reveals how plants adapt to climate change

American bellflower reveals how plants adapt to climate change. A...

Invasive disease could nearly wipe out the UK’s ash trees this century. Human-induced changes to the environment are increasing the rate at which pests and diseases are introduced, which is severely threatening to native species. Long-lived species that reproduce slowly, such as forest trees, are particularly susceptible to new pathogens. 

It is estimated that in 2015, 100 million hectares of <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-activity-forests-alaska/">forest</a> were affected by pests and diseases around the globe. However, the subsequent impacts to any given forest ecosystem cannot be detected for years, so experts use computer models to predict future outcomes.

In a recent study, Professor Matthew Evans from the <a href="https://www.hku.hk/">University of Hong Kong</a> created a computer model to estimate how ash dieback (ADB) disease may affect the UK's 125 million ash trees. 

ADB disease, which is caused by a fungus native to East Asia, was introduced to the UK seven years ago. This incurable infection leaves diamond-shaped scars on the bark and causes the leaves to fall off of the trees.

About one in every 100 ash trees is able to resist the fungus and avoid infection. This is likely due to a genetic advantage which allows the trees to shed their leaves earlier to prevent the fungus from establishing itself.

Professor Evans found that at the current level of resistance, 95 percent of the UK's ash trees could be wiped out by the end of the century. He determined that breeding more ash trees with resistance will prevent millions of deaths. 

"In addition, several studies have shown that resistance to ADB appears to be heritable," wrote Professor Evans. "This is potentially a route by which a reasonably high ash tree population could be sustained after this new threat, with dead susceptible trees being replaced by resistant individuals."

According to Professor Evans, if one in 10 British trees could fight off ash dieback, the ash tree population would only be reduced by one-third of its current size. However, Professor Evans explained that this number of resistant trees will not appear on their own.

"As has been suggested by other authors, it seems reasonable that selective breeding could play a role in the conservation of ash forests," said Professor Evans. "The establishment of a source of resistant individuals that could be used to boost the numbers of naturally resistant trees in the population would help increase the chances of a population sustainability."

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/journal/rsos">Royal Society Open Science</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Invasive disease could nearly wipe out the UK’s ash trees this century

Invasive disease could nearly wipe out the UK’s ash trees...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;



-----

What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



-----



Like what you read? <a href="https://www.earth.com/subscribe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Subscribe to our newsletter</a> for engaging articles, exclusive content, and the latest updates.



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.



-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"]</div>



Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"]</div>



Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

[sendtonews key="qjvhBOBnY8-2426650-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

[sendtonews key="0879czfG3k-1785905-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"]</div>



Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



---



By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

[sendtonews key="JbW4VsY53O-1632195-12187" type="single"] Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected...

News coming your way