Seagrass meadows are more than just coastal greenery. Beneath the waves, they capture carbon and bury it in the seafloor, storing it safely for decades or centuries. This makes seagrass a powerful ally in the fight against climate change



But there’s a catch. When humans flood coastlines with too much nutrient pollution - especially from wastewater - it doesn’t just mess with the water. It messes with the seagrass, too.



Scientists wanted to find out exactly how this works, and they didn’t take shortcuts. Over nine years, researchers observed what happened when they added extra nutrients to seagrass beds. What they found was a balancing act between helping and hurting.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-balance-of-seagrass-and-nutrients">The balance of seagrass and nutrients</h2>



In the warm, shallow waters of tropical bays, seagrass grows in sandy beds. Such places are usually poor in nutrients. That may sound bad, but it is one of the reasons why seagrass is good at capturing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-plays-a-major-role-in-global-carbon-storage/">carbon</a>. 



The plants grow slowly and consistently, extending their roots deep into the sediment where carbon is stored and trapped.



But when researchers added <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lack-of-phosphorus-will-limit-growth-of-the-amazon-rainforest/">phosphorus</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/kelp-farms-could-help-clean-up-coastal-nitrogen-pollution/">nitrogen</a> to these beds, something interesting happened. The seagrass responded with a burst of growth. 



First, it strengthened its root systems. Then, it put more energy into its blades - the flat, grass-like leaves. As the roots grew quickly, they also died more quickly, sending extra carbon into the sediment. That should be good news, right? 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-shadow-of-too-much-nitrogen">The shadow of too much nitrogen</h2>



Here’s where things got complicated. When nitrogen levels went too high, the team saw a surge in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invisible-forest-of-phytoplankton-thrives-in-a-warming-climate/">phytoplankton</a> - tiny algae that float in the water. These blooms blocked sunlight, putting the seagrass at risk.



“People thought excess nutrients were killing seagrass,” said Jacob Allgeier, associate professor of ecology and evolutionary biology at the <a href="https://umich.edu/">University of Michigan</a>. 



“But we show that as long as there are not too many nutrients, which would also increase phytoplankton, the seagrass will just increase growth with excess nutrients.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-experiment-worked">How the experiment worked</h2>



To figure out what was really going on, a team led by recent doctoral graduate Bridget Shayka went hands-on - literally. The team collected seagrass samples from test plots in the Bahamas. 



Shayka and 17 undergraduate students separated each plant into parts: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-meadows-still-thrive-on-floridas-nature-coast/">blades</a>, sheaths, roots, and rhizomes (the stems that grow underground). Next, the parts were freeze-dried, crushed, and tested for nitrogen, phosphorus, and carbon.



The researchers found that nutrients from human sources had a bigger effect than those from fish.



“The systems we study are pretty low-nutrient systems, so adding nutrients can increase seagrass production,” said Shayka, now a program officer at Ocean Visions. 



“But we also know that when you go too far and add too many nutrients, it really destroys these systems. It's one of the leading causes of their destruction around the world and in coastal systems.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nitrogen-isn-t-the-only-problem">Nitrogen isn’t the only problem</h2>



In another experiment, the researchers tried 21 varied nutrient ratios in bottles of seawater and phytoplankton. They were curious to know if the ratio of nitrogen to phosphorus mattered more than just the amount of each nutrient. The results surprised them.



In this system, phosphorus had a stronger positive effect on seagrass growth. Nitrogen, on the other hand, caused phytoplankton levels to spike. That meant more light-blocking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-algae-play-an-unexpected-role-in-cooling-the-earth/">algae</a> in the water and more stress for the seagrass beds.



“When you grow tomatoes, you don't just add nitrogen. You add a perfect ratio of nitrogen and phosphorus. That idea is replete in our society,” said Allgeier. “But because we tested the water column and because we tested the seagrass, we're able to say that model doesn't work in our system.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seagrass-and-carbon-storage">Seagrass and carbon storage</h2>



It’s unlikely that we’ll stop nutrient pollution altogether. But these findings suggest we don’t need to. Instead, we need to manage it better.



“We're not stopping nutrient enrichment. It's just not going to stop,” said Allgeier. “But we can manage it. And how do you best manage it? We scrub it for nitrogen.”



If local communities can control nitrogen runoff - especially from sewage and agriculture - they might give seagrass a better chance to grow, store carbon, and stay alive. This matters, not just for marine ecosystems, but for climate action too.



Seagrass may not get the attention coral reefs or rainforests do, but when it comes to carbon storage, it’s one of the most powerful tools in nature.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/gcb.70401">Global Change Biology</a>.



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Seagrass is a powerful climate weapon - unless we drown it in nutrients

Seagrass meadows are more than just coastal greenery. Beneath the waves, they capture carbon and bury it in the seafloor, storing it safely for decades or centuries. This makes seagrass a powerful ally in the fight against climate change But there’s a catch. When humans flood coastlines with too much nutrient pollution - especially from wastewater - it doesn’t just mess with the water. It messes with the seagrass, too. Scientists wanted to find out exactly how this works, and they didn’t take shortcuts. Over nine years,...

Planting 1.7 billion acres of trees across the globe would remove about three billion tons of atmospheric carbon a year, which is nearly ten percent of the CO2 that is emitted as a result of human activities, according to a report in the <a href="https://www.businessinsider.com/">Business Insider</a>. However, contrary to <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/planting-trillion-trees-cancel-emissions/">other claims</a>, the report argues that there is not nearly enough space available to plant that many trees.

Each year, humans pump around 30 to 40 billion tons of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. If CO2 and other greenhouse gas emissions persist at the current rate, global warming will accelerate along with dangerous conditions including rising sea levels and more extreme weather. 

Scientists around the world have been exploring routes to help curb CO2 emissions. A recent study from the <a href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/index.aspx">University of Birmingham</a> revealed that trees less than 140 years old are responsible for capturing more than half of the carbon dioxide stored in the Earth's forests.

Despite the great potential for young trees to absorb CO2, this will not completely resolve the issue of global warming. For example,  covering 1.7 billion acres with trees would take up half of the land that is currently being used for farming, and growing populations will demand even more land for agriculture. 

On the other hand, the discovery that young trees and areas of forest re-growth are so effective in absorbing CO2 still offers some hope for curbing emissions. Study co-author Dr. Tom Pugh explained that a young forest could absorb up to 25 percent more carbon than an older one. 

“It’s important to get a clear sense of where and why this carbon uptake is happening, because this helps us to make targeted and informed decisions about forest management,” said Dr. Pugh. He added that the amount of CO2 that can be captured by forests is relatively small, and that “reforestation programs will only be effective if we simultaneously work to reduce our emissions.”

The study from the University of Birmingham is published in the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.
--
By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com
</a>

Planting trees won’t solve global warming, but it can certainly help

Planting 1.7 billion acres of trees across the globe would...

The protection of rare species and the illegal drug trade may at first seem entirely unrelated. However, the environmental impacts of illicit drug production are very real. Because these markets remain underground, they cannot be held accountable for their disastrous impacts on our planet. Currently, one tropical plant is being decimated to produce the illicit drug MDMA.
<h2>What is MDMA?</h2>
MDMA is an illicit drug also called ecstasy, E, or molly. It is a substituted amphetamine that acts as a stimulant and produces “empathogenic” effects. It is one of the most common illegal drugs with an estimated <a href="https://www.pri.org/stories/2009-08-30/harvested-make-ecstasy-cambodias-trees-are-felled-one-one">12-24 million users yearly</a>.
<h3>The backstory</h3>
MDMA is a psychoactive compound that was first synthesized in 1912, but its effects in humans were not observed until much later. Sometime in the 1970s, the drug <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2006/aug/18/topstories3.drugsandalcohol">began to appear in recreational tablets</a>. 

Soon after, chemist Alexander “Sasha” Shulgin began researching the compound. Shulgin believed the drug had great potential for the <a href="https://erowid.org/library/books_online/pihkal/pihkal.shtml">treatment of mental health disorders.</a> Around this time, MDMA was also gaining popularity as a party drug. As a result it was classified as a Schedule I substance by the DEA.
<h3>What is MDMA used for?</h3>
The effects of MDMA include stimulation, euphoria, and feelings of empathy and compassion. MDMA is known <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mdma-makes-people-cooperative/">to make users more social and trusting</a>, even if the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/octopuses-social-mdma/">user is an octopus</a>! MDMA causes these effects by inducing the release of the neurotransmitter serotonin. This is the same system targeted by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psychedelic-drugs-healing-powers/">psychedelics </a>as well as some antidepressants (SSRIs).

MDMA is best known as an illegal drug used at raves, festivals, and clubs. In these settings, MDMA can pose health risks to users. The illegal production and distribution of MDMA allow criminals to substitute drugs such as crystal meth and bath salts for MDMA. These drugs are often far more dangerous than pure MDMA. This <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2016/dec/10/ecstasy-molly-purity-us-synthetic-drugs-mdma">risk is worse</a> in the US where drug laws are stricter.

Real MDMA can still pose health risks. Increased body temperature, dehydration, and depletion of the neurotransmitters serotonin and dopamine can cause long term damage. Repeated use has been shown to <a href="https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/a1f0/d7715c44a567db34f65034f6ed9ac5ee8f04.pdf">produce neurotoxicity in primates</a>. Unlabeled products of varying potency make overdose a significant risk. Addiction and dependence are also risks associated with MDMA. Visit the non-profit <a href="https://dancesafe.org/">Dancesafe</a> if you are interested in learning about reducing harms of MDMA use.

In recent years <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ecstasy-potential-treatment-ptsd/">research on MDMA</a> has experienced a resurrection. Initial studies indicate that MDMA has great promise for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mdma-therapy-ptsd/">treating psychological disorders</a> including PTSD and depression.  MDMA is used as an adjunct to therapy to increase openness. In a controlled setting with pharmaceutical grade MDMA, these treatments are very safe. 
<h2>How is MDMA produced?</h2>
There is a huge international market for MDMA. 17 million Americans (6%) report having tried MDMA. It is estimated that 100-125 metric tons of MDMA are consumed each year. This is the equivalent of over 1 billion doses. Though estimates vary, the MDMA market is definitely in <a href="https://www.tni.org/files/download/crime1.pdf">the billions of dollars.</a> The existence of this black market helps fund and empower dangerous criminal organizations globally.

Like most illicit drugs, MDMA is produced in clandestine labs with no regulation or oversight. These labs exist all around the world. They rely on heavily controlled compounds as the building blocks for MDMA synthesis. The production of these precursors is threatening a rare Cambodian tree and the wildlife refuge in which it is found.
<h3>Turning root beer into MDMA</h3>
The most common MDMA precursor is safrole. This oily chemical is produced by various plants including Sassafras (the traditional flavoring for root beer.) Sassafras and other safrole containing plant extracts have been used in traditional medicine as well. 

Sassafras oil was banned for consumption in the US in 1960 <a href="https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/cfrsearch.cfm?fr=189.180">by the FDA</a> due to mounting evidence that it is carcinogenic. This compound is produced by a handful of other plants as well.

The forests of Southeast Asia are home to many unique and rare species. Cambodia has vast protected forests that are home to many species seen nowhere else in the world. The Cardamom Mountains of western Cambodia are no exception. 

To preserve the natural resources of this region, the Cambodian Ministry of Environment and Forestry has protected the 1,300 square miles of Phnom Samkos Wildlife Sanctuary. This wildlife sanctuary is home to 62 threatened animal species and 17 threatened tree species. In addition, <a href="https://www.unodc.org/southeastasiaandpacific/en/project/cambodia/safrole.html#1">30,000 indigenous people </a>live within the sanctuary and rely on the forest for their livelihoods. 
<h3>Mreah Prew Phnom</h3>
Amongst this treasure trove of diversity is a tree called Mreah Prew Phnom (<a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia/plant/en/cinnamomum-parthenoxylon/">Cinnamomum parthenoxylon</a>). This tree is endemic (found nowhere else) to these forests. Nearly all of them grow within the Phnom Samkos Wildlife Sanctuary. This species has not been well researched, and the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/33198/9760889">IUCN has too little data to determine it’s population status</a>.  

What is known is that Mreah Prew Phnom is disappearing at an alarming rate. This Cambodian tree shares something with American Sassafras. The roots of this tree contain safrole. Because of this, the tree is being dug up and harvested to produce safrole oil for the illegal manufacture of MDMA.

Though it has been illegal to harvest this plant in Cambodia since 2004, the practice continues. Illegal factories operate within the forest. Trees are uprooted, and their roots are shredded. These safrole containing roots are extracted and then the safrole is distilled. Distilled safrole is then smuggled out of the country to laboratories that produce MDMA. 
<h3>Environmental destruction on a massive scale</h3>
In order to produce a barrel of safrole, four Mreah Prew Phnom trees are killed. In addition, each tree harvested <a href="https://www.pri.org/stories/2009-08-30/harvested-make-ecstasy-cambodias-trees-are-felled-one-one">requires six more trees </a>to be felled for firewood to power the extraction. 

The scale of this deforestation is revealed by the amount of safrole seized by authorities. In one bust in 2008 <a href="https://www.fauna-flora.org/news/huge-seizure-of-ecstasy-oil-in-cardamom-mountains">1,278 barrels were seized</a>. This equates to over 5,000 Mreah Prew Phnom trees and 7,000 other trees burned for fuel. The rate of destruction could wipe out the rare Mreah Prew Phnom trees <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2009/feb/25/ecstasy-cambodia">in as little as 5 years</a>.

This industry harms the environment in many ways. Operating unregulated, clandestine factories in the middle of a protected wildlife reserve has dire consequences. Dead fish and frogs float in the rivers downstream from these factories. The distillation of the oil requires cool water to condense the final product. The makeshift distillation equipment in these facilities <a href="http://www.irinnews.org/report/79340/cambodia-ecstasy-tabs-destroying-forest-wilderness">leaks the carcinogenic safrole into the water</a>. The pollution of these factories threatens the <a href="https://www.unodc.org/southeastasiaandpacific/en/project/cambodia/safrole.html#1">many rare and endangered species</a> in these forests.
<h3>Human Impacts</h3>
These practices also affect the indigenous residents of this Wildlife Sanctuary. Poisoned water sources, damaged ecosystems, and risks of violence all threaten these people. 

The safrole extraction industry is run by large criminal organizations. These groups are associated with human trafficking and wildlife poaching. Because of their unregulated, illegal nature, these facilities are heavily guarded. <a href="https://www.pri.org/stories/2009-08-30/harvested-make-ecstasy-cambodias-trees-are-felled-one-one">Land mines are even used </a>to deter unwanted attention.

The Cambodian Ministry of Environment and Forestry has a 50 ranger patrol for this wildlife sanctuary. Though they have had many successful busts of clandestine factories, it is a very dangerous job. Multiple rangers have been <a href="https://newsroom.wcs.org/News-Releases/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/10973/Statement-from-WCS-on-the-Killing-of-Three-Conservation-Heroes-in-Cambodia.aspx">murdered in Cambodia</a> after encountering illegal activity.

The international war on drugs has created this illegal industry, and its operation is in the hand of criminals. These organizations operate outside of international regulations and protect their interests with violence. The illicit and underground nature of these groups prevents any accountability for their actions.

This story raises an important question. Who is benefiting from the prohibition of these drugs? Natural resources and disadvantaged people are exploited. Extreme violence is used to protect profit. Governments spend massive amounts of money attempting to fight these organizations. Street drugs are more dangerous. Treatment is less accessible to those in need.

Kingpins, human traffickers, poachers, and other criminals profit, while violent criminal organizations are the actual winners in the war on drugs.

--

By <a href="mailto:casey.hofford@gmail.com">Casey Hofford</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

The environmental impacts of MDMA production warrant consideration

The protection of rare species and the illegal drug trade...

Hydroponic growing is very different from traditional agriculture.  The basics of hydroponics are simple – instead of growing a plant in soil, the roots of the plant are immersed in an oxygen and nutrient rich water.  

There are many benefits of growing hydroponically. Hydroponic plants grow faster and create higher yields, while pests, nutrients, and other factors are more easily controlled.  Hydroponic growing is also often carried out in a greenhouse, where growing conditions can be controlled to an even greater degree. Hydroponic systems are efficient in their use of land; small sized hydroponic growers can produce profitable crops in buildings inside cities.  For proponents, hydroponic growing systems are the forerunners of the future of localized, community based agriculture. 

According to <a href="https://www.agrilyst.com/stateofindoorfarming2017/">agrilyst</a>, the average yield of tomatoes from conventional growers in 2016 was 1.85 pounds per square foot. Indoor hydroponic growers on the other hand reported average yields of 10.59 pounds per square foot.  Other crops show similarly greater yields from hydroponic growing systems. Hydroponic growers claim to use water and land more efficiently but electricity can be costly, especially for crops grown inside under artificial lighting.

Hydroponics seems futuristic, but in some ways, hydroponics is quite ancient.  Photosynthetic algae and bacteria predate terrestrial plants as the first plants as we know them.  These early plants grew hydroponically in nature, bobbing in the nutrient stew of the ocean as their growing medium.  There is evidence of crops being grown in ancient Egypt, Babylon and in floating gardens in China thousands of years ago.  The Aztec empire fostered floating rafts of gardens on lakes. 

I’ve visited small scale hydroponics systems and even worked on one in an agriculture science class in high school.  The systems can amount to what is essentially a very simple ecosystem. Often in small scale home operations, fish are raised in a small pond; fish waste supply <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/organic-farming-high-yield/">organic</a> nutrients for the plants.  The plants in turn help clean the water for the fish, absorbing waste as the water is pumped past their roots.  In these systems, fish as well as plants can be harvested and eaten. 

There’s only one problem; the word organic used with hydroponics is controversial.  

In Europe, crops grown hydroponically cannot be labeled as organic and critics of hydroponics say it’s with good reason.  The US is different; here crops grown hydroponically can be labeled as organic as long as they meet other criteria for USDA certification.  

According to some, even plants grown with only organic fertilizers and no pesticides inside a greenhouse, roots set in gravel pumped full of organic compound rich water are missing one essential component.  Many American organic growers feel that the heart and soul of organic agriculture is being a part of the ecosystem. Traditional organic agriculture nurtures healthy soils and all of the bacteria, fungi and invertebrates that go along with it.  Native pollinators can alight on an organic crop without being poisoned and perhaps marginal habitat is provided for other wild animals. All of this connection to the ecosystem happens because the plants are grown in soil, out under the sun, as most plants do naturally.  In turn, all the organisms in the soil and the messy organic fertilizers supply more micro-nutrients to the plant and eventually, the person who eats the plant. Traditional organic farmers in the US are trying to make a distinction between themselves and hydroponic growers working under the USDA organic label.    

From the perspective of traditional organic growers, hydroponics gets some things wrong.  Artificial lighting from indoor hydroponic farms has a greater impact on the environment, since the lights are powered by electricity.  Greenhouse walls keep out insects, birds and other animals. Making the distinction between hydroponically grown crops and traditional organic crops clear to the public and the opinions of that public, is a matter of billions of dollars as well as the place of agriculture in the ecosystem.  

<a href="https://www.ibisworld.com/industry-trends/specialized-market-research-reports/life-sciences/food-science/hydroponic-crop-farming.html">IBISWorld</a> reports that hydroponic agriculture has grown 1.2% over the last five years, reaching $891 million in revenue for 2018.  Crops grown under the USDA organic label now have an economic value of $40 billion a year, according to the <a href="https://www.cornucopia.org/2015/09/is-the-organic-label-worth-saving/">Cornucopia Institute</a>.  With numbers like this, it’s easy to see how invested farmers hydroponic or otherwise can be heavily invested in their methods of cultivation.  Amidst the tension over differing definitions of what’s organic, traditional organic farmers are planning a new organic label. 

A symposium of organic farmers called the Real Organic Project Symposium met on Saturday March 2nd at Dartmouth College.  The goal of <a href="https://www.realorganicproject.org/">The Real Organic Project</a> is as follows:

“Our mission is to grow people’s understanding of foundational organic values and practices. Our first goal is to create an add-on label to USDA certified organic to provide more transparency on organic farming practices.”

That boils down to the creation of a new label for USDA organic products that would clarify how organic the organic product is.  Under this new system, there would be a new real organic label setting traditional organic foods apart from hydroponically grown organic crops.  The group also touts the importance of healthy soil, something not involved in hydroponic agriculture.  

Another important point the group makes is one about animal welfare.  Apart from the debate over hydroponic growing, the USDA recently dropped a proposed rule on animal welfare.  According to the <a href="https://www.ams.usda.gov/publications/content/organic-livestock-poultry-practices-proposed-rule">USDA</a>, the proposed rule would have enforced higher standards for the health and wellbeing of organic livestock.  In my mind this is an issue of a different quality than that of hydroponic agriculture. 

The issue really is one of definitions and trust.  How much do we trust how the government defines organic and what do we want that to embody?  In some places, hydroponic agriculture with its efficient scientific methods might become necessary for survival and if done right could be a good thing.  On the other hand, the wellbeing of livestock does contribute to a better world in a real way and I feel that’s what some farmers are arguing an organic label should mean.  

When we think of organic, we think of health.  Health doesn’t stop at the skin, without a healthy world to live in, the body withers and dies.  How do indoor farms fit into the health of the planet? It’s not a question we’ve had to ask until recently.  Many farmers and organic advocates seem to be painting the fight as small scale organic farmers versus large, industrial agriculture using a label to maximize profit by bending the rules. Can one label encompass both?  It’s important we get definitions right. 

--

By <a href="mailto:zachfitzner@yahoo.com">Zach Fitzner</a>, <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a> Contributing Writer

Organic growers and the controversy over hydroponics

Hydroponic growing is very different from traditional agriculture.  The basics...

A growing collection of studies suggests that <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/magic-mushrooms-vote-medicinal-benefits/">microdosing</a>, taking tiny amounts of psychedelic drugs, can produce mental health benefits such as improving mood and concentration. A new study from the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/">University of California, Davis</a> demonstrated that microdosing relieved symptoms of depression and anxiety in rats, but also had the potential for negative effects. 

Study lead author David Olson is an assistant professor in the UC Davis Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine.

“Prior to our study, essentially nothing was known about the effects of psychedelic microdosing on animal behaviors,” said Professor Olsen. “This is the first time anyone has demonstrated in animals that psychedelic microdosing might actually have some beneficial effects, particularly for depression or anxiety. It's exciting, but the potentially adverse changes in neuronal structure and metabolism that we observe emphasize the need for additional studies.”

For their investigation, the researchers microdosed male and female rats with N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), which is a psychedelic compound found in ayahuasca tea. The molecular structure of DMT is also embedded within the structure of well-known microdosing drugs such as LSD and psilocybin. 

Over the course of two months, the rats were given one-tenth of the estimated hallucinogenic dose every three days. The rats were regularly given behavioral tests relevant to mood, anxiety, and cognitive function beginning a couple weeks after the start of microdosing.

Using a test that is considered to be a model of anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in humans, the researchers found that microdosing helped rats to overcome a “fear response.” The team also observed reduced immobility among the rats, which is the same effect that is produced by antidepressants.

Weight gain was identified as a risk among the males, and neuronal atrophy was a risk among the females. Despite the potential negative effects of microdosing, the research has shown that it is possible to separate the hallucinogenic effects from the therapeutic properties of these compounds.

“Our study demonstrates that psychedelics can produce beneficial behavioral effects without drastically altering perception, which is a critical step towards producing viable medicines inspired by these compounds,” said Professor Olson.

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/journal/acncdm">ACS Chemical Neuroscience</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Image Credit: Lindsay Cameron and Lee Dunlap

More evidence that psychedelic microdosing benefits mental health

A growing collection of studies suggests that microdosing, taking tiny...

With global extinctions on the rise, a new study has shed light on a major cause: non-native species moving into an area and taking over the resources native dwellers depend upon.

The research team from <a href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/">University College London</a> found that since the year 1500 C.E., a full 126 extinctions can be credited entirely to non-native species crowding out their native counterparts. 

Also known as alien species, they can be linked at least in part to at least 300 of the past 953 global extinctions. Of those 300 plant and animal extinctions, more than 40 percent listed non-native species alone as the cause.

"Some people have suggested that aliens are no more likely than native species to cause species to disappear in the current global extinction crisis, but our analysis shows that aliens are much more of a problem in this regard," lead researcher Dr. Tim Blackburn said in a press release.

Blackburn and his colleagues analyzed data from the <a href="https://www.iucnredlist.org/">2017 International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List</a> on species considered to have gone extinct since 1500. 

The IUCN Red List monitors species around the world, assessing whether they are threatened, endangered or extinct and the causes. Last month, the organization announced that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/600-species-threat-extinction/">another 600 species are at risk of extinction</a> due to habitat degradation, human development or agricultural practices, invasions of their habitats by non-native species and other causes.

The biggest offenders are various species of rat, feral house cats and foxes, especially on island species. These non-native species arrive on shipping vessels or are occasionally deliberately imported by humans. Plants were also often deliberately introduced, but quickly outgrew gardens or farming operations.

"Our study provides a new line of evidence showing that the biogeographical origin of a species matters for its impacts,” Blackburn said. “The invasion of an alien species is often enough to cause native species to go extinct, whereas we found no evidence for native species being the sole driver of extinction of other natives in any case."

The study has been published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/fee.2020">Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment</a>.

—

By Kyla Cathey, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Non-native species to blame for many modern extinctions

With global extinctions on the rise, a new study has...

Gardeners know that tomatoes and marigolds are good friends, with the bright flowers protecting against a variety of hungry bugs. Now, scientists have discovered how marigolds stave off one common tomato pest – whiteflies.

"We spoke to many gardeners who knew marigolds were effective in protecting tomatoes against whiteflies, but it has never been tested scientifically,” doctoral student Niall Conboy, who co-led the study, said in a press release.

Conboy and fellow scientists from <a href="https://www.ncl.ac.uk/">Newcastle University</a> narrowed it down to the chemical limonene, which is released by marigolds. The smell repels the common tomato pest.

They performed two trials. The first, which used French marigolds, determined that the marigold trick really did repel whiteflies and wasn’t just an old wives’ tale. The second analyzed the chemicals and gases released by marigolds, allowing them to pinpoint limonene as the key repellent. 

In the course of the study, they also found that other limonene-containing plants can repel the common tomato pest, not just marigolds.

“This is exciting because limonene is inexpensive, it's not harmful and it's a lot less risky to use than pesticides, particularly when you don't apply it to the crop and it is only a weak scent in the air,” Conboy said.

The discovery could lead to new innovations in pest control. The common tomato pest isn’t killed by limonene; it just doesn’t like the smell. Using the chemical is unlikely to lead to resistance in the bugs, the researchers said. It could also be much safer for the tomatoes – and the workers who pick them and families who eat them – as well as beneficial or neutral species that live around them.

"Most pesticides are sprayed onto the crops,” Conboy said. “This doesn't only kill the pest that is targeted, it kills absolutely everything, including the natural enemies of the pest."

Limonene isn’t just found in marigolds. It makes up around 90 percent of the oil in citrus peels and can be found in common household products like mosquito repellent.

Repelling the common tomato pest and other limonene-hating insects with marigolds is also bee-friendly. It doesn’t harm them as pesticides can, plus it offers a food source for the pollinators.

"Any alternative methods of whitefly control that can reduce pesticide use and introduce greater plant and animal diversity into agricultural and horticultural systems should be welcomed,” said Dr. Colin Tosh, who co-led the study with Conboy.

The study has been published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0213071">PLOS ONE</a>.

—

By Kyla Cathey, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> staff writer

How marigolds protect against common tomato pest

Gardeners know that tomatoes and marigolds are good friends, with...

Planet Earth is noticeably greener than it was two decades ago, thanks to massive tree planting programs in China and India.

While the two countries often find themselves listed among the world’s worst polluters, they’re also taking major steps to counteract those labels. <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/">NASA</a> has discovered that tree planting programs around the world – led by India and China – are helping to add about 5 percent more greenery year over year since the 2000s. That’s totaled out to about 2 million square miles, more than the Amazon rainforest.

India and China “account for one-third of the greening, but contain only 9 percent of the planet's land area covered in vegetation,” lead researcher Dr. Chi Chen of <a href="https://www.bu.edu/">Boston University</a> told the <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/">Daily Mail</a>. 

In China, about 42 percent of the new green space comes from forests, and another 32 percent from farmland, researchers found.

The re-greening was first spotted by NASA’s MODIS tool in the 1990s. MODIS orbits the Earth on two satellites, taking high-resolution photographs of the planet’s surface.

The downside: All that extra greenery in Asia isn’t nearly enough to offset deforestation. At least, not alone.

[caption id="attachment_1869014" align="aligncenter" width="700"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/green.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1869014" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/green.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="527" /></a> Image Credit: NASA Earth Observatory[/caption]

But the new findings are encouraging scientists to take another look at tree planting programs and other ways humans can re-green the environment.

“When the greening of the Earth was first observed, we thought it was due to a warmer, wetter climate and fertilisation from the added carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, leading to more leaf growth in northern forests, for instance,” NASA research scientist and study co-author Rama Nemani told the Mail. “Now, with the MODIS data that lets us understand the phenomenon at really small scales, we see that humans are also contributing.”

Programs all over the world are encouraging people to plant more trees, but in China and India, tree planting programs have ranged from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/indian-state-hopes-to-plant-50-million-trees-in-a-day/">government-backed initiatives</a> to projects <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/disabilities-pair-planting-trees/">launched by citizens</a>. Another recent study found that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-trillion-trees-cancel-emissions/">planting a trillion trees</a> around the world could massively offset carbon emissions.

The study has been published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-019-0220-7">Nature Sustainability</a>.

—

By Kyla Cathey, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> staff writer

Chinese, Indian tree planting programs greening the Earth

Planet Earth is noticeably greener than it was two decades...

Britain’s iconic oak trees under threat from climate change and pests. Scientists from six universities are reporting that native British oak trees, the English oak and the Cornish oak, are becoming increasingly vulnerable to pests and <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-2080-new-york-arkansas/">climate change</a>. The experts believe that the iconic oak trees should be replaced with more resilient species.

There are 121 million oak trees in Britain. Many are losing their bark from weather stress, while pests like the processionary moth are stripping them of their leaves. The findings of a study from universities including Oxford and York suggest that it would be better to plant tougher oak trees such as the American red oak or the Austrian Oak. Britain’s iconic oak trees under threat from climate change and pests

Study co-author Professor Rob Jackson is a biological scientist at the <a href="http://www.reading.ac.uk/">University of Reading</a>.

“Britain’s oak trees are part of its cultural landscape, but they could look very different in future. The oak is a key component of woodland ecosystems in the UK and so its decline would have a much wider impact on other species, like fungi, insects and even humans,” said Professor Jackson. 

“Humans have long been influential in the management of oak trees, as it was historically used for many activities including use for buildings, and charcoal production for metal smelting, thus it was planted widely.”

“Now humans must take action to protect our oaks for future generations. There is no one-size-fits-all solution, so forest managers need support to face the specific challenges facing different forests and put in place long-term strategies.”

According to <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/home/index.html">Daily Mail</a>, Britain’s native oak trees are also threatened by acute oak decline, chronic oak decline, and powdery mildews. The major problem with eliminating British oaks, however, is that they support thousands of species of fungi and bacteria, most of which are not supported by foreign oak trees.

“I welcome today’s Protecting Oak Ecosystems event to highlight the important work undertaken to address the serious threats to our iconic oak trees. It is inspirational to see so many people gathered together to discuss this critical issue,” said Defra Biosecurity Minister Lord Gardiner.

“The learnings from this project will feed directly into our Action Oak initiative, a collaboration of charities, government, landowners and research institutions whose aim is to protect the UK’s 121 million oak trees from plant pests and diseases.”

The findings were presented at the <a href="https://www.rgs.org/">Royal Geographical Society</a> in London.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer
Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Britain’s iconic oak trees under threat from climate change and pests

Britain’s iconic oak trees under threat from climate change and...

The paper mulberry tree can nourish itself and the surrounding soil. A genome study of the paper mulberry has revealed the tree evolved its fibrous inner bark around 31 million years ago, which was long before it was first used for bookmaking during China's Tang dynasty. This adaptation makes the plant easy to pass through foraging animals and may have been its way of feeding nearby <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/soil-microbes-communicate-battle/">soil microbes</a>, according to a team of botanists in China. 

The research team used a technique known as comparative genetics and discovered that the paper mulberry tree also develops a complex set of flavonoids. The compounds help a plant's roots attract nitrogen-fixing bacteria such as Pseudomonas and Rhizobia, which boost growth in the leaves and stems. This enables the paper mulberry to adapt to a wide range of environments.The paper mulberry tree can nourish itself and the surrounding soil

[caption id="attachment_1868821" align="aligncenter" width="700"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/paper-mulberry.jpg"><img class="wp-image-1868821" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/paper-mulberry.jpg" alt="" width="700" height="852" /></a> Image Credit: Peng and Liu et al.[/caption]

“The unique traits of paper mulberry are consistent with the ancient Chinese philosophy of mutual promotion and restraint, suggesting that paper mulberry is a very complex and remarkable tree species,” wrote the researchers, who were led by Shihua Shen from the <a href="http://english.cas.cn/">Chinese Academy of Sciences</a>. “Both humans and livestock can benefit from the symbiosis of paper mulberry and microbes.”

The paper mulberry tree was found to have over 30,000 genes. Native to Asia, the unique tree has a long history of applications. For example, the bark of paper mulberry is the main raw material of Cai Lun papermaking, one of the four great inventions in ancient China. In addition, the tree's leaves are the raw materials for high-quality protein feed.

“The paper mulberry is a very important multi-purpose resource plant,” said Shen. “However, the lack of systematic research and artificial domestication hinder the development and utilization of plant, which is far behind other economic crops. We hope that this study will promote the breeding of new paper mulberry strains with higher yield and high quality.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/molecular-plant/home">Molecular Plant</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

The paper mulberry tree can nourish itself and the surrounding soil

The paper mulberry tree can nourish itself and the surrounding...

Some farmers in central India are on high alert as flocks of wild parrots are tearing into their <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/poppy-flowers-bright-colors/">poppy plants</a> for opium. The parrots, who have apparently developed a serious addiction to opium, have even learned when and how to covertly descend upon the plants.

Video footage captured in India’s Madhya Pradesh state shows wild parrots frantically  ripping apart the poppy seed pods. In some cases, the birds can be seen cutting the stalks below the pods and flying off into the trees with them.

The parrots wait until the farmers cut the poppy pods to help them ripen, which exposes latex that is rich in morphine. The birds have also learned to be stealthy, swooping silently down into the poppy fields without making any sound.

The farmers say that the parrots have become so addicted to the opium that they must be on guard nearly all the time to prevent the birds from eating the seeds and getting high.  

[caption id="attachment_1868723" align="aligncenter" width="700"]<a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/parrot-poppies.png"><img class="wp-image-1868723" src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/parrot-poppies.png" alt="" width="700" height="443" /></a> Wild parrot in a poppy field, Image Credit: NewsLions[/caption]

The opium poppy, Papaver somniferum, is one of the oldest medicinal plants in the world. Opiates derived from the plants have been used for thousands of years for both medicinal and recreational purposes. Today, opium poppies are used to produce the two most common painkillers - morphine and codeine.

Dr. R.S. Chundawat is an opium specialist in Mandsaur who explained to <a href="https://www.dailymail.co.uk/ushome/index.html">Daily Mail</a> that opium would affect the parrots in the same way that coffee or tea affects humans, giving them instant energy. He said that once the birds experienced this feeling, they would have quickly fallen prey to the addiction.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Wild parrots are destroying poppies to feed their opium addiction

Some farmers in central India are on high alert as...

As scientists work to find new ways of reducing greenhouse gas emissions and slow the impacts of climate change, several clean energy alternatives and carbon capture techniques have emerged as potential frontrunners in the race to limit global warming to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/2030-limit-climate-change-warming/">1.5 degrees Celsius</a>.

Now, after conducting a study of the world’s forests, one scientist argues that planting a little over one trillion new trees could cancel out ten years of emissions.

Ecologist Thomas Crowther and a team of colleagues analyzed large forest and soil datasets to develop a more accurate picture of the world’s forest system.

Data from the <a href="https://www.gfbinitiative.org/">Global Forest Biodiversity Initiative</a> (the world’s largest global dataset of forest inventory data) and the <a href="https://www.globalsoilbiodiversity.org/">Global Soil Biodiversity Initiative</a> along with satellite imagery were used in the study, and the researchers realized that an estimated three trillion trees currently cover the planet

This number is over seven times more than previous estimates by the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/">National Aeronautics and Space Administration</a> (NASA).

Once the researchers had a clearer picture of the global forest system, machine learning was used to predict how many more trees could be planted on Earth.

The results of the analysis showed that the globe had room for 1.2 trillion more trees in forests and abandoned lands.

As previous estimates largely underestimated the number of trees on Earth, researchers have also overlooked the potential role of forests in combating climate change.

Taking the 1.2 trillion trees into account, Crowther and his team discovered that restoring the world’s forests and planting more trees could effectively cancel out years of carbon emissions.

“There’s 400 gigatons now, in the 3 trillion trees, and if you were to scale that up by another trillion trees that’s in the order of hundreds of gigatons captured from the atmosphere – at least 10 years of anthropogenic emissions completely wiped out,” Crowther told <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/forests-climate-change-co2-greenhouse-gases-trillion-trees-global-warming-a8782071.html">The Independent</a>.

Crowther presented the <a href="https://aaas.confex.com/aaas/2019/meetingapp.cgi/Paper/23744">findings</a> at the recent annual meeting of the<a href="https://www.aaas.org/"> American Association for the Advancement of Science </a>(AAAS).

Planting more trees may seem like an obvious answer, but is it feasible or realistic to plant an addition 1.2 trillion trees, especially in a world where food security and expanding agriculture are real concerns?

Crowther explained to The Independent that the new data only took unused land into account, meaning that the 1.2 trillion trees would not encroach on agricultural land.

“We are not targeting urban or agricultural area, just degraded or abandoned lands, and it has the potential to tackle the two greatest challenges of our time – climate change and biodiversity loss,” Crowther said.

While 1.2 trillion trees is a lofty yet unrealistic goal, the study does emphasize the underestimated potential of forest restoration in the efforts to curb climate change.

--

By <a href="mailto:kayvandette@gmail.com">Kay Vandette</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 

Paid for by <a href="http://earth.com">Earth.com</a>

Could planting a trillion trees cancel out 10 years of emissions?

As scientists work to find new ways of reducing greenhouse...

One of the most important leaps in the evolution of life on our planet happened when plants moved from water to land. However, scientists have struggled to understand how plants managed to make this transition despite major challenges such as <a href="http://www.earth.com/news/australia-battles-drought/">drought</a>.

A new study has revealed that underwater algae may have been responsible for passing along the built-in ability of plants to detect and respond to drought. The researchers found that the signaling pathway which triggers drought defenses in plants has remained fundamentally the same for hundreds of millions of years.

This pathway first appeared in freshwater algae and was later inherited by land plants to tackle the stress of their new terrestrial environment. The same pathway still exists today across the vast majority of plants, from mosses and ferns to crops and other flowering plants.

Study co-author Douglas Soltis is a curator at the Florida Museum of Natural History and a distinguished professor in the Department of Biology at the <a href="http://www.ufl.edu/">University of Florida</a>.

“The evolution of this pathway is one of the key events in the history of life on Earth,” said Professor Soltis. “Even though these algae lived underwater, they hit on some of the features that would ultimately allow plants to deal with the stress of desiccation on land. We wouldn't be here if they hadn't figured that out.”

Professor Soltis pointed out that a better understanding of how plants evolved this pathway is crucial at a time when we are facing more severe droughts that could threaten our food supply.

“Maintaining or increasing crop yields under drought conditions, which will be exacerbated by climate change, is one of the keys to the future of agriculture. It's not an easy problem to solve, but it's a big one for human health and well-being. Now that we have a blueprint for the pathway that controls plants' drought tolerance, we may be able to manipulate it.”

Study co-author Professor Zhong-hua Chen of <a href="https://www.westernsydney.edu.au/">Western Sydney University</a> was studying an alert system in plants that senses drought and excess light known as chloroplast retrograde signaling. Professor Chen passed along a data set to Professor Soltis that showed whether certain enzymes were present or absent in a variety of green plant lineages. Data from several species of algae were also included for comparison. 

Professor Soltis was surprised to find two groups of drought-related enzymes in aquatic algae. “I made sure I had the lines straight and said, ‘Whoa, this is pretty cool.’ I wrote Zhong-hua back right away and said, ‘I think you've got something big here.’”

While streptophyte algae do not often face the threat of drought, Professor Soltis explained that the harsh growing conditions in some of their habitats have many of the same effects.

“High salinity is basically desiccation. These algae may have developed some of these signal pathways because they were living in these ephemeral, salty habitats and, in the process, stumbled upon something that could be co-opted for life on land.”

The discovery of the drought signaling pathway in streptophyte algae, an ancestor of land plants, indicates that it predates the transition of plants to land.

“If this signaling pathway originated in streptophyte algae, it could potentially push the evolution of this pathway back to 580 million years ago,” said Professor Chen. “Of course, we will need more research to validate that.”


“We know so much about flowering plants, but these algae are poorly understood,” said Professor Soltis. “This is a great example of the value in taking a step back and seeing the bigger evolutionary picture. It gives us a deeper perspective of how this puzzle was put together to begin with.”

The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.

--

By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Land plants inherited their drought defenses from aquatic algae

One of the most important leaps in the evolution of...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

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</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

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https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
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A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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-----

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

[sendtonews key="uV9Lh2fQbV-1760058-12187" type="single"] Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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