Wood looks simple, but it’s a tricky material. Inside every tree are long cellulose fibers, helper sugars called hemicellulose, and a stiff, brown binder known as lignin. 



That mix lets trees grow tall and stay standing through wind and weather. It also makes wood tough to reshape into high-performance beams and panels.



Factories usually force wood into shape with chemicals and heat. They strip out some lignin first, then compress what remains into a dense, strong material. 



That step consumes energy, costs money, and generates waste. A team of researchers set out to avoid it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-engineered-wood-and-lignin">Engineered wood and lignin</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/poplar-trees-changed-their-chemistry-to-survive/">Lignin</a> is great for trees and a challenge for manufacturers. It’s the glue that stiffens cell walls and blocks pests. It resists many industrial treatments. 



Take out some lignin and you can pack <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/cellulose-fiber" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cellulose fibers</a> closer, which boosts strength. The usual methods require harsh chemicals and high temperatures.



Engineered wood has become a cleaner alternative to steel and concrete in many projects. It’s lighter and can carry serious loads when densified. 



To keep that promise, the industry needs cleaner steps from the forest to the factory floor.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetics-and-wood-engineering">Genetics and wood engineering</h2>



Researchers at the <a href="https://umd.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maryland</a> genetically modified poplar trees to produce high-performance structural wood with fewer chemicals and less energy-intensive processing.



“We are very excited to demonstrate an innovative approach that combines genetic engineering and wood engineering, to sustainably sequester and store carbon in a resilient super wood form,” explained <a href="https://agnr.umd.edu/about/directory/yiping-qi/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yiping Qi</a>, a professor in the Department of Plant Science and Landscape Architecture (<a href="https://psla.umd.edu/node/1/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PSLA</a>) at the University of Maryland.



Instead of modifying wood after the tree grows, the team asked a simple question: could the tree grow wood that’s easier to densify from the start? 



They chose poplar, a fast-growing research workhorse that also shows up in real products. Using precise gene editing, they adjusted the tree’s lignin pathway without undermining growth.



They targeted one gene - <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26491147/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">4CL1</a> - within the pathway cells use to make lignin. By switching off 4CL1, the trees produced slightly less lignin, but maintained normal development under controlled conditions. 



That small change opened a new option in the factory: skipping the chemical delignification step.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-gene-edit-works">How the gene edit works</h2>



The tool was base editing, a form of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-first-gene-edited-spiders-spin-red-silk/">CRISPR</a> that swaps one DNA letter for another at a chosen spot. It doesn’t slice the genome; it rewrites a letter with precision. 



In this case, the edit focused on 4CL1 while minimizing changes elsewhere in the genome.



With the wood in hand, the team soaked it in water and then applied heat and pressure to densify it. 



When cellulose fibers line up and move closer together, mechanical strength climbs. The process relies less on solvents and more on physical compaction.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/engineered-trees_wood_lignin_construction-revolution_UMaryland_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/08/engineered-trees_wood_lignin_construction-revolution_UMaryland_1s.webp" alt="This method for producing genetically modified wood eliminates chemical delignification, offering a cost-effective, eco-friendly alternative for producing densified wood. This success highlights genome editing’s potential to create other engineered wood materials with enhanced properties, contributing to a CO2-negative bioeconomy by providing renewable alternatives to traditional materials. Credit: Matter Journal" class="wp-image-1984732"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">This method for producing genetically modified wood eliminates chemical delignification, offering a cost-effective, eco-friendly alternative for producing densified wood. This success highlights genome editing’s potential to create other engineered wood materials with enhanced properties, contributing to a CO2-negative bioeconomy by providing renewable alternatives to traditional materials. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Matter Journal</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-putting-it-to-the-test">Putting it to the test</h2>



The densified wood from the edited poplars reached <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/booster-plant-gene-discovery-amplifies-plant-growth-up-to-200-percent/">strength levels</a> comparable to those of panels made with conventional chemical treatments. 



The researchers measured lignin levels approximately one-eighth lower than in unedited controls. Growth remained healthy in greenhouse tests, which matters because factory gains aren’t worth much if the tree can’t thrive.



Skipping the chemical bath meant fewer inputs and less waste while still yielding structural-grade material. 



The balance was key: reduce lignin just enough to ease processing, not so much that the tree loses toughness in the wild.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-co2-and-engineered-wood">CO2 and engineered wood</h2>



Buildings are a major source of global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-just-created-concrete-that-could-reverse-climate-damage/">carbon emissions</a>, driven by materials like steel and concrete. 



Engineered wood can help by replacing part of that footprint with lighter structural components that store carbon for decades. Cleaner processing tightens the loop further, cutting energy use and reducing waste streams.



“Carbon sequestration is critical in our fight against climate change, and such engineered wood may find many uses in the future bioeconomy,” Qi added.



If mills can avoid harsh solvents and still press wood into high-strength beams and panels, the path to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/construction-materials-could-store-carbon-in-homes-and-buildings-helping-the-climate/">lower-carbon construction</a> gets wider. 



The approach starts upstream in the forest, not just on the factory line. It tunes the raw material so it cooperates when densified.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-next-steps-underway">Next steps underway</h2>



Greenhouse results look good, but forests are tougher proving grounds. Wind, pests, and seasons test wood in ways a lab cannot. 



Longer field trials will show whether reduced-lignin trees keep their strength and resilience outdoors. Another step is to try similar edits in pine, spruce, or eucalyptus, which dominate many timber markets.



Policy will shape the path. Base-edited trees do not carry added foreign genes; they contain single-letter changes to DNA already present. 



Many regulators treat that differently from classic GMOs, but rules vary by country. Because forestry spans long life cycles and open landscapes, regulators will likely require careful, staged reviews before any commercial rollout.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-super-wood-and-earth-s-future">"Super wood" and Earth's future</h2>



This study shows that small genetic changes can simplify manufacturing while maintaining performance. The edit doesn’t erase lignin; it tunes it. 



The result is densified “super wood” that matches the strength of chemically treated material while avoiding the delignification step.



This is a careful blend of biology and materials science aimed at a practical target: strong, reliable wood that stores carbon and reduces the mess of production. 



If future field tests and policy steps go well, smarter forests could feed cleaner factories - and sturdier buildings - for years to come.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/matter/abstract/S2590-2385(24)00396-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Matter</a>.



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Scientists create 'super wood' from gene-edited trees and claim it will change everything

Wood looks simple, but it’s a tricky material. Inside every tree are long cellulose fibers, helper sugars called hemicellulose, and a stiff, brown binder known as lignin. That mix lets trees grow tall and stay standing through wind and weather. It also makes wood tough to reshape into high-performance beams and panels. Factories usually force wood into shape with chemicals and heat. They strip out some lignin first, then compress what remains into a dense, strong material. That step consumes energy, costs money, and generates waste. A...

Crown shyness is an intriguing occurrence where the tops of certain trees form graceful gaps instead of merging into a continuous canopy. This sight has fascinated forest visitors for decades, leaving many amazed at the patterns that appear carefully carved in the foliage overhead.



While it's often assumed that a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/resilient-trees-can-help-safeguard-cities-from-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forest</a> canopy is densely packed with leaves, the channel-like gaps between branches challenge this notion and raise intriguing questions.



In a recent study, Dr. Emily Osterloff from the Natural History Museum in London has shared new insights into why some crowns seem reluctant to meet.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-tree-canopy-puzzle">The tree canopy puzzle</h2>



Experts began documenting this striking leaf separation in the 1920s, noting it in some eucalypts, black mangroves, and Japanese larches, though not all forests display such airy spacing. 



They wondered whether these tall giants were simply responding to environmental factors or whether something deeper was at play.



Researchers proposed that wind might have a role by making branches collide, trimming sensitive shoots and maintaining small corridors overhead. Over time, even gentle rubbing can shape how upper limbs expand, effectively sculpting unique outlines around the tree’s perimeter.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-light-sensing-and-canopy-growth">Light sensing and canopy growth</h2>



In addition to physical contact, scientists suspect that trees sense nearby foliage by detecting certain wavelengths of light. 



They rely on <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3268501/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">phytochrome</a>, a light-sensitive protein that shifts its activity under red and far-red spectra, allowing each canopy to gauge the presence of neighbors.



Under these cues, some trees may slow outward expansion to avoid deep shade or excessive bumping. By regulating branch development, they possibly cut down on energy losses caused by repeated collisions or overshadowing from taller growth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-jigsaw-of-twigs-and-branches">A jigsaw of twigs and branches</h2>



In Costa Rica, observers described branches behaving “like loosely fitting pieces of a jigsaw puzzle,” explained Dr. Francis E. Putz from The University of Florida and colleagues in 1984.



Broken twigs often clustered at places where swaying boughs touched, suggesting an ongoing pattern of tip damage.



Some of those areas lacked vigorous new growth, hinting that contact points become natural pruning zones. Gradually, each crown forms neat boundaries along its edges, letting slivers of sky peek through.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-tree-canopy-gaps-help">How tree canopy gaps help </h2>



A few theories propose that these gaps reduce the spread of certain pests, since leaf-chewing insects may struggle to jump across open channels. Lowering direct contact between foliage might also curb disease transmission, giving each tree extra defense in a crowded <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/complex-canopies-help-forests-recover-from-disturbances/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environment</a>.



Some investigators suggest that the openings allow more sunlight to filter down the trunk, providing undergrowth a better shot at photosynthesis. 



This extra light can support a wider range of plants, insects, and other creatures, potentially strengthening the overall health of the forest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shaping-a-tree-canopy">Shaping a tree canopy </h2>



Research in a Japanese mixed forest found that broad-leaved canopies often left wider channels than conifers. This could stem from differences in crown shape, wood flexibility, or simply how each species copes with frequent breezes overhead.



Slender trunks are known to sway more, increasing contact with neighboring boughs and thus boosting tip breakage. With each passing season, repeated impacts shape a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drones-reveal-hidden-biodiversity-in-rainforest-canopies/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">canopy</a> that appears to politely step back from the stand next door.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lingering-mysteries-and-fresh-frontiers">Lingering mysteries and fresh frontiers</h2>



A study using three-dimensional scanning confirmed that spindly forms are more likely to display these distinct boundary gaps. 



Such findings highlight the interaction between mechanical forces, photoreceptors, and the tree’s genetic makeup.



One cloud forest <a href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2388326">study</a> found that wind-exposed areas did not always produce more open gaps, challenging the assumption that rough weather is the main driver. 



In contrast, certain experts propose that hormones or chemical cues nudge branches apart even in calmer settings.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



Observations from multiple continents indicate that crown shyness arises under a variety of conditions. Some stands exhibit subtle gaps, while others create a well-defined patchwork pattern across the canopy.



Future research might focus on how younger saplings begin to express this phenomenon, or if it becomes more pronounced as trees age. Questions also linger about whether partial crowding yields the same structural adjustments when compared to dense stands.



Although the exact reasons behind crown shyness remain open to interpretation, the patterns they form captivate onlookers and spark wonder about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-cities-lack-sufficient-canopy-cover-despite-visible-trees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nature’s complexity</a>. 



Insights so far suggest a delicate dance of light, wind, and growth strategies that keeps certain branches close but never fully touching. Researchers continue searching for the missing puzzle piece that completes this botanical mystery.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8557382/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Annals of Botany</a>.



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Why some trees never touch each other in the canopy

Crown shyness is an intriguing occurrence where the tops of...

The amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere has been increasing rapidly, leading to severe climate consequences. 



However, researchers at <a href="https://www.wur.nl/en.htm" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wageningen University</a> have identified an unexpected benefit of rising CO2 levels: tropical trees have become more efficient at photosynthesis over the past century.



"Tropical forests substantially influence the terrestrial carbon sink. Their contributions to the forest carbon sink may increase due to the stimulation of photosynthesis by rising atmospheric CO2; however, the magnitude of this effect is poorly quantified for tropical canopy trees," noted the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tree-photosynthesis-and-rising-co2">Tree photosynthesis and rising CO2</h2>



The study revealed that the increase in CO2 concentrations has enabled <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-trees-with-thick-leaves-may-thrive-in-higher-co2-conditions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tropical trees</a> to enhance their carbon-absorbing capabilities.



The results are based on a new method which allowed the researchers to examine the influence of CO2 on trees over the last 100 years. Using wood samples, the team investigated how tree photosynthesis has responded to rising levels of carbon.



The experts collected wood samples from red cedar trees in Australia, Thailand, and Bangladesh. Using a hollow drill, they extracted thin cylindrical pieces of wood that reveal the tree's growth rings.



"From such a sample, you can not only tell how much the tree has grown, but it also acts as a kind of time capsule, showing how the tree functioned in a particular year," explained study lead author Sophie Zwartsenberg. 



"That information is encoded in the chemical composition of the wood, which we analyzed in detail."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sugar-production-in-trees">Sugar production in trees</h2>



Sugars are essential for trees, playing a crucial role in their growth and survival. Without sugars, a tree cannot sustain itself. From the analysis of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-rings-reveal-the-carbon-storage-capacity-of-a-forest/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree rings</a>, scientists can determine how well trees have produced sugars through photosynthesis over the last century.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/revealing-the-secrets-of-photosynthesis-through-pep/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Photosynthesis</a> is affected by the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere. Low levels cause the enzyme that traps CO2 to make more errors. Rather than bind with CO2, it can bind with oxygen (O₂), resulting in wasted energy. This process is called photorespiration.



"You can compare it to a bag of marbles," said Zwartsenberg. "If there are many CO2 balls mixed in with the oxygen, the enzyme is more likely to pick CO2. But if it fails and grabs oxygen instead, the tree wastes energy without producing any sugar. This process is called photorespiration and is different from photosynthesis."



Since higher CO2 levels reduce the occurrence of photorespiration, trees can use more energy for growth and maintenance. This is not only beneficial for trees but also for humans, as increased photosynthesis means that trees absorb more CO2 from the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-increase-in-photosynthetic-efficiency">Increase in photosynthetic efficiency</h2>



To analyze these changes, the scientists used a chemical method developed at a Swedish university. This technique examines sugar molecules, which form differently depending on whether they result from photosynthesis (CO2 capture) or photorespiration (O2 capture).



The analysis is conducted with a specialized device that uses magnetic fields to examine tiny wood samples. "It's like a giant MRI machine," noted Zwartsenberg.



By measuring sugar molecules in tree rings, the researchers found a consistent increase in photosynthetic efficiency over the past century. Interestingly, smaller trees showed greater improvements in efficiency compared to larger ones.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extra-co2-in-trees">Extra CO2 in trees</h2>



"This is the first time we have been able to demonstrate the effect of extra CO2 in mature trees that have grown under natural conditions," said study co-author Professor Pieter Zuidema.



"Positive CO2 effects on photosynthesis have long been known from greenhouse studies on small plants. The fact that the balance between photosynthesis and photorespiration has shifted toward photosynthesis means that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-forests-have-strategies-to-survive-in-nutrient-poor-soils/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tropical forests</a> have been producing more sugars for a century."



"The question remains, however, where the trees have invested those extra sugars. Other research suggests that, in most cases, they do not form wider tree rings. This would be a next step."



Though the research points to a possible advantage of increasing CO2 levels, the overall risks of climate change remain. The most important action to mitigate these risks is reducing greenhouse gas emissions, primarily by transitioning away from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nph.20358" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New Phytologist</a>.



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Rising CO2 levels have made tropical trees more efficient

The amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere has...

The Amazon rainforest, known as "the lungs of the Earth," faces continuous threats from deforestation. 



The Amazon's unique biodiversity, extensive carbon storage capabilities, and significant role in regulating the Earth's climate highlight the urgent need to fully understand the consequences of deforestation.



Scientists, activists, and global citizens have been increasingly concerned about changes in rainfall patterns. However, emerging research challenges previously held assumptions about rainfall <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-amazon-rainforest-is-approaching-widespread-collapse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dynamics</a> in this vital ecosystem.



The concept of a "tipping point" - a threshold beyond which the Amazon could irreversibly degrade into savannah - has dominated environmental discussions. 



But now, recent studies have begun to question the accuracy of this alarming scenario, bringing new insights into the resilience of the region's rainfall patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-the-amazon-rainforest-stable">Is the Amazon rainforest stable?</h2>



Scientists from the Max Planck Institute for Meteorology (<a href="https://mpimet.mpg.de/en/homepage" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MPI-M</a>) have made a significant breakthrough, revealing that the Amazon may sustain its rainfall even in extreme cases of deforestation. 



Published in the journal Geophysical Research Letters, the findings challenge earlier scientific consensus about the region’s vulnerability to rainfall disruption.



Previously, researchers emphasized the critical role of vegetation in maintaining Amazonian <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nearly-40-of-climate-critical-amazon-rainforest-is-unprotected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">rainfall</a> through evapotranspiration - the process where plants transfer moisture from soil to the atmosphere.



This cycle, scientists warned, would weaken dramatically if widespread deforestation occurred, significantly reducing rainfall and destabilizing the region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oversimplified-climate-models">Oversimplified climate models</h2>



These earlier predictions, however, depended heavily on models that oversimplified or overlooked key atmospheric processes. 



Most relied on global climate models that inadequately represented convection, the atmospheric mechanism crucial for rainfall. Alternatively, regional models were unable to account for how large-scale atmospheric circulation might adapt to deforestation.



Such limitations cast doubt on earlier predictions, necessitating a more sophisticated approach to better understand the complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-extremes-will-boost-methane-emissions-in-the-amazon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dynamics</a> involved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-modeling-approach">A new modeling approach</h2>



Experts at MPI-M, including Arim Yoon and Cathy Hohenegger, adopted an advanced approach using the global storm-resolving ICON model.



This model directly resolves atmospheric convection with extraordinary precision. They conducted their simulation globally over three years, operating at an exceptionally detailed resolution of five kilometers, a significant methodological advancement over previous research.



The findings revealed that rainfall in the Amazon isn't predominantly determined by evapotranspiration, as previously believed. Instead, large-scale atmospheric circulation substantially compensates for any loss of moisture due to deforestation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-winds-maintain-moisture-levels">Ocean winds maintain moisture levels</h2>



"The wind at about three kilometers altitude carries enough moisture from the ocean into the region to make up for the decline in evapotranspiration," said Yoon.



The calculations demonstrated little to no change in annual rainfall, even under conditions of complete deforestation, contrasting sharply with earlier findings.



This unexpected resilience suggests that earlier assessments of deforestation impacts may have overstated the Amazon’s vulnerability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-signs-of-a-more-stable-amazon">Signs of a more stable Amazon </h2>



"Precipitation over land seems more tightly coupled to the large-scale circulation than to evapotranspiration in our global storm-resolving simulation if compared to state-of-the-art climate models currently used in the IPCC assessment reports," noted Hohenegger.



"This fact is exciting as it asks for the revisitation of some of the things we thought we knew about precipitation over land and its sensitivity."



This research shifts scientific understanding towards a more nuanced view of rainfall dynamics in the Amazon.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rainfall-patterns-and-seasonal-variability">Rainfall patterns and seasonal variability</h2>



Despite the optimistic findings regarding total annual precipitation, significant changes remain in rainfall distribution throughout the year.



"Just using one indicator to assess the future of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-amazon-rainforest-and-the-looming-threat-of-drought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Amazon rainforest</a> isn't enough. The details of the rainfall patterns can make a big difference," said Yoon.



Seasonal variability could profoundly impact the ecosystem, agriculture, and communities dependent on predictable rainfall patterns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consequences-of-deforestation">Consequences of deforestation </h2>



The MPI-M scientists aim to further refine their analysis by examining whether extreme rainfall events or prolonged droughts might increase in frequency or intensity under conditions of deforestation. 



Understanding these patterns will provide critical insights into the real-world impacts of deforestation on Amazonian ecosystems and human livelihoods.



Although total rainfall might remain stable in the Amazon, deforestation inevitably disrupts ecological balance and climate stability. 



Changes in rainfall distribution, coupled with habitat loss and climate shifts, remain a threat to biodiversity, ecosystem health, and human communities relying on the Amazon.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2024GL110503" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a>.&nbsp;



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Amazon rainforest may be much more stable than we thought

The Amazon rainforest, known as "the lungs of the Earth,"...

The natural environment is repeatedly reinventing itself with dynamic processes which have a tendency to continue on for millions of years. Extinction events are among the strongest forces which not only kill specific life forms but also offer the basis for fresh avenues of evolution. 



A recent study evokes a fascinating image of the process, revealing how the death of the largest dinosaurs indirectly created the fruit-rich habitats which were so important to our primate ancestors.



The research was led by Christopher Doughty, an ecoinformatics professor at <a href="https://nau.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Northern Arizona University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-prehistoric-legacy">A prehistoric legacy</h2>



Sauropods, the long-necked, plant-munching dinosaurs of the ancient world, had a massive influence on the world around them. These hulking dinosaurs knocked over trees on a routine basis and munched through tons of plant matter. 



When Sauropods went extinct some 66 million years ago, their loss profoundly changed ecosystems. Forests rebounded and closed up, which decreased the amount of sunlight on the ground and paved the way for an impressive evolutionary shift.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sauropods-and-ecological-change">Sauropods and ecological change</h2>



The extinction of Sauropods enabled trees to evolve without interruptions. The forests became denser, and tree competition for light intensified. 



Trees developed larger fruits and seeds to dominate others, and these provided their offspring with an advantage over others by supplying them with additional energy and greater survival chances in shaded conditions.



"At first glance, the darker forest understory caused by dinosaur extinctions may seem unimportant, but it could have directly led to the evolution of our fruit-eating primate ancestors," said Professor Doughty.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-dinosaur-fruit-connection">The dinosaur-fruit connection</h2>



Before the dinosaurs went extinct, fruits were scarce, and seeds were small. But with the ecological niche left open by the sauropods, plants evolved immediately. 



Stronger seedlings, with larger seeds, were able to compete for limited sunlight. In addition, fleshy fruits evolved as an incredibly efficient way of enticing animals to scatter seeds and reproduce.



Even though this evolution scenario was previously theorized, no fossil records existed to conform the hypothesis.



To investigate, Professor Doughty and his team developed a cutting-edge model of seed and fruit size evolution after the dinosaurs became extinct. The model precisely replicated fossil records for the last 65 million years and decisively substantiated the hypothesis.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-reversal-of-dinosaur-driven-fruit-trends">Reversal of dinosaur-driven fruit trends</h2>



Interestingly, the model also forecasted a future reversal of seed evolutionary patterns. 



Seeds began to shrink about 35 million years ago. This coincided with the appearance of new large mammals that were successful in duplicating, though on a smaller scale, the forest-clearing behavior previously shown by sauropods.



"Our model predicted these animals would open the forest enough that sufficient light began to enter the understory, and larger seeds were no longer successful over smaller seeds," explained Doughty. 



"The evolutionary pressure for seed size to increase began to diminish. Thus, we were able to explain the trends in seed size over time without resorting to external influences such as climate change."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-megafauna-extinction-and-ecological-reset">Megafauna extinction and ecological reset</h2>



About 50,000 years ago, large mammals like mammoths went extinct. These animals previously opened forests by knocking down trees and clearing vegetation. Their extinction allowed forests to become dense and dark again. 



With less sunlight reaching the forest floor, plants adapted by producing larger seeds. This highlights how big animals shape their environment, influencing the evolution of plants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-as-ecosystem-shapers">Humans as ecosystem shapers </h2>



Modern human activity mimics the prehistoric impacts of the giants. Current selective forest harvesting mimics the prehistoric pressure imposed by dinosaurs on seed size and dispersal.



But if humans stop modifying forest structure and are not substituted by other megafauna, forests will shift back to more dense, dark structures, and this may trigger another evolutionary adjustment towards larger seeds. 



"These results provide a striking example of how large dinosaurs - and their eventual extinction - not only shaped their contemporary environment but also triggered cascading effects on ecosystems for millions of years," said Benjamin Wiebe, an NAU researcher.



"The next time you're eating fruit or pondering, 'why am I here,' consider the impact of the dinosaur extinctions."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/pala.70002" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Palaeontology</a>.



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How dinosaur extinction influenced fruit evolution

The natural environment is repeatedly reinventing itself with dynamic processes...

Flowers that lose their initial charm often end up in the trash. This might seem normal when the petals wither, yet many of these blooms are still valuable.



Scientists are exploring opportunities to use edible varieties of these flowers. They are checking their nutrients, flavors, and possible effects on food quality and shelf life.



“Rose flowers are still going to be rose flowers on Valentine’s Day. But we are looking at what happens the day after Valentine’s Day to those flowers,” said Anand Mohan, associate professor in UGA’s College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences.



Some flowers offer natural pigments that could replace synthetic colorants. Others contain antioxidants and proteins that might strengthen nutritional content in everyday meals.



Flowers with broad petals sometimes carry protective compounds that can guard meats, cereals, or even beverages against spoilage. These qualities are drawing attention in food science.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-promise-of-ultrasound">The promise of ultrasound</h2>



Researchers highlight that ultrasound waves help process many foods with less time and resource use. They also see the potential for ultrasound to extend a flower’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-waste-crisis-why-u-s-goals-remain-out-of-reach/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">usability</a> beyond a typical bouquet’s lifespan.



Ultrasound equipment works by sending waves into the material. Those waves move water away more efficiently and release beneficial compounds locked inside the petals.



When handled properly, this low-frequency technology can disrupt cell walls and let colorants, proteins, and vitamins flow into a solution. Once extracted, these compounds can be turned into powders or liquids.



Ultrasound may open up new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-freezer-can-play-a-key-role-in-reducing-food-waste/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">prospects</a> for turning leftover petals into color boosters or dietary enhancements. This shift could reduce waste and get more mileage out of every bloom.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flower-petals-as-food-ingredients">Flower petals as food ingredients</h2>



“We are trying to use edible flowers as a source of protein, food colorant and vitamins,” said Mohan. 



Some species of broccoli flowers have protein content that can be blended into cereals. Others, like hibiscus, yield a vibrant color that can replace artificial dyes.



Much of the effort involves pinpointing the right flower for the right purpose. Roses might suit meat preservation, while marigolds might fit as an ingredient in certain sauces.



Scientists also look at how different varieties thrive in changing climates. The goal is to identify flowers that stay strong and maintain a steady supply for the food <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/digital-labels-help-grocers-cut-food-waste/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">market</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-flavor-and-shelf-life">Balancing flavor and shelf life</h2>



Edible flowers might shift taste profiles. Some bring a delicate note, while others contribute a mild bitterness or herbal kick.



Preserving these flowers isn’t always easy. Traditional drying can be slow and may destroy color and aroma.



Hot air drying often leads to a dimmer petal hue. Ultrasound pretreatment shortens drying time and cuts the browning that heat can trigger.



The result is a dried ingredient that can be crushed or powdered. This form is simple to ship and store, making it perfect for large-scale food production.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-keeping-color-intact">Keeping color intact</h2>



Many edible flowers get their bright appearance from anthocyanins or other plant chemicals. Heat can degrade these compounds, turning a vibrant petal into a dull one.



Ultrasound can reduce this risk by aiding quick water removal and limiting direct high-heat exposure. It also stalls enzymes like polyphenol oxidase, which spark browning.



A mild ultrasound phase maintains crucial pigments. The finished product retains most of its original shade.



Manufacturers see this as a bonus since vibrant natural colors attract consumers who want fewer artificial additives.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extracting-beneficial-compounds">Extracting beneficial compounds</h2>



Beyond color, certain petal extracts carry valuable antioxidants that can guard against cell damage in the body. Ultrasound helps release these compounds into a friendly solvent.



Shorter extraction times mean less chance of thermal stress. This helps safeguard delicate vitamins or volatile oils.



Blue butterfly pea flower is one example. Studies show ultrasound extraction can bolster its antioxidant content while preserving its bright blue color.



Manufacturers can incorporate these concentrates into teas or juices. They gain both natural coloring and potential health perks in one go.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-advanced-techniques">Other advanced techniques</h2>



Microwave drying is another approach that rapidly heats petals. While quick, it can cause uneven heat distribution that may damage fragile flowers.



Infrared drying works at lower temperatures and keeps more nutrients intact. Its reach is shallower, so thicker petals might need extra time.



Ionizing radiation shows promise for sterilizing edible flowers. Yet consumer perception around radiation remains skeptical.



Ultrasound stands out for its mild thermal impact, which protects fragile compounds and saves energy. It has its own set of hurdles, but the results are enticing enough to keep it in the spotlight.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-safe-consistent-results">Safe, consistent results</h2>



Ultrasound tools can be loud. The process involves intense vibrations that could affect hearing if workers aren’t shielded or if machines aren’t set up properly.



High-powered waves might also damage petal tissues if misused. Researchers must find the ideal treatment for each flower type.



The scale of production equipment is another factor. Small labs produce small batches, but bigger systems must ensure even coverage. Careful regulation of wave intensity and duration is essential for safe, consistent results.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turning-flowers-into-food-products">Turning flowers into food products</h2>



Companies in the beverage sector can look into floral extracts that add aroma or color. Start-ups might explore using leftover wedding or holiday flowers as raw material.



Supermarkets that toss out unsold blooms could partner with local facilities to transform them into new products. This idea saves money and reduces <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-age-group-is-responsible-for-the-most-food-waste/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trash</a>.



Shoppers might soon see ready-to-use flower powders or meal-ready petals in store aisles. The next step involves marketing that resonates with people looking for color and flavor without synthetic additives.



Many chefs are already known for edible petals on plates. Scaling this practice for everyday consumers is the bigger challenge.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-edible-flowers-can-reduce-waste">Edible flowers can reduce waste</h2>



Flowers are grown year-round and shipped worldwide, but not all get purchased. Food scientists are pointing to these extras as a wasted resource.



Turning unsold flowers into extracts or powders addresses sustainability goals. It also recovers part of the cost that might otherwise vanish.



This loop of repurposing reduces the carbon footprint of the floral industry. People who want environmentally friendly options appreciate any step that rescues edible raw materials. Ultrasound-based processing could be a central tool in achieving that.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flowers-in-food-and-skincare">Flowers in food and skincare</h2>



Scientists are testing how flower-derived proteins boost nutritional value in everyday items like bars, cereals, or wraps. Others are exploring their potential in functional drinks or skincare lines.



The synergy between vitamins in certain petals and antioxidants in others might produce new solutions to common nutritional gaps. Such breakthroughs hinge on fine-tuning extraction and drying methods.



As more labs share positive data, companies could invest in research for large-scale production. This shift might reshape how we treat floral byproducts across multiple industries. 



Consumers might not see the behind-the-scenes processes, but they’ll notice new labels highlighting real flower extracts.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-edible-flowers">The future of edible flowers</h2>



Some researchers see a future where local florists have partnerships with local food processors. The idea might grow as the data becomes more widely circulated.



Regulatory bodies need to establish clear guidelines for these new ingredients. Safety checks and labeling rules must be in place so that shoppers can trust the products.



Ultrasound might remain popular because of its non-destructive nature. Expanding beyond flowers, it might someday help reclaim other items that go to waste. For now, the excitement around edible flowers keeps building.



The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jfpe.70012" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Food Process Engineering</a>.



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Flowers as food: How ultrasound makes it possible

Flowers that lose their initial charm often end up in...

For centuries, humans have explored the potential of mushrooms. Valued not only for their unique flavors, mushrooms have also been revered for their medicinal properties, including their ability to enhance immunity and promote overall health.



These ancient perceptions are now being confirmed by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-bacteria-help-plants-balance-growth-and-immunity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">science</a>, which has found that mushrooms have more than gastronomic value.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-beta-glucan">The role of beta-glucan</h2>



One small yet remarkably significant component found in all mushrooms - beta-glucan - has recently gained the attention of scientists, thanks to its potential role in combating the flu. 



While mushrooms are often celebrated for their nutritional value, this particular compound has been highlighted for its ability to bolster the immune system. 



Beta-glucan is a naturally occurring polysaccharide that enhances the body's defense mechanisms, making it a promising ally in the battle against various viral infections, including the flu. 



Though it may seem surprising at first, this unassuming fungal ingredient could play a pivotal role in helping to prevent or mitigate the severity of flu infections, offering a new avenue for research into natural immune support.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mushrooms-and-wellness">Mushrooms and wellness</h2>



In the food and health industry, mushrooms have achieved superfood status due to their nutrient-dense structure of vitamins, minerals, and bioactive compounds. Their application in diets worldwide has been shifted from being flavor-based to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-tiny-bacteria-outsmart-the-human-immune-system/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health-based</a>.



Mushrooms are linked to improved brain health, as evidence shows that they may help protect against cognitive decline. Mushrooms also contribute to better digestive health with their fiber content.



A new study sheds light on a special role of mushrooms in health maintenance beyond what was previously recognized. 



According to the research, mushrooms might assist the body in keeping infections at bay and preventing harmful inflammation. The experts report that mushrooms might render flu infections less damaging. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-mushrooms-fight-the-flu">How mushrooms fight the flu</h2>



Researchers at <a href="https://www.mcgill.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">McGill University</a> in Canada investigated the intriguing effect of beta-glucan on the immune system response to flu. 



The findings indicate that the natural fiber can help people manage flu infections by inhibiting the out-of-control inflammation that usually leads to complications.



"It is tempting to hypothesize that the levels and composition of fungi in an individual could influence how their immune system responds to infections, in part because of beta-glucan," noted study co-author and immunologist Maziar Divangahi.



This is an optimistic departure from conventional flu <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/temperatures-impact-the-immune-system-of-wild-monkeys/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">treatment</a> protocols.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-keeping-immunity-in-check">Keeping immunity in check</h2>



Beta-glucan, present in fungi cell walls, has been shown to possess immune-stimulating activity. But the study identifies a significant role - it maintains immune balance.



Instead of provoking an out-of-control immune reaction, beta-glucan provokes a controlled reaction within the body, restricting uncontrolled inflammation, which is typically the main threat in extreme cases of the flu.



The researchers tested beta-glucan on mice, infecting some with the flu virus after <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/covid-19-lockdowns-weakened-our-immune-systems/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">treatment</a> with beta-glucan.



What they found was remarkable. The treated mice had very little lung inflammation, improved lung function, and a very low probability of becoming seriously ill or dying, even though the mice received no beta-glucan.



Another fascinating finding of the study is the impact of beta-glucan on neutrophils, a type of immune cell. 



Normally, neutrophils induce inflammation, which has the consequence of exacerbating flu infections. Beta-glucan alters their function and makes them resistant to inducing over-inflammation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-flu-prevention-with-mushrooms">Future of flu prevention with mushrooms</h2>



For years, conventional flu medications have targeted antiviral drugs that directly assault the virus. Antiviral drugs, though, have limitations. Certain strains of the flu develop resistance, and not every patient responds to antivirals.



The study proposes another approach that centers on enhancing the body's immunity against infection, thus opening a new chapter in the treatment of flu.



The study reinforces the idea that edibles can have medicinal benefits. While further research is needed, mushrooms may soon shift from a nutritious ingredient to a vital component for enhancing immunity and protecting against severe respiratory diseases.



As scientific research continues to uncover the immune-boosting benefits of mushrooms, they may soon become a vital component of flu prevention <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/reprogramming-the-immune-system-to-attack-cancer-cells/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">protocols</a>. 



Ultimately, mushrooms are more than just a nutritious food - they are a powerful ally in strengthening the immune system.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41590-024-02041-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Immunology</a>.



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How mushrooms help the body fight off the flu

For centuries, humans have explored the potential of mushrooms. Valued...

Muscle health plays a vital role in overall well-being, affecting strength, mobility, and longevity. While exercise and protein intake have long been the cornerstones of muscle maintenance, new research suggests that diet alone may have a powerful influence. 



A recent study from Western New England University (WNE) has introduced an unexpected player in muscle health - grapes.



This study reveals that consuming grapes daily could alter muscle gene expression, potentially enhancing strength and resilience. These findings offer a new perspective on how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/resveratrol-may-boost-female-fertility-naturally/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural foods</a> impact the body at a genetic level.



With millions of people struggling with age-related muscle loss, the potential benefits of grapes in maintaining muscle function are both exciting and significant.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-exceeding-nutritional-benefits">Exceeding nutritional benefits</h2>



Every year, people around the world consume approximately 30 million tons of grapes, making them one of the most widely eaten fruits. 



While they are valued for their rich nutritional content, their health benefits extend well beyond basic nutrition. 



Scientific research has shown that grapes positively impact various aspects of health, including cardiovascular function, kidney health, and skin vitality.



Additionally, grapes contain compounds that support eye health by protecting against oxidative stress, which can contribute to vision decline. 



Their role in gastrointestinal health is also noteworthy, as grapes promote digestion and contribute to a balanced gut microbiome.



With their wide-ranging <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/muscles-defy-aging-with-remarkable-resilience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health advantages</a>, grapes have become more than just a tasty fruit - they are a natural source of essential compounds that support overall well-being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-grapes-change-muscle-genes">Grapes change muscle genes</h2>



With this study, researchers have shed light on the dynamic influence daily grape consumption exerts on muscle gene expression. 



The effects are significantly more profound in females, which intriguingly brings male and female muscle characteristics closer to each other at a metabolic level.



Genes tied to lean muscle mass showed an upward trend, while those related to muscle degeneration displayed a decline, pointing towards improved muscle function. 



These revelations open up potential pathways for tackling age-related <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-muscles-may-soon-be-able-to-regenerate-like-other-muscles/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">muscle</a> loss, a challenge faced by 10-16% of elderly individuals.



Dr. John Pezzuto, senior investigator of the study, is the Dean of Pharmacy and Health Sciences at <a href="https://wne.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Western New England University</a>.



"This study provides compelling evidence that grapes have the potential to enhance muscle health at the genetic level," noted Dr. Pezzuto.



"Given their safety profile and widespread availability, it will be exciting to explore how quickly these changes can be observed in human trials."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-do-grapes-affect-muscles">How do grapes affect muscles?</h2>



The fascinating field of nutrigenomics discusses the influence of diet on gene expression and the corresponding impact of genetic variation on dietary responses. 



The researchers examined how daily intake of two servings of grapes impacted genetic expression patterns within muscle. 



Intriguingly, the male and female muscles that usually exhibit significant differences converged into a unified phenotype under the grape-inclusive diet.



The DNA of a single species, including humans, doesn’t vary notably from one individual to another. However, the primary factor that sets us apart is the expression of DNA, otherwise known as the phenotype. 



The ingestion of grapes brought about changes in the phenotypic gene expression of male and female muscle, predominantly in females, resulting in an aligned metabolic parameter between the two.



In another fascinating observation, specific genes linked with favorable muscle health - such as lean muscle mass - were enhanced. At the same time, genes associated with deteriorating muscle health were reduced.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



The researchers plan to conduct further studies to understand the specific biological processes responsible for these genetic changes in muscle function. 



They also aim to determine how quickly these changes occur after regular grape consumption.



By identifying the exact mechanisms behind this phenomenon, scientists can better assess how grapes contribute to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/exercise-fuels-neuron-growth-through-muscle-signals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">muscle health</a> and whether their effects vary among different individuals.



As nutrigenomics advances, this study represents a significant step toward developing new dietary strategies for maintaining muscle strength and preventing age-related decline. 



If future research confirms these findings, incorporating grapes into daily nutrition could become a practical and accessible way to support muscle health across all age groups. 



This study opens the door for a deeper exploration of how natural foods can positively influence the body at the genetic level.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2304-8158/14/4/695" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Foods</a>.



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Eating grapes every day can transform your body in a unique way

Muscle health plays a vital role in overall well-being, affecting...

In 2018, a wildfire engulfed nearly two thousand hectares of shrubland in the ecologically critical area of Pichu Pichu volcano, located in Peru's Andean region. 



Unlike Mediterranean ecosystems, vegetation on the volcanic soils of Arequipa - one of the world's driest regions - has not evolved to recover from fire disturbances.



A team of researchers from the Miguel Hernández University of Elche <a href="https://www.umh.es/?lang=EN" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">(UMH)</a> embarked on a study to assess the impact of wildfire events on such fragile ecosystems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unprepared-for-wildfire">Unprepared for wildfire</h2>



The researchers dug deep into the soil, collecting and examining samples from the fire-charred area, 3,700 meters above sea level.



The findings of the study, published in the Spanish Journal of Soil Science, reveal that the fire not only burned the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/changes-in-vegetation-are-a-key-driver-of-global-temperatures/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">vegetation</a>, but also scarred the soil. This was evident even four years after the event.



Post-fire erosion has resulted in a severe loss of soil organic carbon (SOC), which is an essential factor for soil fertility. The loss of SOC also leads to compaction, making the soil more inhospitable to new plant growth.



"The Peruvian Andes are not prepared for wildfires," noted Jorge Mataix Solera, a scientist who has spent over three decades studying post-fire <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-uncover-effects-of-wildfires-on-soil-chemistry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil recovery</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slow-and-difficult-recovery-in-the-andes">Slow and difficult recovery in the Andes</h2>



Solera further explained that the consequences of wildfires vary significantly based on the ecology of the region, but that in the Andes the combined effect of loss of vegetation and loss of soil organic carbon made recovery extremely difficult and slow.



The study highlighted that Pichu Pichu's soil was severely affected by the fire and showed substantial physical and chemical degradation, which further hampered the ecological recovery process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-burned-soil-lost-resilience">Burned soil, lost resilience</h2>



The study identified the soil's natural propensity to repel water, which was aggravated by the loss of the vegetation, as a significant impediment to recovery.



Without vegetation to retain moisture, water just slides off the surface of the volcanic soil, leading to accelerated erosion.



"While well-structured and evolved soils, such as Mediterranean soils, have a high water-holding capacity, young volcanic Andean soils, which are naturally sandy, lose this ability after fire-induced organic matter loss," explained UMH researcher&nbsp;Minerva García Carmona.



With the soil's inability to hold water directly influencing its degradation, scientists need to understand the impact of fire on these young, fragile soils.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plant-species-and-soil-degradation">Plant species and soil degradation</h2>



Of particular importance is the role of different <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thousands-of-plant-species-remain-unphotographed/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant species</a>, which serve as the combustible material in wildfires and affect soil degradation.



The research focused on two native plant species that dominate the vegetation: Berberis lutea, known locally as "palo amarillo del Perú," and Parastrephia quadrangularis, or "tola."



The study revealed that soils under Berberis lutea bushes underwent greater degradation after a wildfire. This could have been due to the fact that this shrub is a larger plant with a higher biomass, which would have provided more fuel for combustion.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildfires-on-the-rise">Wildfires on the rise</h2>



Peru’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfire-season-of-2023-redefined-what-is-possible/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">wildfire season</a> typically peaks between July and October, but recent years have seen a troubling surge in fire activity. 



In September 2024, the Queimadas satellite monitoring project recorded an unprecedented 7,037 wildfire hotspots across the country - the highest on record.



This escalation in fire activity highlights the urgent need to understand how soil in fire-prone regions responds to these new fire regimes.



“In a region like Arequipa, located in a desert environment, understanding soil response under new fire regimes is essential for assessing ecosystem resilience to climate change,” noted the researchers.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-significance-of-wildfire-research">Global significance of wildfire research </h2>



Solera emphasized the global significance of wildfire research. He believes that the more we study these impacts, the better we can design prevention strategies and post-fire treatments to mitigate the long-term effects of rising temperatures and prolonged <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-persistent-droughts-will-impact-wildlife-in-the-u-s/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">droughts</a>.



“This is as critical in Peru as it is in Spain or California. Although fire is a natural phenomenon, the climate crisis is exacerbating these events, and we must do everything possible to restore and protect these ecosystems,” concluded Solera.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontierspartnerships.org/journals/spanish-journal-of-soil-science/articles/10.3389/sjss.2025.13983/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Spanish Journal of Soil Science</a>.



Image Credit: Jorge Mataix Solera



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Burned and barren: How wildfires transform volcanic soils

In 2018, a wildfire engulfed nearly two thousand hectares of...

Orchids are among the most diverse and fascinating plants in the world. Their ability to adapt to different environments has allowed them to thrive in forests, grasslands, and even rocky terrains. 



While most orchids rely on photosynthesis to produce their own food, a few species have taken a different path. Instead of creating their own energy, they survive by feeding on fungi.



This parasitic shift raises an intriguing question: why would a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/adelopetalum-argyropus-new-orchid-species-discovered-resembles-small-cupcake/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant</a> abandon its ability to produce food and depend entirely on another organism?



Kobe University researchers explored this mystery by studying Oreorchis patens, an orchid that exists in both photosynthetic and parasitic forms. The findings suggest that this transition may not be a matter of necessity but rather an opportunity that arises under specific conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-balancing-photosynthesis-and-parasitism">Balancing photosynthesis and parasitism</h2>



Most orchids maintain a symbiotic relationship with fungi. The plants supply sugars produced through photosynthesis, while fungi provide water and essential nutrients. 



This relationship benefits both organisms and is a key survival strategy for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/despite-their-incredible-adaptability-orchids-are-disappearing/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orchids</a> in nutrient-poor environments. However, some orchids no longer contribute to this exchange. Instead of photosynthesizing, they take all their nutrients from fungi, effectively becoming parasites.



“I’ve always been intrigued by how orchids turn parasitic. Why would a plant give up its reliance on photosynthesis and instead ‘steal’ from fungi?” noted <a href="https://www.kobe-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kobe University</a> botanist Suetsugu Kenji.



This question led researchers to examine Oreorchis patens, a species that offers a rare glimpse into the transition from mutualism to parasitism.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-orchid-s-dual-strategy">An orchid’s dual strategy</h2>



Unlike fully parasitic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-orchids-have-fingers-to-pollinate-themselves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orchids</a>, Oreorchis patens still retains its ability to photosynthesize. However, it can also absorb up to half of its nutrients from fungi. This makes it an excellent model for studying why some orchids partially abandon photosynthesis.



Suetsugu observed that some Oreorchis patens individuals develop unusual coral-shaped rootstalks. These structures resemble those found in orchids that rely entirely on fungi. 



“I thought that this would allow me to compare plants with these organs to those with normal roots, quantify how much extra nutrients they might be gaining, and determine whether that extra translates into enhanced growth or reproductive success,” said Suetsugu.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wood-helps-orchids-absorb-fungi-nutrients">Wood helps orchids absorb fungi nutrients</h2>



To uncover the role of fungi in this process, researchers examined orchids growing in different environments. Their study, published in The Plant Journal, revealed a fascinating pattern. 



When Oreorchis patens grows near decomposing wood, it shifts its fungal partners to species that break down rotting material. This shift allows the orchid to extract significantly more nutrients from its fungal hosts.



Surprisingly, despite its increased reliance on fungi, the orchid does not stop photosynthesizing. Instead, the extra nutrients enhance its growth, making it larger and more robust. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orchid-parents-nurture-seedlings-through-fungal-networks/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orchids</a> in these conditions also produce more flowers, indicating a clear reproductive advantage.



“In short, these orchids aren’t merely substituting for diminished photosynthesis, they’re boosting their overall nutrient budget," noted Suetsugu.



"This clear, adaptive link between fungal parasitism and improved plant vigor is, to me, the most thrilling aspect of our discovery, as it provides a concrete ecological explanation for why a photosynthetic plant might choose this path.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-all-orchids-become-parasites">Why don’t all orchids become parasites?</h2>



Despite the apparent benefits, fewer than 10% of Oreorchis patens individuals exhibit parasitic behavior. The researchers noticed that parasitic orchids were only found near fallen and rotting tree trunks. 



This suggests that switching to parasitism requires a specific set of conditions, particularly the presence of fungi that can handle an increased nutritional load.



These specialized fungi thrive in decaying wood but only at certain stages of decomposition. Since such conditions are rare and unpredictable, most Oreorchis patens individuals continue relying primarily on photosynthesis. 



The transition to parasitism happens only when the right fungi are available, not necessarily when the orchid needs extra nutrients.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



Although this study sheds light on why some orchids turn parasitic, many questions remain. Scientists still do not know what triggers the development of the coral-like rootstalks in Oreorchis patens. 



Environmental factors likely play a role, but the exact mechanisms remain unclear. Another question is how flexible the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orchid-bees-are-endangered-by-deforestation-in-the-amazon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">orchid</a> is in choosing its fungal partners and whether other species exhibit similar behavior.



Suetsugu sees this research as part of a larger effort to understand the full range of plant lifestyles. 



“This work is part of a broader effort to unravel the continuum from photosynthesis to complete parasitism," said Suetsugu.



"Ultimately, I hope such discoveries will deepen our understanding of the diverse strategies orchids employ to balance different lifestyles, thereby aiding in the preservation of the incredible diversity of these plants in our forests."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-efforts-for-orchids">Conservation efforts for orchids</h2>



Understanding how orchids interact with fungi is essential for conservation efforts. Many parasitic orchids depend on specific fungal species, which means changes in forest ecosystems could threaten their survival. 



By studying these relationships, researchers can better predict how orchids will respond to environmental changes and how best to protect them.



This research was supported by the <a href="https://www.jsps.go.jp/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Japan Society for the Promotion of Science</a>, the Japan Science and Technology Agency (<a href="https://www.jst.go.jp/EN/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JST</a>), and the <a href="https://www.chikyu.ac.jp/rihn_e/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Research Institute for Humanity and Nature</a>. 



The study is published in <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/tpj.70045" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Plant Journal</a>.



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Some orchids turn parasitic when conditions allow

Orchids are among the most diverse and fascinating plants in...

The natural world has long adapted to Earth’s changing climate, but there are limits to what living organisms can withstand. Plants, in particular, play a crucial role in maintaining the planet’s balance by absorbing carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen. 



However, new research suggests that rising temperatures may push <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-release-carbon-faster-than-we-expected/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> beyond their limits, altering their ability to regulate the environment.



Scientists have traditionally believed that plants conserve water by closing their pores during extreme heat. 



But Dr. Sean Michaletz, a botany professor at the <a href="https://www.ubc.ca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of British Columbia</a>, has uncovered a surprising reality.



His research suggests that plants lose more water than expected, potentially weakening their role in climate regulation. If these findings are accurate, they could reshape how we predict future warming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-help-control-carbon-and-water-cycles">Plants help control carbon and water cycles</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-absorb-31-more-co2-than-previously-estimated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plants</a> are essential to life on Earth. Through photosynthesis, they take in carbon dioxide, convert it into energy, and release oxygen. 



This process allows them to function as a carbon sink, absorbing greenhouse gases that would otherwise contribute to global warming.



In addition to their role in carbon absorption, plants regulate the water cycle. They release water vapor into the atmosphere, which helps cool the planet and maintain humidity levels. 



However, as temperatures rise, this delicate balance may be shifting in unexpected ways.



Dr. Michaletz’s research suggests that rising heat forces plants to lose more water through their cuticle, a waxy layer on their leaves. 



Unlike their pores, which can close to prevent water loss, the cuticle remains open. The thinner the cuticle, the more water a plant loses.



This process could reduce photosynthesis, limit carbon absorption, and even turn plants into carbon sources under extreme conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-risk-of-plant-water-loss">Hidden risk of plant water loss</h2>



For decades, scientists assumed that plants primarily lost water through their pores, which could close during dry or hot conditions. 



This belief shaped climate models and water cycle predictions. However, new findings indicate that cuticle-based water loss may be more significant than previously thought.



“When temperatures rise, plants lose more water through their cuticle than through their pores,” explained Dr. Michaletz. “This limits their ability to absorb <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warming-soils-release-more-carbon-than-plants-can-replace/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon dioxide</a> and reduces their role as a carbon sink.”



In extreme heat, plants may struggle to maintain photosynthesis, absorbing less carbon while continuing to release water. 



If temperatures climb too high, forests and other ecosystems could shift from storing carbon to emitting it. This shift would accelerate climate change and disrupt global ecosystems.



Dr. Michaletz estimates that a single medium-sized leaf exposed to 50°C could lose about one-third of a teaspoon of water per day through its cuticle. 



Scaled up to an entire forest, this effect could significantly alter global water and carbon cycles.



Current climate models may underestimate this impact, leading scientists to reassess predictions for future warming.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extreme-heat-can-make-plants-stop-working">Extreme heat can make plants stop working</h2>



Not all plants respond to heat in the same way. Some species can tolerate extreme temperatures, while others begin to suffer as soon as conditions become too warm. 



A study conducted in Vancouver examined 200 plant species to determine their heat tolerance.



“Our research suggests that photosynthesis starts to break down between 40 and 51°C,” said Dr. Michaletz. “During the 2021 heat dome, temperatures soared to 49.6°C, pushing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earths-carbon-sinks-are-being-pushed-to-their-limits/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> to their limits.”



If temperatures continue rising, plants could reach a critical breaking point. The research team estimates that 60°C may be the maximum temperature plants can survive. 



Beyond this threshold, proteins inside plant cells break down, leading to irreversible damage and eventual death.



While some desert and tropical plants have evolved to withstand extreme heat, most species do not have the same resilience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-may-turn-into-carbon-sources">Plants may turn into carbon sources</h2>



Understanding how heat affects plant life is essential for predicting climate change. If plants reach their temperature limits, they may stop <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-absorb-31-more-co2-than-previously-estimated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">absorbing carbon dioxide</a> and instead release it, contributing to warming rather than slowing it.



“Globally, researchers are working to determine the ‘tipping point’ where Earth’s vegetation releases more carbon dioxide than it absorbs, switching from a carbon sink to a carbon source,” said Dr. Michaletz.



“Our estimates suggest this could happen around 30°C, though key uncertainties remain - especially how microclimates and water availability affect photosynthesis under extreme heat.”



With Earth’s average temperature already at 16°C, this threshold may be closer than expected. If plant ecosystems begin releasing more carbon than they store, global temperatures could rise even faster than current models predict.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-biosphere-2">Lessons from Biosphere 2</h2>



The relationship between plants and the environment has long fascinated scientists, leading to experiments that test how vegetation responds to extreme conditions. 



One of the most ambitious projects in ecological research was <a href="https://biosphere2.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biosphere 2</a>, an enclosed facility designed to simulate an independent ecosystem.



As a postdoctoral researcher, Dr. Michaletz worked at Biosphere 2, which was originally created as a self-sustaining environment. 



Scientists, known as biospherians, were sealed inside to see if humans could survive without external oxygen or supplies.



“Biosphere 2 later transitioned into a research and public education center, where I studied how high <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-climate-changes-have-drastic-effects-on-tropical-plants/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temperatures affect plants</a> in its experimental rainforest,” said Dr. Michaletz.



The original experiment revealed unexpected challenges. Carbon dioxide levels rose due to chemical reactions within the facility, and prolonged isolation caused psychological stress among participants. 



These unexpected results highlighted the complexities of maintaining an artificial environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-close-are-we-to-the-limit">How close are we to the limit?</h2>



Plants have survived shifts in climate for millions of years, but they are not invincible. 



They have upper limits, set by the physical laws governing their biological processes. While some plants have adapted to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warming-climates-force-plants-to-compete-with-each-other/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">survive heat stress</a>, many others cannot withstand prolonged extreme temperatures.



Scientists are now working to pinpoint exactly when and where vegetation will begin to struggle under rising global temperatures. 



Some recent measurements suggest that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-diverse-crops-traps-carbon-and-boosts-soil-health/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plants</a> may already be approaching dangerous heat thresholds.



If global warming continues unchecked, plants may lose their ability to regulate the carbon in the environment, triggering a chain reaction of climate feedback loops.



The question now is not whether plants will be affected by rising temperatures, but how soon the consequences will be felt. 



Understanding these limits is crucial for predicting the future of Earth’s ecosystems and the role plants will play in a rapidly warming world.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/nph.20346" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New Phytologist</a>.



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Plants may stop absorbing carbon if temperatures continue to rise

The natural world has long adapted to Earth’s changing climate,...

Cocoa is the backbone of the $100 billion chocolate industry, and the source of livelihood for millions of small-scale cocoa farmers in warm tropical climates. Unfortunately, climate change makes it increasingly difficult for these farmers to maintain productivity, putting the future of this crop under growing threat.



The increased global consumption of cocoa has already provoked plantation expansion and intensified cultivation schemes - frequently at the expense of local biodiversity and long-term ecosystem resilience.



As the sector struggles with these issues, scientists are working on solutions that can safeguard cocoa production and the ecosystems they depend on. New findings suggest that nature itself may hold the key to securing cocoa’s future.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-skyrocketing-cocoa-costs">Skyrocketing cocoa costs</h2>



In December 2024, cocoa prices soared to an unprecedented $12,646 per metric ton. Experts link this jump to years of adverse weather, which has been linked to climate change, and the cocoa swollen shoot virus in West Africa. 



As a result, manufacturing costs for chocolate have surged more than 167% over the past two years, forcing retailers to raise prices.



Consumers now face higher chocolate costs at checkout, weighing whether a favorite sweet is worth the extra expense.



Hershey’s buying practices mean current cocoa costs won’t hit shelves right away. Still, the company stated, “We continue to collaborate with our retail partners to ensure we offer a variety of products that meet the right occasions and price points for our consumers.” A 1-pound bar of Hershey’s remains $14.99 for now.



Dirk Van de Put of Mondelez International cited “unprecedented cocoa cost inflation,” while cocoa futures rose 143%. 



“Every time we get rain in West Africa, the futures change. People are watching it that close. It’s just crazy. There’s a lot of money on the table in this exchange,” said Branch. 



The Ivory Coast and Ghana produce 70% of all cocoa, making adverse weather and disease - often tied to climate change - key factors.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-threats-to-cocoa-farming">Climate threats to cocoa farming</h2>



A collaborative research effort has shed light on the growing risks that climate change poses to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cocoa-production-in-africa-is-under-extreme-climate-pressure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cocoa production</a>.



More significantly, the study suggests possible methods for farmers to maintain productivity, without further encroaching on our much-needed forests.



The research, which sought to understand the crucial factors that shape cocoa yields, was conducted in Brazil, Ghana, and Indonesia, whose combined production covers a third of the world's cocoa.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollinators-boost-yields-up-to-20">Pollinators boost yields up to 20%</h2>



One key finding of the study was that increased <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/insect-apocalypse-australasia-is-facing-a-hidden-pollination-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pollination</a> rates could effectively augment yields by a significant fifth. 



As understood from the study, many cocoa plantations are currently incompletely pollinated, which prevents them from reaching their full yield potential.



"Cocoa is pollinated by tiny insects such as midges and thrips, and it comes as quite a surprise that most of the time there simply isn’t enough pollination happening to produce the cocoa crop that is possible," said Dr. Acheampong Atta-Boateng, who recently completed his doctoral work at the <a href="https://www.ox.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Oxford</a>.



Changes in temperature also influence yields, a fact that highlights the vulnerability of cocoa-producing regions to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-earth-energy-imbalance-temperature-rise/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>. 



Sites where temperatures were higher by up to 7 degrees recorded cocoa yields that were reduced by between 20 and 31%.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cocoa-farming-vs-future-climate">Cocoa farming vs. future climate</h2>



The concluding recommendations of the study highlight practical, feasible strategies to enhance pollination and manage the growing impact of climate change. 



Priorities include maintaining leaf litter and other understory biomass, preserving soil organic matter, providing suitable shade, and cutting back on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-herbicides-linked-to-diminished-brain-functioning-in-young-adults/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemical use in agriculture</a>.



"This research shows that sustainable agricultural methods can significantly improve cocoa yields without farm expansion or intensification," stressed Dr. Tonya Lander from the University of Oxford, the lead author of the study.



By adopting biodiversity-centered, climate-resilient farming techniques, the cocoa sector can both increase production and safeguard farmers' livelihoods.



"The rising demand for cocoa and the short-term economic benefits to farmers has led to plantation expansion and ecological homogenization at the expense of biodiversity and vital ecosystem services, like pollination," said Dr. Tom Wanger of <a href="https://en.westlake.edu.cn/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Westlake University</a> in China.



"This study highlights the long-term risks of this approach, and how pollination can be a solution that works, alongside climate-resilient agricultural systems, to achieve long-term, ecologically and financially sustainable solutions," he concluded.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implementing-sustainable-practices">Implementing sustainable practices</h2>



Although the research emphasizes increased pollination and climate-resilient agriculture, the adoption of these practices on a large scale needs unified action by farmers, policy makers, and industry leaders.



The small-scale cocoa farmers, who are the backbone of the industry, do not have access to the resources and information for adopting these sustainable farming practices.



One of the most significant challenges is striking a balance between short-term economic pressures and long-term sustainability. 



Most farmers operate on limited finances, making it hard to invest in biodiversity-friendly methods or move away from chemical-based agriculture. 



Offering financial incentives, such as subsidies or premium pricing for sustainably grown cocoa, may help bridge this gap by encouraging farmers to adopt more eco-friendly practices.



Additionally, farmer training and education initiatives can enable producers to learn about the importance of pollinators and adopt practices that promote biodiversity.



Methods such as agroforestry - growing cocoa trees with other indigenous plants - can increase pollination rates while also providing additional sources of income.



Though demand stays strong, rising production expenses and uncertain supply may reshape chocolate prices for years to come.



However, by investing in sustainable solutions now, the cocoa sector can help ensure that generations to come can still enjoy chocolate while protecting the livelihoods of farmers and the ecosystems that support them.



---



This study was an international collaboration involving scientists from the University of Oxford, Westlake University in China, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz in Brazil, and the University of Göttingen in Germany



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/commsenv/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Earth &amp; Environment</a>.



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Chocolate and cocoa prices have doubled in the past year, here's why

Cocoa is the backbone of the $100 billion chocolate industry,...

Scientists are constantly searching for ways to improve crop yields, enhance food quality, and speed up plant breeding. Traditional methods take years, sometimes decades, to create new crop varieties with better genetic traits. 



However, researchers at the University of Queensland (<a href="https://www.uq.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UQ</a>) have introduced a remarkable technique that could change the future of agriculture.



For the first time, the experts have successfully delivered genetic material into plants through their roots. This approach, detailed in the journal Nature Plants, offers a faster and more efficient way to modify plants. 



By using nanoparticles to transport synthetic mRNA, the researchers have opened new possibilities for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dna-technology-will-accelerate-the-pace-of-plant-species-discovery/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">agricultural advancements</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nanoparticles-carry-genetic-material-in-plants">Nanoparticles carry genetic material in plants</h2>



Professor Bernard Carroll from UQ’s <a href="https://scmb.uq.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences</a> explained how this technology can help fine-tune plant genes. He highlighted the slow and expensive nature of traditional breeding and genetic modification methods.



"Traditional plant breeding and genetic modification take many generations to produce a new crop variety, which is time-consuming and expensive," said Professor Carroll.



The research team has developed a way to introduce nanoparticles into plant roots. These nanoparticles, initially created for vaccine and cancer treatment delivery in animals, have now been repurposed for plant genetic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-use-dna-duplication-to-increase-their-resilience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modification</a>. 



Professor Gordon Xu’s group at UQ developed these nanoparticles, which offer a promising method for introducing beneficial traits into plants.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-getting-past-tough-plant-cell-walls">Getting past tough plant cell walls</h2>



Unlike human or animal cells, plant cells have rigid walls that make genetic modifications challenging. The research team tackled this problem by coating the nanoparticles with a special protein. 



The protein softened the tough plant cell walls, allowing the nanoparticles to penetrate and deliver genetic material directly into the cells.



"The protein coating helped the nanoparticle break through the cell walls to deliver a synthetic mRNA cargo into plants for the first time," said Professor Carroll.



This technique allows scientists to introduce specific genetic instructions into plants. The mRNA molecules serve as messengers, guiding the plant cells to produce desired proteins. 



The researchers tested their method on multiple <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warming-climates-force-plants-to-compete-with-each-other/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant species</a>, including Arabidopsis, a model plant closely related to canola and cabbage.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-movement-of-genetic-material-within-plants">Movement of genetic material within plants</h2>



One of the most surprising findings of the study was how the nanoparticles moved within the plant. Instead of releasing their genetic cargo into a single cell, the nanoparticles traveled with water, spreading the mRNA throughout the plant.



"It was surprising that rather than delivering all of its load in the first cell it entered, the nanoparticle traveled with water through the plant distributing the mRNA as it went," said Professor Carroll.



The unexpected movement of nanoparticles opens exciting possibilities for plant genetic modification. If scientists can control and refine this process, they could develop <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-plant-can-cause-severe-burns-and-dna-damage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crops</a> with improved traits much more quickly than before.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-faster-alternative-to-traditional-breeding">Faster alternative to traditional breeding</h2>



The ability to modify plant genes quickly could revolutionize agriculture. Traditional breeding methods require years of careful crossbreeding to achieve desirable traits such as better flavor, increased yield, or improved resistance to pests. 



Genetic modification using conventional methods also involves long and complex processes.



"With further research, we could target an issue with a crop such as flavor or quality and have a new variety without the need for a decade of cross breeding or genetic modification," noted Professor Carroll.



This new nanoparticle-based technique provides a faster alternative. The mRNA delivered into the plant does not permanently alter the plant’s DNA. Instead, it temporarily instructs the plant to produce a beneficial protein and then degrades naturally.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-parallel-with-mrna-vaccines">A parallel with mRNA vaccines</h2>



The way this technology works is similar to mRNA vaccines in humans. Just as mRNA vaccines instruct human cells to produce a protein that stimulates the immune system before breaking down, the synthetic mRNA delivered into plants expresses a protein and then disappears.



"Similar to how an mRNA vaccine produces a protein to stimulate the immune system and then degrades away, the mRNA we deliver into plants is expressed transiently and then disappears," said Professor Carroll.



This characteristic makes the technique more adaptable and safer for rapid agricultural improvements. Scientists could use it to introduce temporary changes in plants without affecting their genetic makeup permanently.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-developing-plant-genetics-research">Developing plant genetics research</h2>



The potential applications of this technology extend beyond academic research. 



The University of Queensland has already patented the technique through its commercialization company, UniQuest. They are now looking for partners to help further develop and apply this technology in real-world agriculture.



The research team included experts such as Professor Zhi Pin (Gordon) Xu and Dr. Jiaxi Yong from UQ’s <a href="https://aibn.uq.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology</a> and the Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation.



The research could pave the way for faster and more precise <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-fern-contains-50-times-more-dna-than-humans/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">crop improvement</a> methods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-game-changer-for-agriculture">A game-changer for agriculture</h2>



The ability to modify plants more efficiently without lengthy breeding cycles or complex genetic modifications could transform food production. Farmers may soon have access to crops with better flavors, higher nutritional value, and greater resilience against environmental stresses.



As this technology advances, researchers will continue refining it to ensure its safety and effectiveness. The next step will be to scale up the process and explore its potential in various agricultural settings.



The discovery marks a new era in crop science, offering a promising path toward improving global food security. With further research and collaboration, this nanoparticle-based approach could redefine how we develop and enhance crops for future generations.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41477-024-01882-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Plants</a>.



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Nanoparticles unlock a new way to genetically modify plants

Scientists are constantly searching for ways to improve crop yields,...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
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On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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