The benefits of psilocybin-assisted therapy for major depression reportedly endures for years, if not forever. 



In a new analysis of people who took part in a 2020 psilocybin clinical trial, 67 percent were still in full remission from depression an average of five years later - up from 58 percent at the one-year mark.



Study lead author Alan Davis is an associate professor and director of the <a href="https://www.cpdre.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Psychedelic Drug Research and Education</a> at The Ohio State University.



“Across the board - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-microbes-have-an-unexpected-link-to-anxiety/">anxiety</a>, depression, global functioning, self-reported depression - we kept seeing the same signal of continued improvement," said Davis.



The follow-up results offer a rare long view of outcomes after psychedelic-assisted therapy, an area where long-term data are still sparse.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-psilocybin-the-basics">Understanding psilocybin - the basics</h2>



Psilocybin is a natural compound found in certain mushrooms, often called “magic mushrooms.” When you ingest psilocybin, your body quickly converts it into psilocin, the active form that interacts with your brain. 



Psilocin closely resembles <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-dopamine-and-serotonin-shape-behavior/">serotonin</a>, a key neurotransmitter, so it binds to serotonin receptors - especially the 5-HT2A receptor. 



This binding alters the way nerve cells communicate, which leads to changes in perception, mood, and thought patterns. 



From a scientific standpoint, psilocybin disrupts the brain’s usual patterns of activity and connectivity. 



Brain imaging studies show that it quiets the “default mode network,” a system linked to self-reflection and the inner voice we all carry. 



At the same time, it boosts communication between brain regions that don’t normally interact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-curing-depression-with-psilocybin">Curing depression with psilocybin</h2>



The peer-reviewed study, published in 2021, enrolled adults with major depressive disorder and compared two groups: one received psilocybin treatment immediately, and the other started after a wait-list period.



All the participants ultimately completed a standardized protocol: two dosing sessions with psilocybin paired with about 13 hours of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psychotherapy-is-key-to-the-success-of-psychedelic-treatment/">psychotherapy</a> (including preparation, support during sessions, and integration).



The initial results showed large reductions in depression severity, with half of participants in remission up to one year.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-patients-over-time">Tracking patients over time</h2>



Of the 24 people in the original trial, 18 took part in the five-year check-in. Online questionnaires were used to assess depression, anxiety, and functional impairment. 



The researchers also applied a clinician-rated depression scale and conducted qualitative interviews to capture changes the numbers might miss.



The team made a conservative assumption to avoid overstating success. They counted the six who did not return as having fully relapsed to pre-treatment levels.



Even under that assumption, depression scores remained “very large and significantly” reduced at five years, Davis noted, and the share of participants in complete remission nudged upward.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-than-psilocybin">More than psilocybin</h2>



The lasting gains cannot be chalked up solely to the two psilocybin sessions. Only three people reported no additional depression-related treatment in the years since. 



Others used antidepressant medications, tried <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ketamine-treatment-may-now-last-months-instead-of-weeks/">ketamine</a> or other psychedelics, or engaged in psychotherapy.



Interviews helped explain that context. Many participants described life with depression as profoundly constricted before the trial - too little energy, too little hope to engage. 



Afterward, several said their depression felt more situational and manageable. They reported a greater capacity for positive emotion and motivation, and a different relationship to low moods when they returned.



A few who experimented with psychedelics on their own found the experiences less helpful without a clinical framework. This underscores a theme from other work by Davis and colleagues: the therapeutic container matters.



A strong alliance with trained therapists, structured preparation, and integration support may play as big a role as the drug itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psilocybin-safety-over-time">Psilocybin safety over time</h2>



At the five-year mark, 11 of 18 participants reported no adverse effects since the trial. Looking back, three remembered feeling unprepared for the heightened emotional sensitivity that followed their dosing sessions. 



Two said tapering off <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cure-for-alcohol-addiction-was-discovered-by-accident/">medications</a> and waiting during the original trial was especially difficult, and two wished they’d had more formal integration therapy afterward.



The study is small, non-randomized at follow-up, and based on a motivated sample - limitations the authors emphasize.



With just 18 people contributing long-term data, it’s impossible to generalize broadly or disentangle psilocybin’s contribution from other treatments and life changes.



Larger, placebo-controlled trials with systematic follow-up will be needed to test durability, dosing strategies, and who benefits most.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psilocybin-depression-and-healthcare">Psilocybin, depression, and healthcare</h2>



Even with the study's limitations, the pattern is encouraging. Many participants maintained remission or continued to function better. 



Several described a shift that outlasted symptom scores - more engagement with family, work, and meaningful activities, and fewer episodes of withdrawal and isolation, which are among depression’s most disabling features.



“Five years later, most people continued to view this treatment as safe, meaningful, and important - something that catalyzed an ongoing betterment of their life,” Davis said.



“Despite some symptoms coming back, they weren’t experiencing the same levels of impairment - suggesting this approach might, for some, kick-start lasting positive change.”



The bottom line: psilocybin-assisted therapy remains experimental, and it’s not a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-gut-bacteria-morganella-morganii-could-cause-depression-not-a-brain-disorder/">depression</a> cure-all. But in this small cohort, the combination of guided psychedelic sessions and psychotherapy was associated with durable relief - and in many cases, a different relationship to depression - years down the road.



The study is published in the <a href="https://akjournals.com/view/journals/2054/aop/article-10.1556-2054.2025.00461/article-10.1556-2054.2025.00461.xml" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Psychedelic Studies</a>.



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Patients report no signs of depression five years after psilocybin treatment

The benefits of psilocybin-assisted therapy for major depression reportedly endures for years, if not forever. In a new analysis of people who took part in a 2020 psilocybin clinical trial, 67 percent were still in full remission from depression an average of five years later - up from 58 percent at the one-year mark. Study lead author Alan Davis is an associate professor and director of the Center for Psychedelic Drug Research and Education at The Ohio State University. “Across the board - anxiety, depression, global functioning,...

A recent study has revealed that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-psilocybin-mushrooms-got-their-magic/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">psilocybin</a>, the active psychedelic compound in “magic mushrooms,” induces a state of hyperconnectivity in the brain, linked to the ego-dissolving experiences and feelings of oceanic boundlessness. 



These findings, published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bpsc.2024.04.001" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging</a>, offer insights into the mystical experiences reported during psychedelic use and their potential therapeutic benefits for psychiatric disorders like depression.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psychedelic-state-of-oceanic-boundlessness">Psychedelic state of oceanic boundlessness </h2>



The term “oceanic boundlessness” describes a sense of unity, bliss, and spiritual experience often associated with psychedelics.&nbsp;



In one of the pioneering brain imaging studies in this field, researchers identified a specific connection between the psychedelic state and dynamic changes in whole-brain connectivity.&nbsp;



Previous research had already noted increased static global brain connectivity under psychedelics, but this study demonstrated that the hyperconnected state is dynamic and corresponds with the feeling of oceanic boundlessness, a key aspect of the psychedelic experience.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psychedelics-and-brain-activity-nbsp">Psychedelics and brain activity&nbsp;</h2>



Johannes G. Ramaekers, a professor of psychopharmacology and behavioral toxicology at <a href="https://www.maastrichtuniversity.nl/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Maastricht University</a>, is the study's lead investigator.



“Psilocybin has been one of the most studied psychedelics, possibly due to its potential contribution in treating different disorders, such as obsessive-compulsive disorder, death-related anxiety, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psilocybin-can-treat-depression-by-restructuring-the-brain/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">depression</a>, treatment-resistant depression, major depressive disorder, terminal cancer-associated anxiety, demoralization, smoking, and alcohol and tobacco addiction,” said Professor Ramaekers.



“What was not fully understood is what brain activity is associated with these profound experiences.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psilocybin-enhances-mental-perspectives">Psilocybin enhances mental perspectives </h2>



The analysis revealed that psilocybin causes significant changes in the brain and experiences. The brain's propensity to enter a hyperconnected-hyperarousal state under psilocybin suggests the potential for varied mental perspectives.&nbsp;



These findings shed light on the intricate relationship between brain dynamics and subjective experiences under psilocybin, offering valuable insights into the neurophysiology and experiential aspects of the psychedelic state.



“Taken together, averaged and dynamic connectivity analyses suggest that psilocybin alters brain function such that the overall neurobiological pattern becomes functionally more connected, more fluid, and less modular,” Ramaekers said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hyperconnected-brain-patterns">Hyperconnected brain patterns</h2>



The researchers analyzed functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data from two groups: 22 individuals who received psilocybin and 27 who received a placebo.&nbsp;



During the peak effects of the drug, those who took psilocybin reported significant phenomenological changes compared to the placebo group.&nbsp;



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/traffic-pollution-impairs-brain-network-connectivity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brain connectivity</a> analysis revealed a recurring pattern of global region-to-region connectivity in the psilocybin group, potentially explaining the diverse mental associations participants experienced.



This hyperconnected pattern was closely linked to feelings of oceanic boundlessness and unity, indicating a significant connection between brain dynamics and subjective experiences. 



The findings suggest that the ego-dissolving effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psilocybin-microdosing-may-improve-mental-health-by-boosting-stress-resilience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">psilocybin</a>, rather than its hallucinogenic properties, are more strongly correlated with this hyperconnected brain state.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ego-modifying-effects-of-psychedelics-nbsp">Ego-modifying effects of psychedelics&nbsp;</h2>



“Psychedelic drugs like psilocybin are often referred to as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hallucinogen-use-is-on-the-rise-among-young-adults/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hallucinogens</a> both scientifically and colloquially. As such, we expected that the hallucinatory dimensions of experience would correlate the highest with psilocybin’s hyperconnected pattern,” explained co-author Larry Fort, a PhD student at the <a href="https://www.uliege.be/cms/c_8699436/en/uliege" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Liège</a>.



“However, hallucinatory experience had a strong, but weaker correlation with this pattern than ego-modifying experiences. This led us to formulate the term ‘egotropic’ to draw attention to these ego-modifying effects as important, perhaps even more so than their hallucinogenic counterparts.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-investigating-the-therapeutic-effects-of-psychedelics-nbsp">Investigating the therapeutic effects of psychedelics&nbsp;</h2>



Cameron S. Carter is the Editor-in-Chief of Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging and a neuroscientist at the <a href="https://www.uci.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California Irvine</a>. 



“This study uses readily available resting state fMRI images acquired after psilocybin ingestion to provide new insights into the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying the subjective and clinical effects of the drug,” noted Carter.



“It sets the stage for future studies using other psychedelic agents to examine whether the dynamic connectivity effects reflect a general mechanism for the therapeutic effects of these compounds.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-producing-the-best-clinical-outcomes-nbsp">Producing the best clinical outcomes&nbsp;</h2>



“We were pleasantly surprised to learn that the brain pattern of hyperconnected regions was further characterized by lower global signal amplitude, which works as a proxy to heightened cortical arousal,” said study senior author Athena Demertzi, an expert in cognitive neuroscience at the University of Liège.



“So far, this is the first time that such approximation of arousal levels using fMRI was attempted in psychedelic research. This might be an important correlation as we move towards a full characterization of brain states under psychedelics.”



“Given the resurgence in research regarding the psychotherapeutic applications of psychedelic drugs, our results are pertinent to understanding how subjective experience under psychedelics influences beneficial clinical outcomes.”&nbsp;



“Is the effect driven by ego-dissolution? By hallucinations? As such, our work exemplifies how the strong inter-relatedness between egotropic effects of moderate dose psilocybin and its hyperconnected brain pattern can inform clinical focus on specific aspects of phenomenology, such as ego-dissolutions.”&nbsp;



“With this information, healthcare professionals may learn how to best engineer psychedelic therapy sessions to produce the best clinical outcomes.”



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Psychedelic drug induces feelings of "oceanic boundlessness"

A recent study has revealed that psilocybin, the active psychedelic...

Ever wondered why your morning cup is non-negotiable,&nbsp;while others can easily skip it?&nbsp;Or maybe you've pondered the endless debate:&nbsp;is coffee a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/molecule-in-coffee-trigonelline-keeps-muscles-young/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health hero</a> or villain?&nbsp;Recent research suggests the answer to both questions might be entwined with your genes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coffee-in-daily-lives">Coffee in daily lives</h2>



Coffee,&nbsp;a beloved beverage enjoyed worldwide,&nbsp;is made from the roasted seeds of the Coffea plant.&nbsp;Originating in Ethiopia,&nbsp;coffee beans are now <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coffee-plants-fight-climate-change-with-a-genetic-weapon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cultivated</a> in various regions across the globe,&nbsp;with popular varieties like Arabica and Robusta offering distinct flavors and aromas.



Coffee plays a significant role in many people's lives,&nbsp;serving as a morning ritual,&nbsp;a social catalyst,&nbsp;and a source of energy due to its caffeine content.



Whether enjoyed black,&nbsp;with cream and sugar,&nbsp;or in elaborate specialty <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dedicated-coffee-drinkers-have-lower-blood-pressure/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">drinks</a>,&nbsp;coffee holds a special place in cultures around the world,&nbsp;fostering connection and providing a much-needed boost to start the day or overcome afternoon slumps.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coffee-craving-genes">Coffee craving genes</h2>



The factors influencing an individual's coffee consumption extend beyond personal taste preferences or a desire for caffeine.&nbsp;Emerging research suggests that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coffee-genome-adapted-to-climate-changes-over-millennia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic predispositions</a> play a significant role in shaping coffee habits.&nbsp;



This means that an individual's inclination towards specific types of coffee,&nbsp;such as a double espresso or black coffee,&nbsp;could be partly influenced by their inherited genetic traits.&nbsp;



These findings challenge the conventional understanding of coffee consumption as solely a matter of choice,&nbsp;suggesting a deeper biological basis for this widespread habit.



This fascinating revelation comes from a recent study published in&nbsp;Neuropsychopharmacology,&nbsp;where researchers delved into massive databases from 23andMe and the UK Biobank.&nbsp;They sought to unravel the link between our genes and our caffeine cravings.



"We had good reason to suspect from earlier papers that there were genes that influence how much coffee someone consumes," noted Dr. Abraham Palmer,&nbsp;a professor at <a href="https://medschool.ucsd.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC San Diego School of Medicine</a> and a lead researcher on the study.



"In other words, the particular gene variants that you inherit from your parents influence how much coffee you're likely to consume."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coffee-consumption-beyond-genes">Coffee consumption beyond genes</h2>



The research expanded beyond the genetic influences on coffee consumption to explore the broader question of coffee's impact on health.&nbsp;This involved investigating whether coffee consumption is associated with positive or negative health outcomes.&nbsp;



This added layer of inquiry aimed to address the ongoing debate about the potential benefits and risks of coffee consumption,&nbsp;providing a more comprehensive understanding of its role in overall well-being.



“The second is something that coffee lovers are really keen on learning," said Dr. Sandra Sanchez-Roige. "Is drinking coffee good or bad? Is it associated with positive health outcomes or not?” 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coffee-genes-and-risks">Coffee genes and risks</h2>



The study's findings regarding coffee's impact on health were multifaceted and surprising.&nbsp;Initial analysis revealed consistent positive genetic associations between coffee and harmful health outcomes, such as obesity and substance use.&nbsp;



The research yielded potentially positive outcomes concerning psychiatric conditions like anxiety, depression,&nbsp;and bipolar disorder.&nbsp;However, the results were complex and varied across the different datasets used in the study. 



The findings suggest a more nuanced relationship between coffee consumption and mental health than previously understood.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surveys-on-coffee-consumption">Surveys on coffee consumption</h2>



So,&nbsp;what explains these puzzling differences?&nbsp;The researchers suspect it might have to do with how the surveys about coffee consumption were conducted.&nbsp;The questions asked in the 23andMe and UK Biobank surveys differed,&nbsp;potentially influencing the results.



"We know that in the U.K., they have generally higher preference for instant coffee, whereas ground coffee is more preferred in the U.S," noted Dr. Hayley H.A. Thorpe,&nbsp;the lead author of the study.



Beyond just the type of coffee,&nbsp;the surveys didn't account for how coffee is prepared or consumed,&nbsp;leading to a potential mismatch in data.&nbsp;Plus,&nbsp;other caffeinated drinks like tea weren't considered,&nbsp;potentially skewing the results,&nbsp;especially for the UK population.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-environment-and-a-cup-of-coffee">Genes, environment, and a cup of coffee</h2>



So,&nbsp;what's the final verdict?&nbsp;As with many things in science,&nbsp;it's not a simple answer.&nbsp;The research highlights a complex interplay between genetics and the environment when it comes to our coffee habits and their potential health impacts.



"Unlike height, where your behavior doesn't really have much to do with it, your behavior and the choices you're making in your environment play out in various ways. So the interaction between genotype and environment complicates the picture," said Dr. Sanchez-Roige.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-coffee-research">Future of coffee research</h2>



This study serves as a reminder that the relationship between our genes and our daily choices is a captivating puzzle.&nbsp;It also underscores the importance of considering cultural and environmental factors when studying health and behavior.



So,&nbsp;the next time you reach for your favorite mug,&nbsp;remember:&nbsp;your genes might be playing a part in that craving.&nbsp;



And whether coffee is a health boon or bane?&nbsp;The answer might be as unique as your genes and the way you take your coffee.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tips-for-coffee-consumers">Tips for coffee consumers</h2>



Regular coffee consumers must keep the following in mind:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-don-t-fight-your-genes">Don't fight your genes</h3>



If you have a strong craving for coffee,&nbsp;it might be partly due to your genetic makeup.&nbsp;Don't feel guilty about enjoying your daily cup(s) in moderation.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-consider-your-mental-health">Consider your mental health</h3>



If you have a history of anxiety,&nbsp;depression,&nbsp;or bipolar disorder,&nbsp;it might be wise to monitor your coffee intake and observe how it affects you.&nbsp;



While the research is mixed,&nbsp;some studies suggest a potential link between coffee consumption and these conditions.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-quality-over-quantity-nbsp">Quality over quantity&nbsp;</h3>



Focus on enjoying high-quality coffee rather than consuming large amounts.&nbsp;The study didn't distinguish between different types of coffee,&nbsp;but opting for freshly ground beans and avoiding sugary additives might be a healthier choice.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-listen-to-your-body">Listen to your body</h3>



Pay attention to how coffee makes you feel.&nbsp;If you experience negative side effects like jitters, anxiety,&nbsp;or sleep disturbances,&nbsp;it might be a sign to cut back.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-variety-is-key">Variety is key</h3>



Explore different types of coffee, preparation methods, and even other caffeinated beverages like tea. This can help you discover what works best for your body and preferences.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41386-024-01870-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neuropsychopharmacology</a>.



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Is coffee good for you? It may depend on your genes

Ever wondered why your morning cup is non-negotiable,&nbsp;while others can...

Urban life seems to provide an ideal environment for plant diseases like powdery mildew. This particular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungal-disease-threatens-banana-production-in-africa/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fungal disease</a> affects many plants, including garden vegetables and roadside weeds.



A recent study has shed light on this phenomenon, uncovering patterns that could help us understand why this disease is more prevalent in cities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-patterns-of-plant-disease-in-the-city">Patterns of plant disease in the city</h2>



The research, led by Professor Rachel Penczykowski of <a href="https://wustl.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Washington University in St. Louis</a>, tracked powdery mildew infestations on common broadleaf weeds. The analysis included 22 sites in the St. Louis area, ranging from the rural Shaw Nature Reserve to Forest Park in the heart of the city. 



The researchers discovered a surprising trend: city weeds had significantly more mildew than those in the suburbs or countryside. “Now we need to figure out what’s driving those patterns,” said Penczykowski.



While the specific fungus studied is harmless to other plants or animals, different species of powdery mildew pose significant threats to vegetable gardens, flowers, and vineyards. “It’s a big concern in different agricultural industries,” noted Quinn Fox, a recent PhD graduate and the study’s lead author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shade-and-mildew-growth">Shade and mildew growth</h2>



At any given location, mildew thrived in shaded areas provided by trees or buildings. This was confirmed by experiments at an environmental field station, where potted plants in the shade of solar array panels had more mildew than those in full sun.



However, this finding led to a larger question: if mildew prefers shade, why is it so common in sunny urban areas? “That’s the paradox,” noted Penczykowski.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urban-heat-and-mildew-spread">Urban heat and mildew spread</h2>



The heat of city life might be a double-edged sword for mildew. Urban areas, including St. Louis, are warmer due to the “urban heat island” effect, where pavement, buildings, and other structures absorb and retain heat.



While extreme <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/record-breaking-heat-is-threatening-wheat-and-the-global-food-supply/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">summer heat</a> can be deadly to powdery mildew, the additional warmth may help spores grow faster in the spring.



Additionally, human activities and vehicles may facilitate the spread of spores along busy city roads and between parks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-shade-in-plant-diseases">The role of shade in plant diseases </h2>



In follow-up studies, the research team sowed seeds from various locations in a greenhouse and transplanted them into gardens across the St. Louis region. 



Each garden was divided into full sun and shade treatments, with plants and temperatures monitored over a year. 



The preliminary results suggest that while extra heat is generally detrimental to mildew growth, small patches of shade can still promote infestations, even in hot urban environments.



“We’re starting to understand how heat and other aspects of human activity can change the dynamics of disease in plants,” said Fox.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urban-agriculture-risks">Urban agriculture risks</h2>



St. Louis has a vibrant urban agriculture scene, with numerous backyard and community gardens. However, little research has been done to understand the specific risks of plant diseases to urban agriculture. 



“There are a lot of backyard gardens and community gardens. But very little work has been done on understanding the particular risks of plant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-technology-can-detect-plant-diseases-from-above/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diseases</a> to agriculture in cities,” noted Penczykowski.



This study highlights the need for further research into how city environments affect plant diseases, which could lead to better management practices and healthier urban gardens.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-global-warming-and-plant-diseases-nbsp">Global warming and plant diseases&nbsp;</h2>



Global warming, characterized by the increase in Earth's average surface temperature due to rising levels of greenhouse gases, has significant impacts on plant diseases.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distribution-nbsp-of-plant-diseases">Distribution&nbsp;of plant diseases </h3>



As temperatures rise, the distribution of many plant pathogens is altered. Diseases that were once confined to tropical and subtropical regions are now appearing in temperate zones, broadening the range of affected crops and ecosystems.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-favorable-conditions-nbsp">Favorable conditions&nbsp;</h3>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bacterial-disease-that-devours-olive-trees-is-thriving-in-a-warmer-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Higher temperatures</a> and changes in precipitation patterns create more favorable conditions for certain pathogens, leading to more severe outbreaks of diseases like rusts, blights, and mildews.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-cycles">Life cycles</h3>



Warmer climates can speed up the life cycles of pathogens, increasing the number of infection cycles per growing season, which can result in more rapid spread and greater severity of plant diseases.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-stress">Heat stress</h3>



Heat stress and drought conditions, which are becoming more common due to global warming, weaken plants and make them more susceptible to infections.&nbsp;Stressed plants are less capable of mounting effective defenses against pathogens.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pests-nbsp">Pests&nbsp;</h3>



Additionally, global warming affects interactions between plants and pests, which often serve as vectors for diseases. For instance, increased temperatures can lead to higher populations of aphids, which transmit plant viruses.



Examples of these changes include the spread of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coffee-plants-fight-climate-change-with-a-genetic-weapon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">coffee rust</a>, caused by the fungus Hemileia vastatrix, which has become more prevalent in higher altitudes of coffee-growing regions due to warmer temperatures.



These shifts highlight the interconnectedness of climate change and agricultural health, emphasizing the need for adaptive management strategies to protect crops and ensure food security.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ecy.4313" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ecology</a>.



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Plant diseases flourish in city landscapes

Urban life seems to provide an ideal environment for plant...

Snow leopards, those majestic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/south-africas-leopards-have-the-highest-genetic-diversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">creatures</a> of the snow-capped peaks, are renowned for their stealthy hunting skills and carnivorous diet. But what if these apex predators have a secret - a surprising preference for plants?



A fascinating study from <a href="https://www.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kyoto University</a> has uncovered this unexpected behavior, showing that these elusive cats are not strictly meat-eaters. 



By analyzing the DNA present in their feces, researchers have found that snow leopards consume a significant amount of plants, particularly a species called Myricaria, both in the wild and in captivity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-feces-of-plant-eating-snow-leopards">Feces of plant-eating snow leopards</h2>



This revelation may surprise many, as felids (the family that includes cats) are traditionally classified as carnivores, with bodies adapted to a meat-based diet. 



Yet, the Kyoto University team found Myricaria DNA in 90 fecal samples collected from wild snow <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/international-clouded-leopard-day-the-fight-to-protect-an-elusive-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">leopards</a> in the Kyrgyz Republic. Interestingly, the plant was most frequently found in samples with little or no trace of prey animal DNA.



"Given that felids are essentially <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-carnivores-need-protection-to-avoid-extinction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carnivores</a>, we were surprised to see a higher frequency of Myricaria in samples with little or no trace of prey animal DNA, suggesting that the plant is consumed by snow leopards when they are hungry," explained Kodzue Kinoshita, the team leader from KyotoU's <a href="https://www.kyoto-u.ac.jp/en/research/fields/graduate-schools/graduate-school-of-asian-and-african-area-studies-asafas" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Graduate School of Asian and African Area Studies</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-do-snow-leopards-eat-plants">Why do snow leopards eat plants?</h2>



The discovery of snow leopards consuming plants raises intriguing questions about the motivations behind this behavior. Researchers are actively investigating several potential explanations.



One hypothesis suggests that plants may serve as a supplemental source of nutrients or hydration, especially in environments where prey is scarce or during periods of physiological stress. 



Another possibility is that certain plants could possess medicinal properties, aiding snow leopards in self-medicating against parasites or other ailments. Additionally, plant consumption might contribute to digestive health by providing fiber or aiding in the elimination of hairballs.



While each of these hypotheses presents a plausible explanation, further research is necessary to determine the precise reasons why snow leopards incorporate plants into their diet. 



By shedding light on this unexpected behavior, the study has paved the way for future investigations that could unlock the secrets behind this fascinating dietary adaptation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-snow-leopard-research">Snow leopard research</h2>



In addition to analyzing snow leopard feces, the research team expanded their study to include 36 fecal samples from other mammals inhabiting the same alpine environment. 



This marked the first instance of such a comprehensive approach to examining the relationship between prey animals and plant consumption in felid diets. 



By comparing data across different species, researchers can gain a broader understanding of dietary patterns and ecological interactions within this specific ecosystem. Prior research has documented the presence of plants in the feces of 24 out of 41 extant felid species. 



However, these previous studies lacked the depth to definitively conclude whether the consumption of specific plants, like Myricaria, is a behavior that is unique to snow leopards or simply a more common occurrence than previously understood.



The current study aims to address this knowledge gap by providing a more extensive analysis of plant consumption across various felid species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-study-implications">Study implications</h2>



The findings of this study are not just interesting tidbits for animal enthusiasts. They have important implications for the conservation of snow leopards, a species listed as <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/endangered-species/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vulnerable</a> on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (<a href="https://www.iucn.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IUCN</a>) Red List. Understanding their dietary habits could lead to improved captive environments and more suitable conservation plans.



"Through our innovative research, we anticipate providing insight into improved captive environments and more suitable conservation plans for the snow leopard," said Kinoshita.



The snow leopard's unexpected plant-eating habit serves as a reminder of the complexities of nature and the need for continued research. 



As we delve deeper into the mysteries of the animal kingdom, we uncover surprising behaviors that challenge our understanding and open up new possibilities for conservation.



While the snow leopard's penchant for Myricaria may remain an enigma for now, this study is a step towards unraveling the dietary secrets of these elusive creatures. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.240132" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



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Snow leopards: The carnivores that eat plants

Snow leopards, those majestic creatures of the snow-capped peaks, are...

Babies are those adorable little bundles of joy that fill our lives with giggles, cuddles, and the occasional diaper explosion. But did you know that the baby formula or breast milk they eat in their early months could shape their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/visual-diets-of-infants-provide-the-building-blocks-of-human-vision/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">health</a> for years to come?



Scientists from <a href="https://www.berkeley.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Berkeley</a> are making exciting strides in ensuring all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/five-scientifically-proven-steps-for-thriving-infant-development/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">babies</a> get the best nutrition possible through options such as baby formula, even if they aren't exclusively breastfed.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breast-milk-vs-formula-for-babies">Breast milk vs. formula for babies</h2>



Breast milk, nature's own superfood for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microbes-in-an-infant-gut-have-their-unique-circadian-rhythms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">babies</a>, is packed with a unique blend of around 200 prebiotic sugar molecules. 



These sugars aren't just for sweetness; they play a crucial role in preventing disease and nurturing the growth of beneficial gut bacteria in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cannabis-and-nicotine-use-during-pregnancy-linked-to-infant-mortality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infants</a>.



But here's the catch: replicating this complex cocktail of sugars in commercial infant formula has been a challenge. 



While formula provides essential nutrients, it hasn't been able to match the full nutritional punch of breast milk. This is where the exciting world of plant engineering comes in.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-power-of-plants-in-baby-formula">Power of plants in baby formula</h2>



Plants are like nature's very own sugar factories. They harness sunlight and carbon dioxide to produce a vast array of sugars, both simple and complex. 



So, a team of brilliant scientists thought, "Why not reprogram these sugar-making machines to produce the same sugars found in human breast milk?"



And that's precisely what they did.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-engineering-the-baby-formula-solution">Engineering the baby formula solution</h2>



In a recent study, researchers genetically modified plants to create human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs), the special sugars found in breast milk. 



The scientists tweaked the plants' genes to produce the enzymes responsible for creating the specific linkages that make HMOs unique.



The result? Genetically modified Nicotiana benthamiana plants, close relatives of tobacco, started churning out 11 known HMOs along with a variety of other complex sugars similar to those found in breast milk.



"We made all three major groups of human milk oligosaccharides. To my knowledge, no one has ever demonstrated that you could make all three of these groups simultaneously in a single organism," explains Patrick Shih, the study's senior author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-boon-for-babies-and-beyond">Boon for babies and beyond</h2>



This breakthrough isn't just about baby formula. The implications are far-reaching. Imagine healthier, more affordable formula for babies worldwide, or nutrient-packed non-dairy plant milk for adults. The possibilities are truly exciting.



Collin Barnum, the study's first author, emphasizes the significance of producing a specific HMO called LNFP1. 



"LNFP1 is a five-monosaccharide-long human milk oligosaccharide that is supposed to be really beneficial, but so far cannot be made at scale using traditional methods of microbial fermentation," Barnum notes.



"We thought that if we could start making these larger, more complex human milk oligosaccharides, we could solve a problem that that industry currently can’t solve."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-plants-to-plates">From plants to plates</h2>



Although engineered <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/keeping-leafy-green-vegetables-safe-until-ready-to-eat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">E. coli bacteria</a> have been utilized to produce certain HMOs, the extraction and purification process is complex and costly.



This is due to the bacteria producing not only the desired HMOs but also potentially harmful byproducts. Separating these byproducts from the HMOs requires intricate procedures, increasing production expenses.



In contrast, plant-based production systems offer a potentially more efficient and cost-effective approach. By utilizing plants as biofactories for HMOs, the purification process may be simpler, as plants typically do not generate the same toxic byproducts as bacteria. 



This could streamline the extraction of HMOs, reducing costs associated with purification and making them more accessible for wider use.



"Imagine being able to make all the human milk oligosaccharides in a single plant. Then you could just grind up that plant, extract all the oligosaccharides simultaneously and add that directly into infant formula," notes Shih.



Of course, there are challenges to overcome before this becomes a reality, but the potential benefits are undeniable.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sweet-future-ahead-for-nutrition">Sweet future ahead for nutrition</h2>



The science of engineering plants to produce human milk sugars is still in its early stages, but the progress made so far is nothing short of remarkable. 



It's a testament to human ingenuity and our unwavering commitment to providing the best possible start for our little ones.



So, the next time you see a baby formula aisle, remember that the future of infant nutrition might just be growing in a field, not fermenting in a lab. And that's a sweet thought indeed.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s43016-024-00996-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Food</a>.



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Engineered plants make baby formula as healthy as breast milk

Babies are those adorable little bundles of joy that fill...

A common type of ocean algae plays a significant role in producing a compound that helps cool the Earth’s climate, according to new research. This discovery could reshape our understanding of how these tiny marine organisms impact our planet.



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uea.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of East Anglia</a> (UEA) and Ocean University of China (OUC) have identified the bloom-forming Pelagophyceae algae as major producers of dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP).



"The Pelagophyceae are amongst the most abundant algae on Earth, yet they were not previously known as important producers of DMSP," said Professor Jonathan Todd from UEA’s School of Biological Sciences.



"This discovery is exciting because DMSP is an abundant antistress compound, food source for other microorganisms, and major source of climate-cooling gases."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-dmsp-in-climate-regulation">The role of DMSP in climate regulation</h2>



DMSP is produced in massive quantities by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-microbes-can-tell-us-about-global-changes-in-the-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine microorganisms</a>. It helps these organisms survive by protecting against stresses such as changes in salinity, cold, high pressure, and oxidative stress.



Importantly, DMSP is the main source of dimethylsulfide (DMS), a climate-active gas known for its distinctive seaside smell.



"When DMS is released into the atmosphere, its oxidation products help form clouds that reflect sunlight away from the Earth, effectively cooling the planet," explained study first author Dr. Jinyan Wang.



This natural process is vital for regulating the Earth’s climate and plays a key role in the global sulfur cycle by returning sulfur from the oceans to the land.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-earth-s-climate-microbes-and-algae">Earth’s climate: Microbes and algae</h2>



The study suggests that DMSP production, and consequently DMS release, is likely higher than previously estimated. This underscores the crucial role microbes play in regulating the global climate. DMS also acts as a signaling molecule, guiding <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/largest-ever-ocean-dna-study-uncovers-mysteries-of-marine-life/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine organisms</a> to their food and deterring predators.



Professor Xiao-Hua Zhang from OUC’s College of Marine Life Science emphasized the broader implications of the research.



"By identifying the enzymes involved in DMSP production, scientists can better understand and predict the behavior of these ecosystem-disruptive, brown-tide-forming algae and their impact on global climate change," noted Professor Zhang.



"This study has also raised questions about other unidentified enzymes or entirely different pathways for making DMSP that are currently unknown."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-earth-centric-research">Importance of Earth-centric research</h2>



The researchers highlight the need for further study of Pelagophyceae algae in their natural environment. 



More detailed studies on other marine organisms - as well as better measurements of environmental DMSP levels and the abundance of enzymes involved in making DMSP - are all critical for advancing this field.



This study not only enhances our understanding of Earth's climate regulation processes but also opens up new avenues for research into the role of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-organisms-are-a-rich-source-of-natural-products/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine microorganisms</a> in climate dynamics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-pelagophyceae">More about Pelagophyceae</h2>



Pelagophyceae is a class of algae that belongs to the division Ochrophyta, which is part of the broader group of chromalveolates. 



These algae are primarily marine and are found in various ocean environments. They are notable for their small size and unicellular nature, often existing as free-floating cells in plankton.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-role">Ecological role</h3>



Pelagophyceae are significant contributors to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-impacting-marine-life-more-than-we-realized/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">marine ecosystems</a>, playing a crucial role in primary production and serving as a food source for various marine organisms. 



They possess chlorophylls a and c, along with fucoxanthin, which gives them a characteristic golden-brown color.



 This pigmentation is essential for their photosynthetic processes, allowing them to efficiently absorb light energy in the ocean's varying light conditions.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brown-tides">Brown tides</h3>



One of the well-known types of ocean algae within Pelagophyceae is Aureococcus, which has been associated with harmful algal blooms known as "brown tides."



These blooms can have detrimental effects on marine life, including fish and shellfish, by depleting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/good-news-ocean-oxygen-loss-may-ultimately-reverse/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">oxygen levels</a> in the water and releasing toxins.



Research into Pelagophyceae has been ongoing to better understand their potential impacts on marine environments, especially in the context of climate change and ocean health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-ocean-and-climate-connection">The ocean and climate connection</h2>



The relationship between the ocean and climate is integral and complex, with the two systems deeply interconnected. The ocean acts as a massive heat reservoir, absorbing solar energy and redistributing it around the globe through currents. This heat distribution plays a crucial role in regulating global climate patterns.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-currents">Ocean currents</h3>



One of the primary mechanisms through which the ocean influences climate is the movement of ocean currents. These currents transport warm water from the equator toward the poles and cold water from the poles back toward the equator, balancing temperature differences across the planet. 



For instance, the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic Ocean carries warm water northward, contributing to milder climates in Western Europe.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-atmosphere-and-weather-patterns">Atmosphere and weather patterns </h3>



The ocean also interacts with the atmosphere, exchanging heat, moisture, and gases. This interaction drives weather systems and influences climatic conditions. 



For example, El Niño and La Niña phenomena, which are characterized by periodic changes in sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern Pacific Ocean, have widespread effects on weather patterns, causing variations in precipitation and temperature globally.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41564-024-01715-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Microbiology</a>.



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Ocean algae play an unexpected role in cooling the Earth

A common type of ocean algae plays a significant role...

<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-smell-attacker-approaching/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Goldenrod</a> can detect nearby plants by sensing far-red light ratios reflected off leaves, allowing it to adapt its responses to herbivores based on its surroundings. According to a new study led by <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell University</a>, this adaptability might indicate plant intelligence, if intelligence is defined as solving problems based on environmental information. 



Goldenrod, for example, emits chemicals to repel pests and signals neighboring plants to activate their defenses. Thus, plants may function as superorganisms, with each cell contributing to overall intelligence without central coordination.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-information-processing-among-intelligent-plants-nbsp">Information processing among intelligent plants&nbsp;</h2>



“There are more than 70 definitions that are published for intelligence and there is no agreement on what it is, even within a given field,” said lead author Andre Kessler, a chemical ecologist at Cornell.&nbsp;&nbsp;



Many people think intelligence needs a central nervous system that uses electrical signals to process information. Some plant biologists liken plant vascular systems to central nervous systems, suggesting plants have a centralized entity for information processing and response. However, Kessler disagrees with this notion.



“There is no good evidence for any of the homologies with the nervous system, even though we clearly see electrical signaling in plants, but the question is how important is that signaling for a plant’s ability to process environmental cues?” he said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-can-change-their-own-behavior-nbsp">Plants can change their own behavior&nbsp;</h2>



To argue for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-intelligence/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant intelligence</a>, Kessler and his doctoral student Michael Mueller defined it simply as “the ability to solve problems, based on the information that you get from the environment, toward a particular goal.”



Kessler’s earlier research demonstrated that goldenrod emits volatile organic compounds (VOCs) to signal neighboring plants when attacked by herbivores, prompting them to produce their own defenses. This response changes depending on the presence of nearby plants, indicating that goldenrod adapts its behavior based on environmental cues.&nbsp;



“Depending on the information it receives from the environment, the plant changes its standard behavior,” Kessler explained. This ability to predict the future presence of herbivores and act accordingly is a key aspect of what the authors describe as plant intelligence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decentralized-model-of-plant-intelligence-nbsp">Decentralized model of plant intelligence&nbsp;</h2>



Furthermore, Kessler is intrigued by the idea proposed by mathematicians in the 1920s, suggesting plants function more like beehives, where each cell operates independently but contributes to a collective response. “The brain in the plant is the entire plant without the need of central coordination,” he said.&nbsp;



Plants use chemical signaling, rather than electrical, to communicate and trigger collective responses. This decentralized model of intelligence emphasizes the sophisticated sensory capabilities of individual plant cells, which can detect specific volatile compounds and light spectra to coordinate their behavior.



According to the experts, considering plants as intelligent entities can generate new hypotheses about their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-disrupts-communication-among-animals/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">chemical communication</a> mechanisms and broaden our understanding of intelligence itself. This perspective is particularly relevant in the context of artificial intelligence, as it challenges traditional notions of problem-solving and goal-oriented behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-plants-intelligent">What makes plants intelligent?</h2>



The concept of plant intelligence revolves around the idea that plants exhibit complex behaviors and responses to their environment that resemble intelligent actions. Here are several factors that contribute to this notion:



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-communication-nbsp">Communication&nbsp;</h3>



Plants can communicate with each other through chemical signals. For example, when a plant is attacked by herbivores, it can release chemicals that warn nearby plants of the danger, prompting them to produce <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-reprogram-their-cells-to-fight-pathogens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">defensive compounds</a>.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-memory">Memory</h3>



Some plants have been shown to remember and learn from past experiences. For instance, the Mimosa pudica plant, known for its rapid leaf folding response to touch, can learn to ignore harmless stimuli over time.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-problem-solving-nbsp">Problem-solving&nbsp;</h3>



Plants can adapt to changing conditions and optimize resource use. Their roots can navigate through the soil to find water and nutrients, and they can adjust their growth patterns to maximize light exposure.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sensing-and-responding">Sensing and responding</h3>



Plants have sophisticated <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-can-sense-when-something-touches-them-despite-not-having-nerves/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">sensory systems</a> that detect changes in their environment, such as light, gravity, water, and chemical signals. They can then alter their growth and development in response to these stimuli.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-symbiotic-relationships-nbsp">Symbiotic relationships&nbsp;</h3>



Plants engage in mutually beneficial relationships with other organisms, such as mycorrhizal fungi, which help them absorb nutrients, or nitrogen-fixing bacteria in their roots.



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-behavior">Complex behavior</h3>



Plants exhibit behaviors that can be considered complex, such as opening and closing flowers, orienting leaves and stems toward light, and even moving leaves to capture insects in carnivorous plants.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15592324.2024.2345985" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plant Signaling &amp; Behavior</a>.



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Plants are intelligent problem solvers that know how to adapt

Goldenrod can detect nearby plants by sensing far-red light ratios...

As <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-food-system-must-change-if-nations-hope-to-reduce-greenhouse-gas-emissions/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global food demands</a> continue to rise, technology is becoming increasingly essential in the integration of advanced strategies into farming. A recent review paper from <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UC Riverside</a> underscores the transformative potential of nanotechnology in agriculture.



Already pivotal in medical applications for targeted drug delivery, nanotechnology could similarly revolutionize agricultural practices by precisely delivering agrochemicals to plants.



"Nanocarriers (NCs) that can precisely deliver active agents, nutrients and genetic materials into plants will make crop agriculture more resilient to climate change and sustainable," wrote the study authors.



"As a research field, nano-agriculture is still developing, with significant scientific and societal barriers to overcome."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-nanotechnology">Understanding nanotechnology</h2>



Nanotechnology involves manipulating materials on an atomic or molecular scale. To put its scale into perspective, a nanometer is one billionth of a meter - roughly 100,000 times smaller than a human hair.



This precision allows for the targeted delivery of compounds in medicine, yet its application in agriculture remains largely untapped.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-urgent-need-for-efficient-farming">The urgent need for efficient farming</h2>



Juan Pablo Giraldo, an associate professor at UC Riverside involved in the research, highlighted the inefficiencies in current agricultural methods.



“There are studies predicting we will need to increase food production by up to 60% in 2050 relative to 2020 levels. Right now, we are trying to do that through inefficient agrochemical delivery,” said Professor Giraldo.



“Half of all the fertilizer applied on farms is lost in the environment and pollutes the groundwater. In the case of commonly used pesticides, it’s even worse. Only 5% reach their intended targets. The rest ends up contaminating the environment. There is a lot of room for improvement."



With the need to boost <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-production-more-difficult-climate-change-plant-pollinators/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">food production</a> by up to 60% by 2050, the existing approach is unsustainable. It not only wastes resources but also exacerbates environmental pollution and contributes significantly to global greenhouse gas emissions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-innovative-solutions-from-nanomedicine">Innovative solutions from nanomedicine</h2>



The experts detailed several strategies from nanomedicine that could be adapted for agriculture. One such approach involves coating nanomaterials with sugars or peptides that target specific proteins on plant cells, directing agrochemicals precisely where they are needed, such as the plant vasculature or sites of pathogen <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-technology-can-detect-plant-diseases-from-above/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">infection</a>.



“We are pioneering targeted delivery technologies based on coating nanomaterials with sugars or peptides that recognize specific proteins on plant cells and organelles,” Giraldo said. 



“This allows us to take the existing molecular machinery of the plant and guide desired chemicals to where the plant needs it, for example the plant vasculature, organelles, or sites of plant pathogen infections.”



This method promises to enhance plant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/project-aims-to-improve-plant-growth-and-resilience/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">resilience</a> against diseases and adverse environmental conditions like extreme heat or high soil salinity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-role-of-ai-in-agriculture">The role of AI in agriculture</h2>



The review also explores the use of artificial intelligence and machine learning to create computational models of plants, akin to "digital twins" used in medical research.



The models can simulate how nutrients and chemicals move within a plant, enabling the design of nanocarrier molecules that deliver these substances efficiently.



Professor Giraldo compared this to the AI system from the film Iron Man, providing an intelligent guide to nanoparticle design for agriculture.



“It’s like J.A.R.V.I.S.&nbsp;(Just A Rather Very Intelligent System) from the film Iron Man. Essentially an artificial intelligence guide to help design nanoparticles with controlled delivery properties for agriculture,” noted Giraldo. “We can follow up these twin simulations with real-life plant experiments for feedback on the models.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-nanotechnology-in-agriculture">The future of nanotechnology in agriculture </h2>



Despite the promising outlook, there are significant challenges to overcome before these technologies can be fully implemented. 



Study co-author Professor Greg Lowry of Carnegie Mellon emphasized the technical hurdles yet remains optimistic about the future of plant nanobiotechnology.



“Nano-enabled precision delivery of active agents in plants will transform agriculture, but there are critical technical challenges that we must first overcome to realize the full range of its benefits,” said Professor Lowry. 



“I’m optimistic about the future of plant nanobiotechnology approaches and the beneficial impacts it will have on our ability to sustainably produce food.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nanotechnology-a-path-to-sustainable-agriculture">Nanotechnology: A path to sustainable agriculture</h2>



Ultimately, nanotechnology could offer a greener, more efficient approach to agriculture, minimizing environmental impact while maximizing crop yield.



As this <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nanotech-material-graphene-passes-human-safety-tests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">technology</a> progresses, it could play a crucial role in addressing the twin challenges of environmental sustainability and global food security.



“In this review, we argue that lessons can be learned from mammalian nanomedicine. In particular, it may be possible to enhance efficiency and efficacy by improving our understanding of how nanocarrier properties affect their interactions with plant surfaces and biomolecules, and their ability to carry and deliver cargo to specific locations,” wrote the researchers.



“New tools are required to rapidly assess NC–plant interactions and to explore and verify the range of viable targeting approaches in plants.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41565-024-01667-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Nanotechnology</a>.



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Unleashing the potential of nanotechnology in agriculture

As global food demands continue to rise, technology is becoming...

A seemingly unassuming fern from the remote island of New Caledonia has made a big splash in the world of science. 



Researchers have discovered that ferns of the species Tmesipteris oblanceolata possess a genome that dwarfs all others known to date.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genome-and-its-measurement">Genome and its measurement</h2>



A <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coffee-genome-adapted-to-climate-changes-over-millennia/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genome</a> is the entire collection of an organism's genetic material,&nbsp;its DNA.&nbsp;This DNA houses all the necessary instructions for the organism's growth, development, functioning, and reproduction.&nbsp;



DNA itself is a long,&nbsp;complex molecule composed of four chemical building blocks called bases:&nbsp;adenine (A),&nbsp;cytosine (C),&nbsp;guanine (G),&nbsp;and thymine (T).



Specific sequences of these bases form genes,&nbsp;which act as blueprints for creating proteins.&nbsp;Proteins are essential molecules that carry out a vast array of tasks within cells,&nbsp;from providing structural support to catalyzing chemical reactions.



Beyond genes,&nbsp;the genome also contains stretches of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-of-life-created-for-flowering-plants-using-400-million-specimens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DNA</a> that do not code for proteins.&nbsp;These non-coding regions play crucial roles in regulating gene activity,&nbsp;determining when and where genes are turned on or off.&nbsp;They also contribute to maintaining the structural integrity of chromosomes,&nbsp;the thread-like structures that package and organize DNA within cells.



The size of a genome,&nbsp;measured in base pairs (bp),&nbsp;varies greatly across different species.&nbsp;For instance,&nbsp;the human genome comprises roughly 3.1 billion base pairs,&nbsp;whereas some plants and animals have significantly larger genomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-fern-with-a-huge-amount-of-dna">Tiny fern with a huge amount of DNA</h2>



The genome of the Tmesipteris oblanceolata fern contains a massive 160.45 gigabase pairs (Gbp) of DNA.&nbsp;This quantity is over 50 times larger than the human genome,&nbsp;which is approximately 3.2 Gbp.&nbsp;



To visualize the immense size of this fern's DNA,&nbsp;consider that if the DNA from a single Tmesipteris cell were stretched out end-to-end,&nbsp;it would exceed 100 meters in length.&nbsp;This surpasses the height of London's Elizabeth Tower,&nbsp;famously home to Big Ben.



The extraordinary size of the Tmesipteris oblanceolata genome has garnered it recognition from the Guinness World Records.&nbsp;It currently holds the following titles:



<ul>
<li>Largest plant genome:&nbsp;This signifies that Tmesipteris oblanceolata has the most extensive amount of DNA compared to any other known plant species.</li>



<li>Largest genome:&nbsp;This title confirms that Tmesipteris oblanceolata possesses the largest genome of any organism on Earth,&nbsp;encompassing all life forms.</li>



<li>Largest fern genome:&nbsp;This indicates that within the fern family,&nbsp;Tmesipteris oblanceolata boasts the most extensive amount of DNA compared to any other fern species.</li>
</ul>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-importance-of-genome-size">Importance of genome size</h2>



The size of an organism's genome,&nbsp;or the total amount of DNA it possesses,&nbsp;is a significant factor influencing various aspects of its biology and survival.



Larger genomes often correlate with slower growth rates due to the increased time and resources required for DNA replication and cell division.&nbsp;



Additionally,&nbsp;organisms with larger genomes may exhibit reduced efficiency in photosynthesis,&nbsp;the process by which they convert light energy into chemical energy.&nbsp;This is because the maintenance and functioning of a larger genome demand more energy,&nbsp;potentially diverting resources away from photosynthetic processes.



Furthermore,&nbsp;organisms with larger genomes typically have higher nutrient requirements,&nbsp;particularly for nitrogen and phosphorus,&nbsp;which are essential for DNA synthesis and other cellular functions.&nbsp;



These increased demands can pose challenges in nutrient-limited environments,&nbsp;making it more difficult for these organisms to compete with those possessing smaller genomes.



The cumulative effects of slower growth,&nbsp;reduced photosynthetic efficiency,&nbsp;and increased nutrient requirements can significantly impact an organism's ability to adapt to changing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-volcanoes-chaos-poisoned-ferns-for-millions-of-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environmental conditions</a>.&nbsp;



In the face of environmental fluctuations,&nbsp;organisms with larger genomes may be less able to adjust their physiological processes or compete for resources,&nbsp;potentially increasing their vulnerability to extinction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fern-surpasses-predictions">Fern surpasses predictions</h2>



"For a long time, we thought that breaking the previous size record of Paris japonica was going to be an impossible mission, but once again, the limits of biology have surpassed our most optimistic predictions," said lead researcher Dr. Jaume Pellicer.



"Who would have thought this tiny, unassuming plant that most people would likely walk past without notice, could bear a world-beating record in genome size," added Dr. Ilia Leitch, a senior research leader at the <a href="https://www.kew.org" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew</a>.



The discovery of this DNA giant serves as a powerful reminder of the vast <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-had-complex-leaf-vein-networks-200-million-years-ago/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">diversity</a> that exists within the plant kingdom.



<blockquote class="wp-block-quote">
"Compared to other organisms, plants are incredibly diverse when viewed at the DNA level, and that should make us pause to think about their intrinsic value in the wider picture of global biodiversity," said Dr. Leitch.
</blockquote>



The exploration of the Tmesipteris genome is far from over.&nbsp;Scientists are eager to delve deeper into the secrets this remarkable fern holds,&nbsp;unlocking further insights into the boundaries of biological possibility.&nbsp;



As we continue to explore the world of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-genetics-research-just-got-a-lot-easier-with-a-simple-trick/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant genetics</a>,&nbsp;we are reminded that even the most unassuming organisms can harbor extraordinary surprises.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(24)01111-8?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS2589004224011118%3Fshowall%3Dtrue" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iScience</a>.



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Tiny fern contains 50 times more DNA than humans

A seemingly unassuming fern from the remote island of New...

Tropical forests, storing a third of the world’s carbon, face uncertain futures as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tropical-forests-are-losing-their-carbon-storage-capacity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon sinks</a> due to nutrient-poor soils. However, a new study published in the journal the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/nph.19812" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New Phytologist</a> has found that these forests have flexible nutrient acquisition strategies that might allow them to thrive despite nutrient limitations.



“We may not have to worry about it so much,” said senior author Sarah Batterman, a tropical forest ecologist at the <a href="https://www.caryinstitute.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies</a>. “Because of these flexible strategies, trees may be able to support a carbon sink in the future, even with nutrient constraints.”&nbsp;



“Our findings support the potential of tropical reforestation and conserving intact forests as a long-term climate solution.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nutrient-acquisition-strategies-of-tropical-forests">Nutrient acquisition strategies of tropical forests</h2>



The experts conducted an unprecedented experiment in the lowland tropical wet forest of Panama, covering 76 plots across 16 square kilometers.&nbsp;



The team examined how forests of different ages adjust <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-eating-mammals-fertilize-the-soil-in-tropical-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nutrient acquisition</a> strategies to access phosphorus, using either an enzyme called phosphatase or mycorrhizal fungi. Both methods require significant carbon and nitrogen investment from the trees.



“While belowground processes are very important for ecosystem function, they are poorly understood compared to above-ground processes because they are more difficult to study,” said lead author Michelle Wong, an assistant professor at <a href="https://www.yale.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yale University</a> and former postdoctoral fellow at the Cary Institute.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strategies-differ-depending-on-the-forest-s-age">Strategies differ depending on the forest’s age</h2>



The research showed that forests of different ages respond differently to nutrient additions. Younger forests, often limited by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-has-too-much-and-too-little-nitrogen-at-the-same-time/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nitrogen</a>, showed increased phosphatase activity when nitrogen was added, enabling better phosphorus acquisition.&nbsp;



In contrast, older forests displayed increased phosphatase activity when phosphorus was added, indicating a shift from nitrogen to phosphorus limitation as forests mature.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-flexibility-of-tropical-forests">Flexibility of tropical forests</h2>



These findings highlight the flexibility of nutrient acquisition strategies in tropical forests, with phosphatase activity increasing by half in response to nitrogen and decreasing by half in response to phosphorus. However, mycorrhizal colonization responses were less predictable.



“We still don’t know whether the flexibility is enough to get all the nutrients forests need in the future,” Batterman said. Despite this, there is a buffering capacity that may alleviate nutrient limitations temporarily.&nbsp;



According to the researchers, the ability to adjust strategies might provide forests with resilience to recover from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/land-use-changes-expose-the-amazon-to-environmental-threats/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">land-use changes</a> and maintain productivity in a carbon-rich world.



For forest managers and reforestation organizations, the study offers practical advice: consider nutrient limitations and use a diversity of trees with different phosphorus acquisition strategies. Ensuring trees are adapted to the phosphorus levels at each site is crucial.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tropical-forests-as-a-climate-solution-nbsp">Tropical forests as a climate solution&nbsp;</h2>



Currently, most reforestation efforts focus on quickly planting available seedlings, but Batterman is optimistic about forests as a climate solution if managed correctly.



“We can implement it immediately, it’s low cost, and it has so many co-benefits, like protecting watersheds, enhancing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-plantations-have-hidden-impacts-on-tropical-biodiversity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a>, and protecting species that are important to Indigenous people. But it needs to be done correctly," said Batterman.



"We’re at a point where science can guide the process and ensure the carbon is going to be there for a long time to come."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-tropical-forests-nbsp">More about tropical forests&nbsp;</h2>



Tropical forests, also known as rainforests, are dense, warm, and wet woodlands located near the equator. These forests experience a hot climate and receive high annual rainfall, making them incredibly biodiverse, home to more than half of the world's plant and animal species.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-characteristics">Characteristics</h3>



They are characterized by multiple layers of vegetation including towering trees, shorter understory plants, and ground level flora, which create a complex ecosystem. The tall canopy of the forest supports a variety of animals and plants, while the lower parts of the forest provide shelter and food for countless species.



Tropical forests play a crucial role in regulating global climates by absorbing carbon dioxide, and they are vital in maintaining the Earth's water cycle through their transpiration processes.&nbsp;



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ongoing-threats-nbsp">Ongoing threats&nbsp;</h3>



However, they are under threat from deforestation, which is driven by logging, agriculture, and urban expansion. This loss not only threatens the biodiversity within these forests but also has a significant impact on global climate patterns and carbon storage capabilities.&nbsp;



Conservation efforts are ongoing, aiming to protect these valuable ecosystems by promoting sustainable practices and establishing protected areas.



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Tropical forests have strategies to survive in nutrient-poor soils

Tropical forests, storing a third of the world’s carbon, face...

Bacterial disease poses an increasing threat to the Mediterranean's iconic crops - grapevines, olive trees, and almond trees - as global temperatures continue to rise.



The deadly <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/the-worlds-largest-bacterium-discovered-in-the-caribbean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacterium</a> known as Xylella fastidiosa, responsible for this devastation, obstructs the plants' ducts and tissues, severely hampering their ability to thrive.



Historically confined to specific regions, this pathogen is poised to expand its territory due to the escalating effects of climate change.



Recent research conducted by the <a href="https://ifisc.uib-csic.es/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Institute of Cross-disciplinary Physics and Complex Systems</a> (IFISC) has shed light on this alarming trend.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bacterial-disease-in-a-changing-environment">Bacterial disease in a changing environment </h2>



"Pierce’s disease (PD) is a vector-borne disease caused by the bacteria Xylella fastidiosa, which affects grapevines in the Americas," wrote the researchers.



"Currently, vineyards in continental Europe, the world’s largest producer of quality wine, have not yet been affected by Pierce's disease. However, climate change may alter this situation." 



The study reveals that a temperature increase exceeding three degrees Celsius could critically escalate the risk of this bacterium's establishment in areas previously considered safe, particularly impacting wine-producing regions.



This significant finding highlights a potential turning point in the management and spread of the disease, which is currently prevalent in coastal Mediterranean areas but could extend further north across Europe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-as-a-catalyst-for-plant-disease">Climate as a catalyst for plant disease </h2>



The relationship between climate and the occurrence of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-technology-can-detect-plant-diseases-from-above/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant diseases</a> is intricate, with favorable temperatures playing a crucial role in triggering epidemic outbreaks.



Manuel Matías, a leading scientist in this field, emphasized that climate change is a central driver in the global distribution and intensity of plant-based bacterial diseases.



The research team has outlined how continuous temperature increases at intervals of 1.5, 2, 3, and 4 degrees Celsius could influence the spread of Xylella fastidiosa, with each scenario showing a pattern of heightened disease risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-economic-and-ecological-impact">Economic and ecological impact</h2>



Since its first detection in Europe just over a decade ago, Xylella fastidiosa has caused substantial economic and ecological damage. 



Originally seen as a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/potato-threatening-pathogens-discovered-in-pennsylvania/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">pathogen</a> restricted to the American continent, the bacterial disease has wreaked havoc in European regions, notably in Italy's Apulia region, where it has affected 21 million olive trees.



In Mallorca, 80% of almond trees have been impacted, demonstrating the severe consequences of its rapid spread.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-predictive-analysis-and-risk-management">Predictive analysis and risk management</h2>



The researchers have developed a comprehensive model to forecast the disease's potential spread under various warming scenarios. 



The findings indicate that countries like Portugal and Greece could face significantly increased risks of infection, with projected temperature rises pushing the risk up to 47% and 63%, respectively.



Interestingly, in Spain, the second-largest wine producer globally, the risk levels might remain relatively unchanged despite the warming. 



This predictive approach is invaluable for European agricultural policy, as it aids in strategizing better surveillance and mitigation efforts against the bacterial disease. 



By quantifying the risk at different spatial scales - from country-wide assessments to specific wine appellations - the researchers provide crucial data that can help refine prevention strategies and manage resources more effectively.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-battle-against-plant-bacterial-disease">The battle against plant bacterial disease</h2>



The experts acknowledged the limitations posed by varying microclimates within wine-growing regions, which can complicate predictions.



"Modeling disease epidemics is a complex task, as they are emergent phenomena resulting from non-linear interactions between disease components," wrote the researchers.



"In addition, many of the processes involved in disease development also exhibit non-linear responses to changes in environmental variables."



However, the interdisciplinary nature of the research, combining epidemiological insights with climatic models, offers a robust framework for understanding and potentially controlling the spread of this bacterial disease.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-risk-of-pierce-s-disease-in-continental-vineyards">Risk of Pierce’s disease in continental vineyards </h2>



"Because Pierce’s disease has only affected vineyards on the island of Mallorca, little attention has been paid to the risk of it reaching continental vineyards. Our risk model indicates why this possibility was very low until the mid-90s, except for the Mediterranean islands," noted the study authors. 



"In this work, we clearly show that with increasing temperatures PD will become a serious threat to important wine-growing areas in southern Europe that were not previously at risk."



As Europe grapples with the challenges posed by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-imposes-financial-burden-on-global-agriculture/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a>, this research offers a glimpse into the future risks to viticulture.



By leveraging cutting-edge climatic data and innovative modeling techniques, scientists are paving the way for more informed decisions that could safeguard the future of agriculture in the region. 



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-59947-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Bacterial disease that 'devours' olive trees is thriving in a warmer climate

Bacterial disease poses an increasing threat to the Mediterranean's iconic...

We all love a neatly manicured lawn. But what if frequently mowing the yard in our quest for tidiness is inadvertently creating a legion of superweeds? 



A recent study on the seemingly innocuous silverleaf nightshade (<a href="https://earthpedia.earth.com/plant-encyclopedia/angiosperms/solanaceae/solanum-elaeagnifolium/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Solanum elaeagnifolium</a>) has revealed a startling truth. 



This unassuming weed, along with dandelions and many others, is a master of adaptation, evolving into a tougher, more resilient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/boosting-crop-colors-with-gene-editing-can-improve-weed-control/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">version of itself</a> when faced with frequent mowing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-superweeds-like-mowing">Why superweeds like mowing</h2>



Superweeds are wild plants that develop resistance to herbicides. This resistance often results from the repeated use of the same herbicide, like glyphosate, on crops. 



As a consequence, these weeds can survive treatments meant to eliminate them, making them harder to control.



Genetically modified <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/boosting-crop-colors-with-gene-editing-can-improve-weed-control/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">(GM) crops</a>, designed to withstand herbicides, inadvertently contribute to the rise of superweeds. When these herbicides kill off non-resistant weeds, resistant ones thrive and spread.



Superweeds pose a significant threat to agriculture. They compete with crops for resources, leading to lower yields and higher costs for farmers. 



Controlling these weeds often requires stronger, more expensive herbicides or alternative management strategies, which can further harm the environment.



As superweeds continue to evolve, sustainable <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/weeds-are-becoming-increasingly-resistant-to-herbicides/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">weed management</a> practices and diversified farming techniques become crucial in mitigating their impact.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unassuming-purple-weed-spreading-rapidly">Unassuming purple weed spreading rapidly</h2>



Silverleaf nightshade may not be a household name,&nbsp;but this pervasive weed is found from the sun-soaked fields of south Texas to the ancient landscapes of South Africa and Greece.&nbsp;



With its delicate purple flowers (sometimes white or light purple), prickly spines, and toxic berries, it's not a plant you want to mess with. 



Interestingly, it shares a family tree with some of our favorite crops, including <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tomatoes-acylsugars-parallel-universe-plant-kingdom-evolution/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tomatoes</a>, potatoes, peppers, and eggplants.



Rupesh Kariyat, an associate professor of entomology and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bioengineered-super-plant-acts-as-natural-indoor-air-purifier/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant pathology</a>, has been studying this unassuming weed for over a decade. 



His research, which began at the <a href="https://www.utrgv.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Texas Rio Grande Valley</a>, has revealed some fascinating insights into the plant's response to frequent mowing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mowing-launches-survival-of-the-fittest-contest">Mowing launches "survival of the fittest" contest</h2>



Kariyat's research has found that frequent mowing doesn't just trim the silverleaf nightshade; it triggers a series of remarkable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-capture-plant-communication-on-video/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">defense mechanisms</a>. 



"You are trying to mow these plants so that the plants are getting eliminated," Kariyat explains,&nbsp;"But what you are actually doing here,&nbsp;you are making them much worse,&nbsp;much stronger."



Under the pressure of frequent mowing, the plant's taproot burrows deeper into the soil, reaching depths of nearly 5 feet to access water and nutrients. 



More spikes sprout on its stem to deter hungry caterpillars, and the flowers themselves become more toxic, reducing the threat from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grazing-sheep-can-reduce-stress-on-college-campuses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">natural predators</a>.



The plant even employs a clever strategy for seed germination, producing some that sprout quickly and others that lie dormant, like time bombs. 



This "staggered" germination ensures the plant's survival over the long haul, even in the face of repeated mowing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-superweeds-spawn-from-mowing-ripple-effect">Superweeds spawn from mowing ripple effect</h2>



While Kariyat's research focused specifically on silverleaf nightshade, its findings have far-reaching implications. 



Other weeds, even close relatives of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/is-deadly-nightshade-really-deadly-misnomers-of-the-botanical-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nightshade</a>, may react similarly to frequent mowing, potentially creating a whole army of superweeds.



"This should be something that we consider when we make management plans," Kariyat warns.&nbsp;"Management practices need to be better understood using the ecology and biology of the species and the other species which interact with them."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-adaptation-of-silverleaf-nightshade">Adaptation of silverleaf nightshade</h2>



The silverleaf nightshade's response to mowing is a fascinating example of adaptation in action.&nbsp;It demonstrates the incredible resilience of nature and the unintended consequences of human intervention.



The plant's ability to evolve in response to environmental pressures is a testament to its tenacity and adaptability.&nbsp;It's a reminder that even the most unassuming organisms can possess remarkable survival skills.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mowing-superweeds-requires-caution">Mowing superweeds requires caution</h2>



So, what does this mean for our manicured lawns? Should we abandon our mowers altogether? Not necessarily. 



Kariyat's research does suggest that we should approach mowing with a bit more caution and consider alternative weed management strategies.



For instance,&nbsp;tilling areas infested with silverleaf nightshade can actually worsen the problem by spreading the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/measuring-plant-root-health-scanning-leaves-xray-device/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant</a>'s rhizomic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-rooted-crops-can-significantly-improve-soil-carbon-storage/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">roots</a>,&nbsp;which can propagate asexually.



"As scientists, we want our research to be accessible and applicable to anyone, and mowing is a concept the world at large can understand," says Alejandro Vasquez, the lead author of the study and a Ph.D. student at the <a href="https://www.uark.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Arkansas</a>.



So, from now when you fire up your mower,&nbsp;spare a thought for the unassuming superweeds lurking in your lawn.&nbsp;They may be small,&nbsp;but they're far more resilient than you think.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-024-58672-w" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Scientific Reports</a>.



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Mowing your yard too often may create unstoppable 'superweeds'

We all love a neatly manicured lawn. But what if...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.



"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.



The research, published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



-----



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



-----



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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