<p>The benefits of psilocybin-assisted therapy for major depression reportedly endures for years, if not forever. </p>



<p>In a new analysis of people who took part in a 2020 psilocybin clinical trial, 67 percent were still in full remission from depression an average of five years later - up from 58 percent at the one-year mark.</p>



<p>Study lead author Alan Davis is an associate professor and director of the <a href="https://www.cpdre.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Center for Psychedelic Drug Research and Education</a> at The Ohio State University.</p>



<p>“Across the board - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/gut-microbes-have-an-unexpected-link-to-anxiety/">anxiety</a>, depression, global functioning, self-reported depression - we kept seeing the same signal of continued improvement," said Davis.</p>



<p>The follow-up results offer a rare long view of outcomes after psychedelic-assisted therapy, an area where long-term data are still sparse.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-psilocybin-the-basics">Understanding psilocybin - the basics</h2>



<p>Psilocybin is a natural compound found in certain mushrooms, often called “magic mushrooms.” When you ingest psilocybin, your body quickly converts it into psilocin, the active form that interacts with your brain. </p>



<p>Psilocin closely resembles <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-dopamine-and-serotonin-shape-behavior/">serotonin</a>, a key neurotransmitter, so it binds to serotonin receptors - especially the 5-HT2A receptor. </p>



<p>This binding alters the way nerve cells communicate, which leads to changes in perception, mood, and thought patterns. </p>



<p>From a scientific standpoint, psilocybin disrupts the brain’s usual patterns of activity and connectivity. </p>



<p>Brain imaging studies show that it quiets the “default mode network,” a system linked to self-reflection and the inner voice we all carry. </p>



<p>At the same time, it boosts communication between brain regions that don’t normally interact.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-curing-depression-with-psilocybin">Curing depression with psilocybin</h2>



<p>The peer-reviewed study, published in 2021, enrolled adults with major depressive disorder and compared two groups: one received psilocybin treatment immediately, and the other started after a wait-list period.</p>



<p>All the participants ultimately completed a standardized protocol: two dosing sessions with psilocybin paired with about 13 hours of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/psychotherapy-is-key-to-the-success-of-psychedelic-treatment/">psychotherapy</a> (including preparation, support during sessions, and integration).</p>



<p>The initial results showed large reductions in depression severity, with half of participants in remission up to one year.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-patients-over-time">Tracking patients over time</h2>



<p>Of the 24 people in the original trial, 18 took part in the five-year check-in. Online questionnaires were used to assess depression, anxiety, and functional impairment. </p>



<p>The researchers also applied a clinician-rated depression scale and conducted qualitative interviews to capture changes the numbers might miss.</p>



<p>The team made a conservative assumption to avoid overstating success. They counted the six who did not return as having fully relapsed to pre-treatment levels.</p>



<p>Even under that assumption, depression scores remained “very large and significantly” reduced at five years, Davis noted, and the share of participants in complete remission nudged upward.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-than-psilocybin">More than psilocybin</h2>



<p>The lasting gains cannot be chalked up solely to the two psilocybin sessions. Only three people reported no additional depression-related treatment in the years since. </p>



<p>Others used antidepressant medications, tried <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ketamine-treatment-may-now-last-months-instead-of-weeks/">ketamine</a> or other psychedelics, or engaged in psychotherapy.</p>



<p>Interviews helped explain that context. Many participants described life with depression as profoundly constricted before the trial - too little energy, too little hope to engage. </p>



<p>Afterward, several said their depression felt more situational and manageable. They reported a greater capacity for positive emotion and motivation, and a different relationship to low moods when they returned.</p>



<p>A few who experimented with psychedelics on their own found the experiences less helpful without a clinical framework. This underscores a theme from other work by Davis and colleagues: the therapeutic container matters.</p>



<p>A strong alliance with trained therapists, structured preparation, and integration support may play as big a role as the drug itself.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psilocybin-safety-over-time">Psilocybin safety over time</h2>



<p>At the five-year mark, 11 of 18 participants reported no adverse effects since the trial. Looking back, three remembered feeling unprepared for the heightened emotional sensitivity that followed their dosing sessions. </p>



<p>Two said tapering off <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cure-for-alcohol-addiction-was-discovered-by-accident/">medications</a> and waiting during the original trial was especially difficult, and two wished they’d had more formal integration therapy afterward.</p>



<p>The study is small, non-randomized at follow-up, and based on a motivated sample - limitations the authors emphasize.</p>



<p>With just 18 people contributing long-term data, it’s impossible to generalize broadly or disentangle psilocybin’s contribution from other treatments and life changes.</p>



<p>Larger, placebo-controlled trials with systematic follow-up will be needed to test durability, dosing strategies, and who benefits most.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psilocybin-depression-and-healthcare">Psilocybin, depression, and healthcare</h2>



<p>Even with the study's limitations, the pattern is encouraging. Many participants maintained remission or continued to function better. </p>



<p>Several described a shift that outlasted symptom scores - more engagement with family, work, and meaningful activities, and fewer episodes of withdrawal and isolation, which are among depression’s most disabling features.</p>



<p>“Five years later, most people continued to view this treatment as safe, meaningful, and important - something that catalyzed an ongoing betterment of their life,” Davis said.</p>



<p>“Despite some symptoms coming back, they weren’t experiencing the same levels of impairment - suggesting this approach might, for some, kick-start lasting positive change.”</p>



<p>The bottom line: psilocybin-assisted therapy remains experimental, and it’s not a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-gut-bacteria-morganella-morganii-could-cause-depression-not-a-brain-disorder/">depression</a> cure-all. But in this small cohort, the combination of guided psychedelic sessions and psychotherapy was associated with durable relief - and in many cases, a different relationship to depression - years down the road.</p>



<p>The study is published in the <a href="https://akjournals.com/view/journals/2054/aop/article-10.1556-2054.2025.00461/article-10.1556-2054.2025.00461.xml" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Journal of Psychedelic Studies</em></a>.</p>



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Patients report no signs of depression five years after psilocybin treatment

The benefits of psilocybin-assisted therapy for major depression reportedly endures for years, if not forever. In a new analysis of people who took part in a 2020 psilocybin clinical trial, 67 percent were still in full remission from depression an average of five years later - up from 58 percent at the one-year mark. Study lead author Alan Davis is an associate professor and director of the Center for Psychedelic Drug Research and Education at The Ohio State University. “Across the board - anxiety, depression, global functioning,...

<p>The preservation of endangered species in natural habitats is significantly aided by the forest's oldest trees, according to research led by the <a href="https://web.ub.edu/en/web/ub/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Barcelona</a>. A prime example is the wolf lichen, currently at risk across Europe, which finds sanctuary in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-trees-are-vital-to-forest-survival/%C3%B9">ancient trees</a> of high mountains of the Pyrenees. </p>



<p>This study is the first to examine the critical role that these ancient trees play in biodiversity conservation, attributing their effectiveness to their distinctive physiology.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wolf-lichen-thrives-among-old-trees">Wolf lichen thrives among old trees</h2>



<p>With its limited distribution, the wolf lichen (<em>Letharia vulpina</em>) thrives in mature forests and among long-lived trees. This lichen, native to the American continent and found in Europe and the Iberian Peninsula's medium and high mountain areas, is particularly associated with the Pyrenees' oldest trees, notably the black pine (<em>Pinus uncinata</em>).</p>



<p>“These old trees are found in the most isolated places, they grow on rocks with very little substrate and show unique characteristics regarding structure and composition. Specifically, the black pine can even live for more than a millennium, and its decay would be the most important factor facilitating the presence of the lichen,” said senior author Sergi Munné-Bosch, an expert in Plant Biology at the University of Barcelona.</p>



<p>“Paradoxically, the worse off these trees are, the more useful they are for the ecosystem (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/hundreds-of-plant-and-lichen-species-are-overlooked-victims-of-climate-change/">lichen conservation</a>). In other words, the less important they might seem as individuals because of their decline, the more important they are for the whole ecosystem."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-centenarian-and-millenarian-trees">Centenarian and millenarian trees</h2>



<p>According to the scientists, the best habitat for the survival of the lichen <em>L. vulpina</em> is the oldest trees in the forest. “In the case of centenarian and millenarian trees, the simplicity of their development, the modular growth that allows them to respond better to injury and damage, and the high tolerance to extreme conditions (<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/droughts-can-actually-benefit-trees-in-certain-circumstances/">water stress</a>, extreme temperatures, etc.) are factors that explain their great longevity in the natural environment," explained lead author Ot Pasques, a doctoral student in Plant Biology at the same university.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-slow-growth-favors-longevity-in-trees">Slow growth favors longevity in trees</h2>



<p>“Trees have survival limits in extreme conditions, but they can survive with little water and nutrient resources. They are able to survive extreme conditions and live longer, thanks to modular growth and compartmentalisation of the damage that can affect them,” added Munné-Bosch.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“Slow growth, which is associated with stress responses - such as the typical cold of high mountains or drought, which is increasingly frequent in the summer - also favors the longevity of these trees.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-necessity-of-safeguarding-ancient-trees-nbsp">Necessity of safeguarding ancient trees&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The remarkable longevity of trees serves as a crucial biological factor underpinning their unique roles within ecosystems, highlighting the necessity of safeguarding ancient trees and species within secluded mountainous areas.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to Munné-Bosch, every member within a population holds critical importance, not just for their own group or species, but for the entire planetary ecosystem. The interconnectedness of all life means that even the aging and demise of trees contribute vitally to the maintenance of biodiversity and ecological systems.</p>



<p>Yet, these forest behemoths face significant threats from human activities, notably from logging. “Environmental conditions are not a problem for these trees, but unfortunately we as a species are. Only with a deep respect for nature and the life of other living beings can we preserve the extraordinary longevity of these trees. And as we have found in this study, this will also be decisive for the preservation of all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aspen-forests-could-reverse-biodiversity-loss-in-europe/">biodiversity</a> as we know it today,” the authors concluded.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-wolf-lichen">More about wolf lichen</h2>



<p>Wolf lichen is a fascinating organism that thrives in various parts of the world, particularly in mountainous regions of North America and Europe. It's most recognizable for its vibrant yellow-green color, which makes it stand out in its natural forest environments.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This distinct hue comes from the presence of vulpinic acid, a substance that not only gives the lichen its color but also serves as a deterrent against predators due to its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-houseplants-can-poison-children-and-pets/">toxicity</a>.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-survival">Survival</h3>



<p>Wolf lichen is a type of fruticose lichen, meaning it has a shrubby appearance, with branching tendrils that allow it to attach to tree bark and rocks. This growth form enables it to absorb moisture and nutrients directly from the air, which is vital for its survival in various climates and altitudes.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-uses">Uses</h3>



<p>Historically, wolf lichen has had several uses, both practical and sinister. Its bright color was used as a dye by indigenous peoples in North America for coloring wool and other materials.&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, its toxic properties also led to its use as a poison. There are accounts of it being mixed with meat to kill wolves and other predators, which is how it got its common name.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ecological-significance-nbsp">Ecological significance&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Today, wolf lichen is of interest to scientists and naturalists for its ecological roles and potential medicinal properties. It's studied for its ability to produce vulpinic acid and other compounds that may have antibacterial or other beneficial effects.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Despite its toxicity to some animals, wolf lichen is an integral part of its ecosystem, contributing to the biodiversity of the areas where it grows.</p>



<p>The research is published in the journal <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.231786612" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Older trees help the endangered wolf lichen survive

The preservation of endangered species in natural habitats is significantly...

<p>Did you know there's a group of plants native to Florida with a complex evolutionary history? They are called 'scrub mints': specialists in surviving harsh conditions. Sadly, their existence is now seriously threatened by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humans-have-surpassed-almost-every-safe-limit-to-keep-earth-habitable/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">human development</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scrub-mints-plants-built-for-tough-times">Scrub mints: Plants built for tough times</h2>



<p>Florida was way different three million years ago. The climate was significantly hotter than today, and sea levels were much higher, submerging significant portions of the state. </p>



<p>Over time, the Earth cycled through ice ages and warmer periods. As ice sheets advanced and retreated, the size and shape of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/florida-plant-identification-for-beginners/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida peninsula</a> drastically changed. </p>



<p>This dynamic environment favored plants that could withstand harsh conditions like limited water, nutrient-poor soil, and frequent wildfires.</p>



<p>Scrub mints weren't just survivors in this challenging landscape; they flourished. These flowering plants adapted to Florida's unique sandy scrubland habitats. While related to familiar <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthpedia-articles/15-healing-herbs-you-can-grow-at-home/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">culinary herbs</a> like basil and rosemary, scrub mints evolved even greater resilience to drought and heat.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-origin-of-scrub-mints">Origin of scrub mints </h2>



<p>Interestingly, the story of how scrub mints came to be is even more intricate than scientists thought. Andre Naranjo, a former Ph.D. student at the <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Florida Museum of Natural History</a>, led a study analyzing a special type of DNA. The findings are making waves in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/miracle-plant-thought-to-be-extinct-rediscovered-in-turkey/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">plant</a> world:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-origins">Unexpected origins</h3>



<p>The evolutionary history of many modern scrub mints involves "hybridization." This natural process occurs when distinct species interbreed, resulting in offspring with a mix of traits from both parents. Over time, these hybrid offspring can become established as unique populations.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-underestimated-group">The underestimated group</h3>



<p>A group of scrub mints known as "calamints" may contain hidden diversity. Initial observations suggested these plants were a few widespread species. </p>



<p>However, closer scientific investigation hints that they might actually comprise multiple distinct species, each deserving of individual conservation attention.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-misclassified-plant">The misclassified plant</h3>



<p>Titusville balms, a particularly rare type of scrub mint, were initially believed to be a product of recent hybridization. This classification meant they wouldn't qualify for protection under the <a href="https://www.fws.gov/law/endangered-species-act" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Endangered Species Act</a>. </p>



<p>However, Naranjo's research indicates a much longer evolutionary history, suggesting Titusville Balms are an ancient and unique group in need of protection.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-ice-ages-shaped-scrub-mints-will-humans-destroy-them">The ice ages shaped scrub mints…Will humans destroy them?</h2>



<p>While scrub mints have a knack for surviving in tough conditions, the rapid changes humans bring might be a different story. Here's the problem:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-losing-their-homeland">Losing their homeland</h3>



<p>The biggest threat to scrub mints is habitat loss. These plants have evolved to thrive in Florida's unique sandy scrublands. </p>



<p>Sadly, these same habitats are increasingly being converted for human use, such as housing developments or agricultural expansion. </p>



<p>This habitat loss is a major reason why over half of the 24 known scrub mint species are classified as threatened or endangered.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-help-may-be-insufficient">Human help may be insufficient </h3>



<p>Concerned individuals and organizations are working hard to restore and preserve scrub habitats. However, these efforts face significant challenges:</p>



<ul>
<li><strong>Controlled fires</strong>: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildfires-spread-farther-where-woody-plants-replace-grasses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wildfires</a> are a natural part of scrub ecosystems, but they are often impractical or dangerous near developed areas.<br></li>



<li><strong>Invasive species</strong>: Non-native, invasive plant species can quickly outcompete scrub mints, further straining their populations.</li>
</ul>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-call-to-action">A call to action</h2>



<p>“If we continue with business as usual, this entire group of plants could go extinct within the next 100 years. And we won’t just lose these species. We’ll lose the scrub, one of the most truly authentic and formerly ubiquitous Florida habitats will just go away,” says Naranjo.</p>



<p>While the situation is serious, it's not hopeless. Learning about Florida's amazing scrub mints is the first step. Here's what you can do:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-be-aware">Be aware</h3>



<p>The first step in protecting scrub mints is understanding them. Learning about their incredible evolutionary journey, their adaptations to Florida's environment, and the challenges they face helps raise awareness about their importance. Sharing this knowledge with others amplifies the message of conservation.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-support-conservation-efforts">Support conservation efforts</h3>



<p>There are many ways to actively support scrub mint conservation:</p>



<ul>
<li><strong>Financial donations</strong>: Consider donating to organizations dedicated to preserving Florida's scrubland habitats. These donations fund important work like habitat restoration, research, and education.<br></li>



<li><strong>Volunteering</strong>: Many organizations rely on volunteers for tasks like removing invasive species, planting native vegetation, and participating in educational outreach.<br></li>



<li><strong>Advocacy</strong>: Contacting your local representatives to voice your support for policies that protect Florida's unique ecosystems can make a powerful difference.</li>
</ul>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-scrub-mints">More about scrub mints</h2>



<p>As discussed above, scrub mints (genus <a href="https://www.earth.com/endangered-species/dicerandra-frutescens/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dicerandra</a>) are a group of flowering plants that boast a remarkable resilience and beauty, making them a subject of interest both for conservationists and plant enthusiasts. </p>



<p>These plants are exclusively found in the southeastern United States, particularly in Florida, where they have adapted to thrive in the scrub habitats -- areas characterized by sandy soil, low nutrients, and periodic wildfires.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-appearance-and-characteristics">Appearance and characteristics</h3>



<p>Scrub mints are notable for their aromatic leaves and striking flowers, which range in color from purple to white. The leaves are typically narrow, allowing the plant to minimize water loss, a crucial adaptation for survival in scrub habitats.</p>



<p>These plants vary in size but are generally small to medium shrubs. Their compact form helps them conserve resources in the challenging environments they inhabit.</p>



<p>The flowering season for scrub mints can vary depending on the species, but many bloom in the late summer to early fall, providing a splash of color in the scrub landscape when few other plants are in flower.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scrub-mint-habitat">Scrub mint habitat</h3>



<p>While there are 24 species of scrub mints, their distribution is quite localized, with the majority being endemic to Florida. This means they are not naturally found anywhere else in the world. </p>



<p>Their preferred habitat is the sand pine scrub, a unique ecosystem characterized by its sandy soil, sparse vegetation, and periodic wildfires.</p>



<p>Scrub mints have developed several adaptations to thrive in their harsh environments, including drought resistance and the ability to grow in nutrient-poor soils. Their flowers adapt to attract specific pollinators, including bees and butterflies, critical to the plants' reproductive processes.</p>



<p>Overall, Scrub mints represent incredible resilience in nature and a fascinating part of Florida's past. Whether they disappear due to human development or continue to thrive for millions more years depends on the choices we make today.</p>



<p>The study is published in&nbsp;<em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2024.108014" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution</a></em>.</p>



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These plants, now almost extinct, have been here millions of years

Did you know there's a group of plants native to...

Untitled design - 1

<p>Gardening under the stars? That's so old-fashioned. NASA's setting its sights on a more extreme landscape: the Moon. In 2026, the <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission/artemis-iii/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Artemis III mission</a> will land astronauts on the lunar surface, carrying a miniature greenhouse to grow plants on the moon that could change the future of space exploration.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-grow-plants-on-the-moon">Why grow plants on the moon?</h2>



<p>If <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lunar-anthropocene-how-humans-have-impacted-the-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">humanity</a> truly aims to establish permanent settlements on the Moon or embark on long-duration voyages to Mars, mastering the art of space farming becomes not just beneficial but absolutely essential. </p>



<p>Plants are Earth's original, solar-powered life-support machines. Their ability to recycle carbon dioxide into oxygen and convert sunlight into edible biomass has sustained life on our planet for eons.</p>



<p>But transplanting this system into the harsh vacuum of space brings extraordinary challenges. Extreme temperatures, intense radiation, and the lack of familiar soil and gravity create a hostile environment. Yet, overcoming these obstacles is key to our future as a spacefaring species. </p>



<p>Space agriculture promises to reduce our reliance on Earth-supplied resources, making exploration more sustainable. It's the path to a future where astronauts cultivate their own food and oxygen, creating self-sufficient <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/nasa-plans-to-build-house-on-the-moon-by-2040/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">outposts</a> among the stars.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-leaf-nasa-s-moonshot-for-plants">LEAF: NASA's moonshot for plants</h2>



<p>The Lunar Effects on Agricultural Flora (LEAF) is NASA's plant-growing experiment for the ages. Designed by Space Lab Technologies, this miniature greenhouse is getting ready to face the lunar environment head-on. </p>



<p>Astronauts on Artemis III will set up these plant chambers, carefully sowing the seeds of three special plants: thale cress, duckweed, and Brassica rapa (which is basically a speedy version of cabbage). Their goal is to see how these Earth-born plants handle the unique challenges of growing on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moon-is-shrinking-moonquakes-potential-problems-for-astronauts/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Moon</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-the-moon-plants">Meet the moon plants</h2>



<p>Thale cress, Duckweed and brassica rapa are the chosen ones for this lunar saga. Each plant, a potential pioneer in space agriculture, holds the key to sustainable space exploration.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Thale cress </h3>



<p>Thale cress, a humble plant with a comprehensive genetic blueprint, stands at the forefront of space botany research. </p>



<p>Scientists have meticulously mapped its entire genetic code, making it the perfect space guinea pig. This little plant is about to embark on a mission: serving as a living laboratory in space. </p>



<p>Exposed to the harsh realities of space – like intense radiation and no atmospheric shield – any changes in its genes will be like a flashing neon sign. These mutations will tell scientists a fascinating story about how space affects living things. </p>



<p>By studying thale cress, NASA can learn how to protect future astronauts from radiation and even develop crops for future space colonies. </p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Duckweed </h3>



<p>Duckweed, a marvel of biological efficiency, thrives with a simplicity that belies its potential. This plant, essentially a floating cluster of leaves, dispenses with the complexity of roots and stems. </p>



<p>Yet, it is a powerhouse of nutrition, boasting a rapid growth rate that could turn it into the cornerstone of space agriculture. </p>



<p>Its resilience and minimalistic approach to existence make it an ideal candidate for off-Earth farming experiments. </p>



<p>In the microgravity of space, where every square inch and every drop of water counts, duckweed's ability to produce high yields with little input could revolutionize how astronauts approach food production. </p>



<p>Its adaptability to a variety of conditions on Earth hints at its potential to thrive in controlled environments elsewhere, making it a leading contender for sustaining life on missions far from home.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Brassica rapa </h3>



<p>Brassica rapa, with its rapid life cycle, could very well be the poster child for efficient space farming. This relative of the cabbage sprints through its growth phases, offering a swift return on the investment of planting it in extraterrestrial farms. </p>



<p>Brassica rapa's rapid growth rate positions it perfectly for studies focused on how Earth's crops adjust to the harsh environment of space. </p>



<p>Achieving successful cultivation of this plant on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/orion-spacecraft-captures-stunning-photo-of-earth-and-the-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">moon</a> or Mars would represent a significant advancement. It would highlight progress in developing life support systems that can sustain human life beyond our planet.</p>



<p>Providing fresh, nutritious food quickly is crucial for the long-term health and morale of space travelers. Brassica rapa could emerge as a vital resource in the hostile and unforgiving environment of outer space.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-growing-more-than-moon-plants">Growing more than moon plants</h2>



<p>"This research will be a pivotal step toward understanding how we might use agriculture in space to support human crew, paving the way for sustained Lunar exploration and even missions to Mars,” says Christine Escobar, vice president of <a href="https://spacelabtech.com/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Space Lab Technologies</a>.</p>



<p>LEAF is the star of the show, but Artemis III has another science payload on board. NASA's also sending equipment to monitor moonquakes and search for hidden resources like water ice. These clues are vital to setting up a base where we can stay for longer periods.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-would-a-space-farmer-be-like">What would a space farmer be like?</h2>



<p>A space farmer would take on the pioneering role of growing crops in the challenging environment beyond Earth's atmosphere. </p>



<p>Such an individual would have to adapt traditional farming skills to meet the extraordinary demands of extraterrestrial agriculture. The following details offer insight into the multifaceted nature of a space farmer's role:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Highly skilled and versatile</h3>



<p>Space farmers would need a deep understanding of plant biology, hydroponics, and aeroponics, coupled with the mechanical skills to maintain and repair their farming equipment under zero or low-gravity conditions. They'd be part scientist, part engineer, capable of troubleshooting both biological and technical issues.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Innovator and problem solver</h3>



<p>Given the unpredictable nature of space environments, they'd excel in innovation and improvisation, constantly developing new methods to enhance crop yield, nutritional value, and resistance to space-related stresses such as radiation and microgravity.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Physically and psychologically resilient</h3>



<p>The physical isolation and confined spaces of extraterrestrial habitats demand a high level of mental and emotional resilience. </p>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/novel-stretchy-sensors-could-transform-space-farming/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Space farmers</a> would be adept at managing the psychological challenges of long-duration missions, maintaining their well-being, and fostering a positive living and working environment for themselves and their crewmates.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Eco-conscious and sustainable thinkers</h3>



<p>Understanding the closed-loop ecosystems of space habitats, space farmers would practice sustainable agriculture, focusing on resource conservation, recycling waste, and ensuring the ecological balance of their farming practices to support long-term human survival and health.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Enthusiastic about moon plant cultivation education</h3>



<p>They’d likely share their knowledge and experiences, contributing to educational programs and scientific communication. Their insights would not only pave the way for future space farmers but also inspire sustainable practices on Earth.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Future-oriented and ethically minded</h3>



<p>As pioneers on the frontier of space, they'd be deeply aware of the ethical implications of introducing Earth life to other planets. Their work would be guided by principles that respect the extraterrestrial environments they work in.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Collaborative team players</h3>



<p>Space farming would require close coordination with other crew members, scientists on Earth, and automated systems. </p>



<p>Space farmers would excel in teamwork and communication, ensuring that agriculture integrates smoothly with other life support and research activities.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-artemis-iii-beyond-growing-plants-on-moon">Artemis III: Beyond growing plants on moon</h2>



<p>Artemis III is about a return to the Moon, but it signifies something bigger. It's a stepping stone toward a future where we don't just visit other worlds, we <em>live</em> on them. </p>



<p>NASA Deputy Administrator Pam Melroy highlights the importance of these experiments: "These three deployed instruments were chosen to begin scientific investigations that will address key <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/studying-the-origin-of-the-moon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Moon</a> to Mars science objectives."</p>



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NASA's Artemis III mission aims to grow plants on the moon by 2026

Gardening under the stars? That's so old-fashioned. NASA's setting its...

<p>In a revealing study, a stark image emerged: boreal forest landscape, once blanketed in snow, now nearly bare. This was not a distant prediction but an observed reality at the SPRUCE Experiment in Minnesota, where researchers mimicked future climates.</p>



<p>And according to the research, even small amounts of warming can <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-drastically-lowers-snows-water-storage-capacity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dramatically change</a> these vast ecosystems.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-boreal-forests">Boreal forests</h2>



<p>Boreal forests, also known as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-climate-change-alter-alaskas-boreal-forest/">tai</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-climate-change-alter-alaskas-boreal-forest/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">g</a><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-does-climate-change-alter-alaskas-boreal-forest/">as</a>, are vast ecosystems located in the northern regions of the globe, just below the Arctic Circle. These forests are characterized by their cold, harsh climates and short growing seasons. </p>



<p>They are primarily made up of coniferous trees such as pines, spruces, and firs, which are well adapted to the cold environment. Boreal forests cover large parts of Russia, Canada, Alaska, and Scandinavia, making them one of the world's largest biome types.</p>



<p>These forests play a crucial role in the Earth's climate system by acting as significant carbon sinks, absorbing large amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. They are also home to a diverse range of wildlife, including bears, wolves, moose, and numerous bird species. </p>



<p>The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unexpected-changes-what-happens-to-boreal-forests-after-fire/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">boreal forest</a> ecosystem is adapted to its cold environment, but it is sensitive to climate change, especially to warming temperatures and the resulting changes in snow cover and permafrost.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-snow-matters">Why snow matters</h2>



<p>For much of the northern hemisphere, snow transforms the landscape into a breathtaking <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-driven-climate-change-is-to-blame-for-sharp-snowpack-declines-since-1980/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">winter wonderland</a>. But beyond its beauty, snow plays a crucial role in the ecosystem:</p>



<ul>
<li><strong>Earth's natural mirror:</strong> Snow's bright surface reflects a significant amount of sunlight. This helps keep the air and ground cooler, slowing down the rate of snowmelt.<br></li>



<li><strong>A cozy insulator:</strong> Snow acts like a fluffy blanket, shielding the plants and diverse creatures of the forest floor from the bitter cold and harsh winds.<br></li>



<li><strong>The source of spring:</strong>&nbsp;As spring arrives, the gradual melt of snowpack provides a steady supply of water, feeding rivers, streams, and the plants that burst back to life after their winter slumber.</li>
</ul>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-less-snow-even-warmer-temperatures">Less Snow, Even Warmer Temperatures</h2>



<p>A team led by Dr. Andrew Richardson of Northern Arizona University (<a href="https://nau.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NAU</a>) investigated the cascading effects of a seemingly minor change: slightly warmer winters. </p>



<p>"Snow is really a critical part of winter in most northern ecosystems," said Richardson. "Transitioning to low- or no-snow winters is going to have major implications for how these ecosystems 'work.'"</p>



<p>Their findings paint a concerning picture:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-extra-warmth-in-boreal-forest">Extra warmth in boreal forest</h3>



<p>Even a degree or two of added warmth results in a substantial decrease in snow cover. This seemingly minor change can have profound effects on global ecosystems and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/extreme-floods-what-turns-a-rainstorm-into-a-catastrophe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">water cycles</a>. The reduction in snow has cascading effects on local and global climates. </p>



<p>For instance, areas that traditionally rely on snowmelt for freshwater may face shortages, affecting both human populations and wildlife. </p>



<p>Additionally, without the reflective surface of snow, the ground absorbs more solar radiation, further increasing local temperatures in a feedback loop that exacerbates the original warming.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-heat-absorbing-soil">Heat-absorbing soil</h3>



<p>Without the reflective power of snow, exposed soil absorbs more of the sun's rays, turning it into a giant heater. </p>



<p>This absorption exacerbates local warming, as the darkened soil surfaces retain more heat compared to the highly reflective snow. </p>



<p>This process not only raises ground temperatures but also contributes to a feedback loop that further accelerates the melting of any remaining <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alpine-ecosystems-are-thrown-off-balance-by-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">snow and ice</a>. </p>



<p>The increased soil temperatures can disrupt local ecosystems, altering the growth cycles of plants and the habitats of wildlife, leading to broader ecological impacts and enhancing the overall warming of the planet.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-warming-feedback-loop">A warming feedback loop</h3>



<p>The additional heat from the sun-absorbing soil elevates air temperatures, accelerating the melt of surrounding snow. </p>



<p>This rapid snowmelt feeds into a vicious cycle. Reduced snow cover increases <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/understanding-how-soil-sequesters-carbon-from-the-atmosphere/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">soil heat absorption</a>, which in turn further warms the air. </p>



<p>This cycle of disappearing snow and escalating temperatures perpetuates a self-reinforcing loop, exacerbating climate warming effects. </p>



<p>Such changes can dramatically alter ecosystems, reduce water availability from snowpack-dependent sources, and increase the frequency of wildfires and other extreme weather events. </p>



<p>The cycle underscores the interconnectedness of climate systems and the significant impact of incremental temperature rises on the environment.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-spruce-experiment-simulating-boreal-forest-winters">The SPRUCE experiment: Simulating boreal forest winters</h2>



<p>To isolate the influence of rising temperatures on boreal forest snow, scientists turned to a fascinating project in Minnesota – the U.S. Department of Energy's <a href="https://mnspruce.ornl.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">SPRUCE Experiment</a>. </p>



<p>Here, researchers carefully increased the temperature in steps, simulating various levels of warming. Time-lapse cameras captured the vanishing snow, providing a stark visual record.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-even-small-changes-matter">Even small changes matter</h2>



<p>The team wasn't prepared for just how quickly the snow in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-shifting-the-earths-coldest-forest-northward/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">boreal forest</a> would disappear. Even with the smallest temperature increase, snowpack dwindled rapidly. This meant plants lost their protection earlier in the season, battled temperature swings, and suffered from dehydration with reduced snowmelt.</p>



<p>The consequences, they worry, could ripple through the entire interconnected web of the forest:</p>



<ul>
<li><strong>Struggling plants:</strong> Untimely exposure to cold and lack of water can stress or even kill trees and other plant life.<br></li>



<li><strong>Drier summers:</strong> Without a healthy snowpack to slowly melt, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/even-moderate-warming-will-transform-northern-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forest</a> might face water shortages in the warmer months.<br></li>



<li><strong>Wildfire risk:</strong>&nbsp;Dried-out forests become tinderboxes, creating a greater risk of devastating wildfires.</li>
</ul>



<p>"We'll likely see negative impacts of low snow, such as frozen soils and damaged plant tissues, as well as reduced spring runoff and drier soils going into summer. Even if you don't like winter, this is just bad news all around," Richardson explains.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-arizona-linked-to-boreal-forests">Arizona linked to boreal forests</h2>



<p>While Arizona's ponderosa pine forests are a world away from the boreal, this study offers a cautionary tale. Even here, we see how sensitive our winters are to a few degrees difference. </p>



<p>Remember the last time Flagstaff was on the verge of a snowstorm, but warmer temperatures brought rain instead? That's a hint of what the future might hold.</p>



<p>"We're kind of close to the edge already...This may sound like good news for local residents who are tired of snow by the end of January, but it probably translates to more stressed forests," warns Richardson.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-a-changing-world">Lessons for a changing world</h2>



<p>This research isn't about mourning the loss of boreal forest snow; it's about understanding the far-reaching effects of climate change:</p>



<ul>
<li><strong>Improving climate models:</strong> This unique study's results will help scientists refine the complex models used to predict our planet's future.<br></li>



<li><strong>Ecosystem management:</strong>&nbsp;Knowing how sensitive a region is to snow loss helps us design strategies to protect forests and the countless species they support.</li>
</ul>



<p>"As someone who loves winter, this is a double dose of bad news -- less snow and more fire danger," reflects Richardson.</p>



<p>While solutions to climate change are complex, this study reminds us that even seemingly small temperature shifts have immense power to reshape our world -- from the faraway boreal forests to our own backyard.</p>



<p>The study is published in <a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2023JG007833" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">J</a><a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/2023jg007833" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ournal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences</a>.</p>



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Just a single degree of warming will wreak havoc in boreal forests

In a revealing study, a stark image emerged: boreal forest...

<p>Seagrass meadows, vital ecosystems teeming with life, are facing an increasingly uncertain future with climate change. </p>



<p>A team of experts from <a href="https://www.jcu.edu.au" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">James Cook University</a> has issued a dire warning: climate change and human activities could devastate these fragile habitats without swift and decisive action.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-are-seagrass-meadows">What are seagrass meadows?</h2>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-reveals-the-evolutionary-adaptations-of-seagrasses/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Seagrasses</a>, intriguingly, are not marine algae but flowering plants that have bravely ventured into the ocean's depths. Over time, through the process of evolution, seagrasses have become adept at thriving underwater. They form extensive, submerged meadows. </p>



<p>These meadows span across the coastlines of the globe. Moreover, these underwater prairies are not just scenic; they are bustling hubs of marine biodiversity.</p>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrasses-continue-to-release-methane-after-they-die/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Seagrasses</a> perform roles that are vital not only for the marine environment but also for the planet as a whole. They are ecosystem engineers, crafting and maintaining habitats that support a wide array of marine life.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-change-warriors">Climate change warriors</h3>



<p>Seagrasses are formidable foes against climate change. They sequester carbon dioxide from the atmosphere at a rate much higher than terrestrial forests, storing it in their leaves, roots, and the surrounding sediment. </p>



<p>This process is a natural way of reducing the amount of greenhouse gases - the primary drivers of global warming.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-guardians-of-the-coast">Guardians of the coast</h3>



<p>The intricate root systems of seagrass not only anchor the plants but also the very seafloor itself, preventing erosion and mitigating the impact of storm surges. This natural barrier helps protect coastal communities from the increasing occurrences of extreme weather events.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nurseries-of-the-sea">Nurseries of the sea</h3>



<p>Seagrass meadows provide a sheltered environment for numerous marine species during their vulnerable juvenile stages. These underwater nurseries play a pivotal role in the life cycles of fish, crabs, and other marine creatures. </p>



<p>They are vital for maintaining biodiversity. Additionally, they bolster fisheries that provide food and livelihoods for millions of people worldwide.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seagrass-climate-change-and-human-activities">Seagrass, climate change and human activities</h2>



<p>Sadly, these remarkable habitats are in decline. "We assessed that more than 50% of WH seagrass habitats are highly vulnerable to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrasses-face-an-uncertain-future-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate change</a> impacts, with long-term increases in sea-surface temperature and short-term marine heat waves being the greatest threats," said Riccardo Losciale, a lead researcher from James Cook University.</p>



<p>Here's a breakdown of the key threats:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Warming waters</h3>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-meadows-under-threat-herbivores-migrating-warm-waters/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Seagrasses</a> thrive within a specific temperature range, a delicate balance that global warming increasingly disrupts. As greenhouse gas emissions escalate, ocean temperatures follow suit, often exceeding the tolerance limits of many seagrass species. </p>



<p>This thermal stress not only inhibits their growth but can also lead to widespread die-offs, reducing the resilience of these ecosystems to other stressors.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Extreme weather</h3>



<p>Marine heatwaves, periods of abnormally high ocean temperatures, have become more frequent and intense due to climate change. These extreme weather events can swiftly decimate seagrass meadows, leaving little time for recovery. </p>



<p>The sudden loss of vast areas of seagrass not only diminishes their ability to store carbon and support marine life but also exposes coastlines to increased erosion.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">The human factor</h3>



<p>Human activities exacerbate the threats to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-is-of-fundamental-importance-to-earths-future/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seagrass meadows</a>, particularly through coastal development and pollution. Construction projects near shorelines often lead to sedimentation, which can smother seagrasses by blocking the sunlight they need for photosynthesis. </p>



<p>Additionally, runoff from agriculture, industry, and urban areas introduces pollutants and excess nutrients into coastal waters. </p>



<p>This eutrophication can cause harmful algal blooms that further reduce light availability and create dead zones where few marine species can survive. Together, these factors create a hostile environment for seagrass, challenging their survival and proliferation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seagrass-decline-due-to-climate-change">Seagrass decline due to climate change</h2>



<p>"On a global scale, the documented area of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-meadows-absorb-less-co2-than-previously-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">seagrass</a> has declined by 19% since the start of the second industrial revolution, around 1870, due to the cumulative impacts of human-caused and climate stressors," Losciale points out.</p>



<p>The path forward isn't easy, but it's necessary. Professor Scott Heron noted that a multi-pronged approach is crucial. "We found most seagrass site managers are not well equipped to effectively deal with these impacts, possibly leading to management strategies that less effectively address climate change."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-seagrasses-from-climate-change">Saving seagrasses from climate change</h2>



<p>Here's the action plan outlined by the research team:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Cut the carbon</h3>



<p>Dr. Heron emphasized the critical need for a swift and significant reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, pinpointing them as the primary culprit behind climate change. </p>



<p>This global challenge demands a concerted effort from nations worldwide to transition towards renewable energy sources, implement more efficient energy use, and adopt sustainable practices that curb emissions. </p>



<p>It’s a monumental task but essential for stabilizing ocean temperatures and creating a more favorable environment for seagrass meadows.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Shielding seagrass against climate change</h3>



<p>Protecting coastal areas involves halting practices that directly harm seagrass ecosystems. This means regulating coastal development to prevent habitat destruction, controlling pollution sources to improve water quality, and implementing protective measures to prevent runoff from carrying pollutants and sediments into the sea. </p>



<p>By preserving the integrity of coastal zones, we can ensure that seagrass meadows continue to thrive.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Collaborative conservation efforts</h3>



<p>The preservation of seagrass meadows requires the combined efforts of scientists, coastal managers, policymakers, and local communities. This collaboration can lead to the development of effective management strategies that consider both scientific knowledge and the socio-economic context of coastal regions. </p>



<p>Engaging local communities in conservation efforts ensures that those who directly depend on coastal resources are involved in protecting them.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Monitoring matters</h3>



<p>Understanding the current state and trends in seagrass health is essential for effective conservation. Developing detailed maps of seagrass meadows and employing systematic monitoring techniques can provide the data needed to assess the impacts of threats and the effectiveness of management actions. </p>



<p>Advances in remote sensing and marine survey technologies are making it easier to track changes in seagrass coverage and condition over time, allowing for timely interventions.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Engaging the public</h3>



<p>The broader public has a vital role to play in seagrass conservation. Raising awareness about the importance of seagrass meadows and the threats they face can inspire more people to support conservation efforts. </p>



<p>Moreover, citizen science projects offer an opportunity for individuals to contribute directly to scientific research and conservation by monitoring local seagrass health, reporting pollution incidents, or participating in restoration projects. </p>



<p>Such engagement not only aids in conservation efforts but also fosters a deeper connection between people and their marine environment.</p>



<p>Seagrasses quietly contribute to the health of our oceans in countless ways. We cannot afford to neglect these vital underwater ecosystems. Now is the time to take action, both globally and locally, to ensure their survival.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.17113" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Change Biology</a></em>.</p>



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Seagrass meadows and climate change: An uncertain future

Seagrass meadows, vital ecosystems teeming with life, are facing an...

The,Portrait,Of,Wild,Lizard,(blue-crested,Lizard),On,The,Tree.

<p>New research highlights the plight of lizards due to the widespread loss of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/should-we-cut-down-all-the-oak-trees-a-disturbing-discovery-makes-this-question-plausible/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a>. The study has revealed that the combined stress of deforestation and climate change will negatively impact up to 84 percent of North America's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/anoles-are-the-scuba-diving-champions-of-the-lizard-world/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lizards</a> by the end of the century.</p>



<p>According to scientists from <a href="https://m.tau.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tel Aviv University</a> and the <a href="https://www.cu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Colorado</a>, lizards are particularly sensitive to temperature fluctuations, making them ideal indicators of how climate change impacts wildlife. The problems they face foreshadow challenges for a wide variety of animals.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lizards-and-the-importance-of-trees">Lizards and the importance of trees</h2>



<p><a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-struggling-to-breathe-store-co2-hotter-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Trees</a> act as natural air conditioners. The shade they provide creates a significantly cooler environment compared to the sun-exposed ground. This cooling effect is vital for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coexisting-lizards-challenge-what-we-know-about-natural-selection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lizards</a>, which, as ectotherms, rely on external sources to regulate their body temperature.</p>



<p>Beyond mere shade, trees offer a variety of microhabitats within a single structure. By moving around a tree, lizards can find microclimates that suit their thermal needs at different times of the day or year. </p>



<p>These microhabitats become critical refuges, especially as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sandy-soil-reptiles-face-extinction-threat-due-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ground temperatures</a> become increasingly inhospitable due to global warming.</p>



<p>"Animals will become increasingly dependent on trees for survival as temperatures rise," said study co-author Dr. Ofir Levy. </p>



<p>Within a single tree, temperatures become cooler and wind increases with height. A lizard can strategically move between sun, shade, and the breezy higher branches to regulate its temperature.</p>



<p>Dr. Levy's team observed this directly. "We'd see the lizards actively using different parts of the tree to find the most comfortable temperature. It underscored their absolute reliance on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-too-many-trees-could-spoil-the-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a>," he said. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lizards-trees-and-climate-change">Lizards, trees and climate change</h2>



<p>At first glance, the effects of a warming climate might seem beneficial for cold-blooded creatures like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-lizard-faces-an-unexpected-threat/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">lizards</a>. These animals depend on external heat sources to regulate their body temperature. </p>



<p>Therefore, a warmer environment could potentially extend their periods of activity, allowing them more time for essential behaviors like foraging, mating, and territory defense. </p>



<p>The study suggests that in many places, climate change could initially allow lizards to thrive due to reduced periods of cold that force them into inactivity.</p>



<p>However, the research underscores a critical caveat: the initial benefits of a warmer climate are significantly overshadowed by the adverse effects when combined with habitat destruction caused by humans, such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deforestation-threatens-the-future-of-8-in-10-lizards/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">deforestation</a>. </p>



<p>As discussed, trees not only provide crucial shade and cooler microhabitats but also serve as vital platforms for many of the lizards' activities, including escaping predators, finding food, and even regulating their body temperature.</p>



<p>Study co-author Omer Zlotnick explained: "Computer simulations show that in warmer regions, climate change alone could harm lizards populations. Add in tree loss, and the situation becomes far worse."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-tree-loss-beyond-lizards">Impact of tree loss beyond lizards</h2>



<p>Lizards are not the only animals that face hardships associated with deforestation. The loss of trees disrupts the delicate thermal balance that countless species depend on.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Impact on birds</h3>



<p>Birds use <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-are-in-big-trouble-and-scientists-are-sounding-the-alarm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a> for more than just nesting; trees provide essential shade that helps regulate the temperature of nests, protecting eggs and young chicks from overheating. This natural cooling system is crucial for the survival of fledglings. </p>



<p>Without the canopy cover, nests become exposed to direct sunlight, leading to increased temperatures that can be lethal to the eggs and young birds. </p>



<p>Similarly to lizards, birds use trees for protection from predators and a supply of food through fruits, seeds, and insects. The loss of trees thus not only threatens their thermal comfort but also their food security and safety.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Impact on mammals</h3>



<p>Mammals, ranging from small rodents to large predators, often adapt to rising temperatures by moving to higher altitudes, where the climate is naturally cooler. </p>



<p>However, as deforestation expands and climate change exacerbates, these once-forested areas at higher elevations are becoming barren. </p>



<p>This shift not only leaves mammals without the necessary cover and resources found in forested habitats but also forces them into closer quarters with other species, potentially leading to increased competition for dwindling resources and higher susceptibility to predation. </p>



<p>The lack of vegetation at higher altitudes also means less carbon sequestration, a vital process in mitigating climate change.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-take-action-to-protect-trees">Take action to protect trees </h2>



<p>While the news is sobering, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-trees-surrounded-by-less-asphalt-grow-taller-and-stronger/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a> offer a powerful solution, and we can take action to protect them. "Our research demonstrates the crucial role forests and trees play for animals struggling with a changing climate," said Dr. Levy.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Advocate for forest protection</h3>



<p>Take a stand for forest conservation by voicing your support for policies and initiatives aimed at <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-newest-oldest-forest-recently-discovered-is-full-of-calamophyton-trees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">protecting forests</a>. Whether it's through signing petitions, joining conservation groups, or contacting your representatives, your advocacy can help halt deforestation. </p>



<p>Make informed decisions when purchasing products by choosing those that do not contribute to forest loss. Look for certifications that indicate sustainable sourcing.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Participate in tree-planting efforts</h3>



<p>Engage directly in the fight against deforestation by taking part in local tree-planting campaigns. Many communities and environmental organizations organize events aimed at reforesting areas that have been cleared or degraded. </p>



<p>If you have the space, consider planting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-trees-are-not-responding-well-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">native trees</a> on your own property. Not only do trees absorb carbon dioxide, but they also provide habitats for wildlife, contributing to biodiversity.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Support sustainable forestry practices</h3>



<p>Backing sustainable forestry practices is crucial in ensuring that forests can be used without being destroyed. This includes purchasing products from companies that are committed to reducing their impact on forests. </p>



<p>Additionally, consider reducing your paper consumption where possible, opting for digital alternatives, and recycling paper products. </p>



<p>By making these sustainable choices, you contribute to a demand for responsibly sourced products, encouraging industries to adopt practices that protect rather than harm forests.</p>



<p>The next time you're grateful for shade on a hot day, remember the countless creatures like lizards that depend on trees for their very survival. By taking steps to protect trees, we safeguard the delicate balance that allows wildlife (and ourselves) to thrive.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-024-01939-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Climate Change</em></a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Lizards rely on trees, so what happens when they disappear?

New research highlights the plight of lizards due to the...

<p>We're all told that planting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-too-many-trees-could-spoil-the-planet/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a> is a fantastic way to fight climate change. But what if it's not always that simple? A new study by <a href="https://www.clarku.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Clark University</a> reveals a hidden factor, the albedo effect, that could turn a well-intended tree-planting project into a climate misstep.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-basics-trees-as-climate-heroes">The basics: Trees as climate heroes</h2>



<p>We know the basics – <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/should-we-cut-down-all-the-oak-trees-a-disturbing-discovery-makes-this-question-plausible/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a> breathe in carbon dioxide (CO2), a major greenhouse gas, and store that carbon in their trunks, branches, and roots. It's like nature's own carbon capture technology. That's why ambitious tree-planting programs are popping up worldwide as a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/young-trees-are-not-responding-well-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate</a> solution.</p>



<p>However, there's a less obvious way trees interact with the Earth's climate, and it has everything to do with sunlight.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-albedo-effect-earth-s-reflectivity-factor">Albedo effect: Earth's reflectivity factor</h2>



<p>Albedo is a measure of how much sunlight a surface bounces back into space. Think of it like this: bright surfaces keep things cool, dark surfaces heat things up. </p>



<p>These differences in 'reflectiveness' have a huge impact on temperatures around the world.</p>



<p>Snow and ice have high albedo, acting like giant mirrors for sunlight and helping keep things chilly. Dark surfaces, like oceans, forests, or even city streets have low albedo. They soak up sunlight like a sponge, which turns into heat.</p>



<p>Forests, despite their amazing benefits for cleaning the air and sheltering wildlife, actually make their surroundings warmer. </p>



<p>See, all those dark leaves are like millions of tiny solar panels, collecting energy from the sun. This is the opposite of what happens with super reflective snow, keeping sunlight from being turned into heat.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tree-planting-and-the-albedo-effect">Tree planting and the albedo effect</h2>



<p>While <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-planting-campaigns-fall-short-of-successful-reforestation/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">planting trees</a> is often touted as a straightforward solution to climate change, the reality is far more complicated.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Snowy region tree planting</h3>



<p>As discussed, in snowy regions, the ground naturally has a high albedo due to the reflective properties of snow and ice. This means that a significant portion of the sunlight that hits these surfaces is reflected back into the atmosphere, helping to keep the Earth's temperature in check. </p>



<p>However, when these snow-covered landscapes are replaced with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-fungi-determine-the-gradient-of-forest-diversity-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">dark forests</a>, the albedo effect decreases dramatically. The dark foliage of trees absorbs more sunlight, converting it into heat and leading to an increase in local temperatures. </p>



<p>This process can inadvertently contribute to warming, undermining the climate benefits traditionally associated with tree planting.</p>



<p>The implications of this are profound, particularly for reforestation efforts in boreal regions and areas prone to seasonal snow cover. While the intention behind such projects is to sequester carbon and mitigate global warming, the reduction in albedo could offset these benefits. </p>



<p>As such, it's essential to weigh the carbon sequestration potential of new <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deep-learning-can-help-track-changes-in-forest-cover/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">forests</a> against the potential for increased local warming due to decreased albedo.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Albedo effect on trees in semi-arid areas</h3>



<p>The albedo effect plays a critical role in semi-arid areas as well, albeit in a different manner. These regions, characterized by their sparse vegetation and dry conditions, have a naturally lower albedo compared to snowy landscapes. </p>



<p>However, the introduction of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trees-struggling-to-breathe-store-co2-hotter-climate/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trees</a> into these environments still results in a decrease in albedo, albeit less dramatically. The trees' dark surfaces absorb more sunlight than the surrounding land, potentially leading to local warming.</p>



<p>In semi-arid regions, the trade-off between the benefits of carbon sequestration and the potential for increased heat absorption due to lower albedo is a delicate balance. </p>



<p>While trees can provide numerous environmental benefits, including soil stabilization and habitat provision, their impact on local temperatures through changes in albedo must be considered. </p>



<p>In some cases, the warming effect may partially offset the cooling benefits derived from carbon storage.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">A considered approach to reforestation</h3>



<p>This complex interplay between albedo, local climates, and reforestation efforts underscores the need for a nuanced approach to tree planting. It's clear that reforestation is not a one-size-fits-all solution to climate change. </p>



<p>Instead, projects must be carefully planned and executed with an understanding of the local environment and the potential climate impacts.</p>



<p>Selecting the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/species-richness-linked-to-forest-productivity-in-the-eastern-u-s/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">right species of trees</a>, considering their albedo effect, and strategically choosing planting locations are critical steps in maximizing the climate benefits of reforestation. </p>



<p>In some cases, this may mean prioritizing tree planting in areas where the decrease in albedo will not lead to significant warming, or where the benefits of carbon sequestration outweigh potential drawbacks.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-tool-for-smarter-tree-planting">A New Tool for Smarter Tree Planting</h2>



<p>"The balance of carbon storage versus albedo change that comes from restoring tree cover varies from place to place," explains lead researcher Natalia Hasler. "But until now we didn't have the tools to tell the good climate solutions from the bad."</p>



<p>This landmark study changes the game! Scientists have developed highly detailed maps showing where tree planting makes the most sense for maximizing climate benefits. </p>



<p>They've even created a user-friendly tool to help governments, conservation groups, and landowners make informed decisions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-good-news-we-can-still-plant-smart">The good news: We can still plant smart</h2>



<p>Thankfully, many existing tree-planting efforts are already focused on areas where the benefits are strongest. However, even in these ideal locations, adjustments might be needed. </p>



<p>The true <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-outpaces-the-ability-for-trees-to-adapt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">climate impact</a> might be smaller than initial carbon-only estimates suggested.</p>



<p>"We've addressed a significant research gap and gained a much more complete picture of how restoring tree cover can impact our global climate -- both positively and also sometimes negatively," says co-author Susan Cook-Patton.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-albedo-means-for-you">What albedo means for you</h2>



<ul>
<li><strong>Support informed projects</strong>: If you donate to tree-planting, ensure the organization is considering the albedo effect and focusing on the right locations.<br></li>



<li><strong>Don't lose hope in trees</strong>: Trees offer countless benefits beyond climate mitigation – biodiversity, cleaner air and water, and stronger communities. This research doesn't change that.<br></li>



<li><strong>Climate action is multifaceted</strong>: Fighting climate change effectively means using a variety of tools and strategies. Explore supporting renewable energy initiatives, reducing your own energy use, changing your dietary choices, or getting involved in local climate advocacy.</li>
</ul>



<p>Climate science is complex, which means solutions rarely come with a neat little bow. But science's true power is that it keeps improving. </p>



<p>This albedo effect research gives us a better roadmap, empowering us to make even smarter choices about tree-planting, ensuring these efforts are a true force for good in the fight for a healthier planet.</p>



<p>The study is published in&nbsp;<a href="https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-46577-1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Could tree planting warm Earth? Science behind the albedo effect

We're all told that planting trees is a fantastic way...

<p>A new study by an international team of scientists highlights the potential for a widespread forest type to make a major comeback in Europe. </p>



<p>Eurasian aspens, often overlooked in commercial forestry, could be the key to boosting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-biodiversity-crisis-is-actually-worse-than-we-thought/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biodiversity</a> and improving forest resilience in the face of climate change.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-underestimated-aspen-forests">Underestimated aspen forests</h2>



<p>Aspen forests are ecosystems dominated by aspen trees, primarily found in colder regions of the Northern Hemisphere. The two most common types of aspen are the Eurasian aspen (Populus tremula) in Europe and Asia, and the quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) in North America. </p>



<p>These forests support a wide range of plant and animal species, known for their remarkable biodiversity.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aspen-trees-role-in-biodiversity">Aspen trees' role in biodiversity</h2>



<p>Aspens are deciduous trees, meaning they lose their leaves in the fall. They are particularly noted for their trembling leaves, which flutter even in slight breezes due to their flat stems. This distinctive feature of the quaking aspen is both a visual and auditory experience unique to these forests.</p>



<p>One of the key characteristics of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/aspen-trees-change-their-genetic-structure-to-adapt/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">aspen trees</a> is their ability to reproduce through both seeds and a process called suckering, where new stems grow from the root system of a single parent tree.</p>



<p> This allows aspens to quickly colonize areas, making them highly effective in regenerating after disturbances such as fire or clear-cutting. As a result, aspen forests can change rapidly and are very dynamic over time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-forests-matter-for-biodiversity">Why aspen forests matter for biodiversity</h2>



<p>Aspen forests hold crucial ecological importance. They provide a unique habitat for a wide variety of insects, plants, and animals, fostering a rich and diverse ecosystem.</p>



<p>These forests also have a remarkable ability to regenerate and thrive even after disturbances like fires, diseases, insect outbreaks, and windstorms – events that are expected to become more frequent with climate change.</p>



<p>"The Eurasian aspen, and aspen species globally, are home to vast populations of other dependent plants and animals," noted Antonin Kusbach of <a href="https://mendelu.cz/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mendel University</a> in Brno, Czechia.</p>



<p>"Additionally, aspen systems regenerate and colonize new areas quickly, so these types of forests are ideally adaptive to increased forest disturbances like fire, diseases, insect infestations, and windstorms, that are widely anticipated under climate warming scenarios."</p>



<p>Unfortunately, aspen forests have experienced a significant decline in Europe. Commercial forestry practices, often favoring monocultures of conifer species, have led to the replacement of diverse aspen habitats.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-aspen-promise-of-biodiversity-comeback">Aspen promise of biodiversity comeback</h2>



<p>The study offers encouraging insights. The research indicates that there is an extensive amount of suitable habitat for the Eurasian aspen across Europe. Surprisingly, it spans millions of hectares. </p>



<p>This isn't just about small, isolated pockets of land; it's about vast stretches of territory that could support aspen growth and development. The implication is profound: there's a massive opportunity for re-establishing and expanding aspen forests across the continent.</p>



<p>As discussed, the Eurasian aspen's ability to regenerate quickly through both seeds and suckering means it can recolonize areas relatively easily. This characteristic, combined with the tree's adaptability to different environmental conditions, makes it an ideal candidate for large-scale forest <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biodiversity-time-machine-reveals-a-century-of-biological-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">restoration</a> and rewilding projects. </p>



<p>Such efforts could significantly enhance biodiversity, restore ecosystems, and improve ecological resilience.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Climate suitability</h3>



<p>Equally important, the researchers expect these potential aspen habitats to remain viable even as the global climate continues to warm. This resilience is crucial in the face of climate change, which is altering habitats and threatening species worldwide. </p>



<p>Aspen forests can act as refuges and biodiversity reservoirs for species displaced by changing conditions. The aspen's adaptability positions these forests as crucial in climate mitigation, sequestering carbon, cooling microclimates, and preventing soil erosion.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-restoration-strategies">Restoration strategies</h2>



<p>Reviving Europe's aspen forests will require a shift in forest management practices, as Paul Rogers from Utah State University emphasized.</p>



<p>"A course correction in European forest management could help reestablish these amazing forests. Within every acre of aspen forest that returns, plant and animal diversity will flourish," said Rogers.</p>



<p>Interestingly, Antonin Kusbach has observed aspen naturally recolonizing areas after the removal of spruce trees. This suggests that targeted <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-solutions-for-the-climate-and-biodiversity-crisis/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">interventions</a>, along with natural processes, could play a significant role in aspen forest restoration.</p>



<p>Restoring aspen forests isn't simply about trees; it's about revitalizing entire ecosystems and enhancing their ability to withstand the challenges of a changing climate. The research underscores the remarkable potential of these forests, offering a pathway toward a more biodiverse and resilient Europe.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0301109" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS ONE</a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Aspen forests could help reverse biodiversity loss in Europe

A new study by an international team of scientists highlights...

Fungi,Aspergillus,,Black,Mold,Which,Produce,Aflatoxins,And,Cause,Pulmonary

<p>Fungi and their evolution play a critical role in keeping our ecosystems in balance. These master decomposers thrive within the forest floor, steadily breaking down fallen leaves, dead trees, and other organic matter to release essential nutrients back into the Earth. </p>



<p>When we imagine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fungi-in-boreal-forests-are-sensitive-to-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fungi</a>, mushrooms often come to mind first. However, beneath the surface lies a vast and complex network of fungal structures.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hyphae-in-fungi">Hyphae in fungi</h2>



<p>Deep within the soil, fungi develop a vast network of thin strands called mycelia. These structures consist of numerous interconnected, microscopic tubes referred to as hyphae. </p>



<p>Hyphae extend through the soil, seeking nutrients to sustain their growth. To facilitate this growth and movement, hyphae inflate, enabling them to traverse their surroundings and assimilate nutrients efficiently. </p>



<p>The tips of these hyphae vary in shape: some are round, others are sharply pointed, and a few exhibit unusual, lumpy appearances.</p>



<p>Why the different shapes? Researchers at New York University (<a href="https://www.nyu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NYU</a>) have solved that puzzle. </p>



<p>"A major challenge in biology is to identify the specific evolutionary factors that determine the shape -- or form -- of a given organism," says Enrique Rojas, assistant professor of biology at NYU and senior author of the study.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fungi-hyphae-shaped-by-more-than-evolution">Fungi hyphae: Shaped by more than evolution</h2>



<p>To figure out why fungi boast such diverse hyphae shapes, Rojas and his team combined theoretical models with observations of fungi in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/soil-fungi-determine-the-gradient-of-forest-diversity-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nature</a>. </p>



<p>First, they used physics-based simulations to map out all the "possible" shapes hyphae could take based on how they grow. </p>



<p>Surprisingly, they found that the array of forms actually seen in the fungal world was only a small fraction of those possibilities. </p>



<p>This raised an intriguing question: were the limited hyphae shapes observed in nature a testament to "survival of the fittest"?</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-shapes-and-forms-of-fungi">Evolutionary shapes and forms of fungi </h2>



<p>For example, certain hyphae shapes might be better at helping the fungus find food, grow strong, and reproduce. </p>



<p>These fitter shapes get passed on, whereas shapes that don't help the fungus thrive wouldn't stick around in the long run, fading away as evolutionary rejects. </p>



<p>To test this idea, researchers set their sights on determining which shapes help fungi grow the fastest and strongest.</p>



<p>"Our eureka moment was when we realized that the shapes of hyphae were intimately connected to their ability to grow fast," explains Maxim Ohairwe, a PhD student in NYU's Department of Biology and the lead author of the paper.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-tipping-point-limits-fungal-shapes">The tipping point limits fungal shapes</h2>



<p>Let's introduce a concept from evolutionary biology, a fitness landscape. This framework helps us understand how well a species adapts and evolves. </p>



<p>In this context, researchers have found that the fitness landscape for fungi includes a significant feature -- a cliff. This cliff, or 'tipping point', signifies a boundary beyond which certain hyphal shapes become less stable and disadvantageous. </p>



<p>The presence of this tipping point acts as a barrier, limiting the range of shapes that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microscopic-fungi-help-forests-fight-climate-change/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fungi</a> can evolve into. Importantly, fungi with shapes approaching this tipping point are highly susceptible to even minor environmental changes, which can have profound effects on their survival and function.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tipping-point-and-fungi-evolution">Tipping point and fungi evolution</h2>



<p>The team put this theory to the ultimate test. They took fungi near the tipping point and exposed them to tiny amounts of carefully selected chemicals that messed with hyphae growth -- some messing with internal pressure, others affecting how the cell builds itself. </p>



<p>Surprisingly, those treated hyphae slowed dramatically, and they grew strange, bulbous shapes rarely, if ever, seen in natural fungi.</p>



<p>"Our findings explain hyphal shape diversity in an enormous, diverse, and important group of species," said Rojas. "More broadly, they also demonstrate an important new evolutionary principle: that fitness landscapes can have instabilities, or tipping points, that impose strict constraints on complex traits, like biological form."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-potential-applications">Potential applications</h2>



<p>Understanding the evolutionary "tipping point" in fungi, as highlighted by recent research, could revolutionize sectors like agriculture, medicine, and environmental conservation. In agriculture, knowledge of how fungi evolve offers the potential for smarter crop disease control. </p>



<p>By targeting the weaknesses created by a fungus's evolutionary trajectory, researchers could design more precise and less ecologically harmful treatments to stop crop-destroying diseases. </p>



<p>Overall, this holds the promise of increased food security and reduced reliance on the broad-spectrum pesticides that can harm beneficial organisms and the environment.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-medical-field">Medical field</h2>



<p>The findings aren't just a boon for farmers -- the medical field stands to gain as well. Traditional antibiotics are becoming a less reliable weapon against infection as resistance spreads. </p>



<p>But, by pinpointing the constraints evolution places on disease-causing fungi, we could develop highly targeted antimicrobial treatments. </p>



<p>These new drugs might sidestep existing resistance mechanisms and work more effectively, potentially saving lives and lowering healthcare costs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conserving-the-evolution-of-fungi">Conserving the evolution of fungi</h2>



<p>Understanding fungal tipping points can be an ace up the sleeve of conservationists. Fungi are integral to healthy ecosystems, breaking down materials and cycling nutrients. </p>



<p>Predicting how fungi might react to the pressures of climate change will be key in preserving biodiversity. </p>



<p>It might even allow us to encourage the growth of fungi that help fight climate change, such as those that lock carbon away or clean up pollutants.</p>



<p>Sometimes the smallest and strangest organisms teach us the biggest lessons. This discovery of evolutionary tipping points in fungi highlights how unpredictable and complex the natural world can be. </p>



<p>The study is publsihed in <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell-reports/fulltext/S2211-1247(24)00289-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell Reports</a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

'Tipping point' discovered in fungi evolution that impacts their shape and growth rate

Fungi and their evolution play a critical role in keeping...

A,Tropical,Forest,In,Mauritius,,Trees,With,Curved,Visible,Roots

<p>New research reveals how excess <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-use-their-roots-to-sense-manganese-deficiency/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">manganese</a> harms the carbon-storing abilities of crucial northern forests. Up to 30% of the world's soil carbon lies beneath the ancient trees of the forest. That makes boreal forests critical allies in the fight against climate change. </p>



<p>We picture them as natural superheroes, absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and safely locking it away for centuries. </p>



<p>But what if there's a hidden villain in this story, subtly undermining the forests' heroic work?</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-manganese-mystery">The manganese mystery</h2>



<p>The recent study from <a href="https://duke.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duke University</a> casts a spotlight on the culprit: manganese. </p>



<p>This often underappreciated element plays a vital role in plant growth, but it turns out manganese's influence extends far beyond individual trees. </p>



<p>In excess, it acts as a catalyst, speeding up the decomposition of organic matter in the forest floor.</p>



<p>When leaves, fallen branches, and other plant debris decay, they release some of their stored carbon into the atmosphere. This is a natural cycle. </p>



<p>But manganese throws this process into overdrive. The study discovered that over time, high levels of manganese in the soil contribute to the release of additional carbon dioxide – a potent greenhouse gas.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-carbon-storage-and-manganese">Carbon storage and manganese</h2>



<p>"Conventional wisdom is these forests are like a global vault of carbon, where carbon is put into the vault versus taken out," says William H. Schlesinger, a renowned researcher from Duke University. </p>



<p>But this study throws that conventional wisdom into question. </p>



<p>Manganese acts as a skeleton key, slowly but surely unlocking a portion of that stored carbon, with far-reaching consequences for our planet.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-industrialization-and-manganese-carbon-storage">Industrialization and manganese carbon storage</h2>



<p>Human activities, particularly industrial operations and the combustion of fossil fuels, have a profound impact on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unsafe-levels-manganese-water/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">environment</a>, contributing to climate change and altering natural ecosystems in numerous ways. </p>



<p>One such impact involves the release of manganese particles into the atmosphere. Here's a deeper dive into how this process unfolds and its consequences:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Industrial emissions and fossil fuel combustion</h3>



<p>Industries such as metal smelting and the manufacturing of batteries, as well as the burning of fossil fuels (like coal, oil, and natural gas) for energy and transportation, emit a wide range of pollutants into the air. </p>



<p>Among these pollutants are particles of manganese, a metal used extensively in steel production and other industrial processes. </p>



<p>While manganese is naturally occurring and an essential nutrient for plant and animal life in trace amounts, in higher concentrations, it can become harmful.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Atmospheric transport</h3>



<p>Once released, manganese particles can travel vast distances through the atmosphere. </p>



<p>This dispersal is facilitated by wind patterns and weather conditions, allowing the manganese to move far from its original emission source. </p>



<p>Over time, these particles can settle onto the surface of leaves and eventually make their way into the soil, particularly in forested areas.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Impact on forest ecosystems</h2>



<p>The accumulation of manganese in forest soils can significantly alter the nutrient balance within these ecosystems. </p>



<p>Forests, especially boreal forests in northern latitudes, play a critical role in the global <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-level-rise-influences-coastal-carbon-storage-capacity/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">carbon</a> cycle. </p>



<p>They act as major reservoirs of carbon by storing it in biomass and soil, thus helping to mitigate the effects of climate change by reducing the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.</p>



<p>However, excessive manganese can disrupt these ecosystems' ability to sequester carbon effectively. </p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Long-Term ecological Changes</h3>



<p>The gradual buildup of manganese from industrial and fossil fuel emissions over decades poses a significant threat to the delicate balance of forest ecosystems. It can affect not only the soil's chemical composition and fertility but also the health and diversity of plant and animal life within these environments. Changes in soil nutrient levels can lead to shifts in plant species composition, impacting the entire food web.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forest-carbon-manganese-and-time">Forest carbon, manganese, and time</h2>



<p>A dedicated team of scientists carefully tracked changes in boreal forests worldwide and conducted a 14-year experiment. </p>



<p>In China's Daxing'an Mountains, they deliberately added manganese fertilizer to research plots. The results were concerning.</p>



<p>"It is essential to figure out which factors regulate this huge carbon pool [in boreal forests' soil], especially given continuous… industrialization," states Yunyu Zhang, lead researcher on the project. </p>



<p>They discovered that in just four years, carbon storage in the high-manganese plots decreased by a significant 13%.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-urgent-action-is-needed">Urgent action is needed</h2>



<p>"There's no proverbial foolproof vault or absolute forest sink," Schlesinger cautions. </p>



<p>We have to view our planet holistically, understanding the intricate interactions between nutrients, industrial pollutants, and the ecosystems we rely on. </p>



<p>This manganese study serves as a wake-up call, urging us to investigate these links even more thoroughly if we are to preserve the crucial carbon-storing power of forests.</p>



<p>The forest, it seems, is full of mysteries waiting to be unraveled. The story of manganese teaches us that nature is far more complex than we sometimes realize. </p>



<p>It also shows us that even with the best intentions, our actions can have unforeseen effects. The key is to stay curious, to keep investigating, and to adjust our approach in the light of new knowledge. </p>



<p>Only then can we truly be worthy guardians of our planet's precious forests.</p>



<p>The study is published in the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2318382121" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Manganese in soil can turn forests into carbon emitters rather than vaults

New research reveals how excess manganese harms the carbon-storing abilities...

<p>Modern hybrid sugarcane, one of the most harvested crops on the planet, has finally had its genome mapped out by a team of dedicated scientists. </p>



<p>This breakthrough marks a significant milestone in the field of plant genomics, as sugarcane was the last major crop without a complete and highly accurate genome due to its complex <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/these-plants-have-maintained-genetic-stability-for-350-million-years/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic blueprint</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unraveling-the-sugarcane-genome-complexity">Unraveling the sugarcane genome complexity</h2>



<p>The research, conducted at the U.S. Department of Energy Joint Genome Institute (<a href="https://jgi.doe.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">JGI</a>), was led by Jeremy Schmutz. He is the Plant Program lead at the JGI and faculty investigator at the <a href="https://www.hudsonalpha.org/">HudsonAlpha Instit</a><a href="https://www.hudsonalpha.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">u</a><a href="https://www.hudsonalpha.org/">te for Biotechnology</a>. </p>



<p>"This was the most complicated genome sequence we've yet completed. It shows how far we've come," Schmutz explained. "This is the kind of thing that 10 years ago people thought was impossible. We're able to accomplish goals now that we just didn't think were possible to do in plant genomics."</p>



<p>Sugarcane's genome is incredibly complex, with about 10 billion base pairs (the building blocks of DNA) compared to the human genome's 3 billion. </p>



<p>The complexity arises from sugarcane's polyploidy, meaning it contains more copies of chromosomes than a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/coffee-plants-fight-climate-change-with-a-genetic-weapon/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">typical plant</a>. </p>



<p>Many sections of sugarcane's DNA are identical both within and across different chromosomes, making it a challenge to correctly reassemble all the small segments of DNA while reconstructing the full genetic blueprint.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-innovative-gene-sequencing-techniques">Innovative gene sequencing techniques</h2>



<p>To solve this puzzle, researchers combined multiple genetic sequencing techniques, including a newly developed method known as PacBio HiFi sequencing that can accurately determine the sequence of longer sections of DNA. </p>



<p>This innovative approach allowed them to successfully map out sugarcane's <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetic-memories-how-plants-pass-down-information-across-generations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genetic code</a> and verify the specific location that provides resistance to the impactful brown rust disease, which can devastate sugar crops if left unchecked.</p>



<p>"When we sequenced the genome, we were able to fill a gap in the genetic sequence around brown rust disease. There are hundreds of thousands of genes in the sugarcane genome, but it's only two genes, working together, that protect the plant from this pathogen," said Adam Healey, first author of the paper and a researcher at HudsonAlpha.</p>



<p>"Across plants, there are only a handful of instances that we know of where protection works in a similar way. Better understanding of how this disease resistance works in sugarcane could help protect other crops facing similar pathogens down the road," Healey explained.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unlocking-the-potential-for-improved-sugarcane-varieties">Unlocking the potential for improved sugarcane varieties</h2>



<p>The study focused on a cultivar of sugarcane known as R570, which has been used for decades around the world as the model to understand sugarcane genetics. </p>



<p>Like all modern sugarcane cultivars, R570 is a hybrid made by crossing the domesticated species of sugarcane (which excelled in sugar production) and a wild species (which carried the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/corn-plants-use-jumping-genes-to-adapt-to-their-environment/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">genes</a> for disease resistance).</p>



<p>"Knowing R570's complete genetic picture will let researchers trace which genes descended from which parent, enabling breeders to more easily identify the genes that control the traits of interest for improved production," said Angélique D'Hont, last author of the paper and a sugarcane researcher at the French Agricultural Research Center for International Development (<a href="https://www.cirad.fr/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CIRAD</a>).</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sugarcane-genome-implications-for-agriculture-and-bioenergy">Sugarcane genome implications for agriculture and bioenergy</h2>



<p>Improving future varieties of sugarcane has potential applications in both agriculture and bioenergy. Enhancing how sugarcane produces sugar could increase the yield farmers get from their crops, providing more sugar from the same amount of growing space.</p>



<p>Sugarcane is also an important feedstock for producing biofuels, particularly ethanol, and other bioproducts. </p>



<p>The residues that remain after the pressing of sugarcane, referred to as bagasse, can be broken down and converted into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biofuels-may-eliminate-90-of-black-smoke-emissions-from-cars/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">biofuels</a> and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/biodegradable-breakthrough-plastics-that-wont-make-us-sick/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bioproducts</a>.</p>



<p>"We are working to understand how specific genes in plants relate to the quality of the biomass we get downstream, which we can then turn into biofuels and bioproducts," said Blake Simmons, Chief Science and Technology Officer for the <a href="https://www.jbei.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Joint BioEnergy Institute</a>, a DOE Bioenergy Research Center led by <a href="https://www.lbl.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Berkeley Lab</a>. </p>



<p>"With a better understanding of sugarcane genetics, we can better understand and control the plant genotypes needed to produce the sugars and bagasse-derived intermediates we need for sustainable sugarcane conversion technologies at a scale relevant to the bioeconomy," Simmons concluded.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-future-holds-for-this-sweet-success-story">What the future holds for this sweet success story</h2>



<p>In summary, the successful mapping of sugarcane's complex genome marks a significant milestone in plant genomics and opens up exciting possibilities for the future. </p>



<p>By combining innovative sequencing techniques, researchers have unlocked the genetic secrets of this important crop. This has, in turn, cleared the path for breeding improved varieties that can enhance sugar production, increase disease resistance, and contribute to sustainable bioenergy solutions. </p>



<p>As scientists continue to explore the intricacies of sugarcane's genetic blueprint, they will undoubtedly uncover new insights that will shape the future of agriculture and bioenergy, ultimately leading to a more sustainable and prosperous world.</p>



<p>The full study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07231-4" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em><u>Nature</u></em></a>, and the genome is available through the JGI’s plant portal, <a href="https://phytozome-next.jgi.doe.gov/info/SofficinarumxspontaneumR570_v2_1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Phytozome</a></p>



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Sugarcane’s genome is finally mapped and ready for new breeding era

Modern hybrid sugarcane, one of the most harvested crops on...

<p>Just as humans grapple with seasonal illnesses, wild desert <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/desert-plants-extreme-heat/">plants</a> are falling victim to non-native crop viruses, which poses a previously unrecognized threat to their survival. This is the conclusion of a recent study led by <a href="https://msu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Michigan State University</a> (MSU) and the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Riverside</a>.</p>



<p>The discovery that crop pathogens can be transmitted to indigenous plants via <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/understanding-crop-pest-evolution-to-develop-biocontrol-strategies/">insects</a> challenges previous assumptions that wild plants are immune to such diseases.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wild-plants-and-crop-viruses">Wild plants and crop viruses</h2>



<p>“For years, the ecological field assumed wild plants were immune to invasive viruses that damage crops,” said study co-author Carolyn Malmstrom, a professor of plant biology and ecology at MSU.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“But we’ve found that we need to be just as concerned about protecting indigenous plants as we are agricultural ones.” This finding underscores the critical need for conservation strategies that encompass both agricultural and native ecosystems to safeguard plant health.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wild-plants-in-their-native-habitats-nbsp">Wild plants in their native habitats&nbsp;</h2>



<p>"Plant viruses are ubiquitous throughout plant communities, but research on viral impacts largely focuses on crops. Little is known about how viruses influence wild plants in their native habitats," wrote the study authors.</p>



<p>"To address this gap, we examined virus interactions with wild drought-tolerant perennials in California desert natural areas encroached upon by agriculture."</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-focus-of-the-study">Focus of the study</h2>



<p>Focusing on the desert areas of Southern California, the researchers studied the impact of crop viruses on the native <em>Cucurbita</em> species. Their investigation revealed alarming rates of infection with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/common-crop-pathogens-are-finding-new-hosts/">crop pathogens</a>, particularly the cucurbit aphid-borne yellows virus (CABYV), which affected up to 88% of some wild plant populations.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This high incidence of infection not only hampers plant growth but also poses a risk to the broader ecological community reliant on such plants.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crucial-components-of-desert-ecosystems-nbsp">Crucial components of desert ecosystems&nbsp;</h2>



<p>“These wild plants are crucial components of desert ecosystems, providing food and habitat for other species. Their decline from crop virus infections could have cascading effects on entire ecological communities,” Malmstrom said.</p>



<p>“Our findings should help the greater community recognize that our impact on the landscapes around us are not always obvious or clear to see,” added Tessa Shates, an infectious disease specialist at <a href="https://www.questdiagnostics.com/">Quest Diagnostics</a> and former researcher in entomology at MSU. “It’s easy to see the landscape changes of a clear-cut forest, but it is harder to recognize how hitchhiking microbes might change plant community structure over time.”&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-land-management-practices-influence-native-ecosystems">Land management practices influence native ecosystems</h2>



<p>These critical findings emphasize the interconnectedness of human activities, agriculture, and natural plant communities, urging a reevaluation of how land management practices influence native ecosystems.</p>



<p>The collaboration between MSU and UC Riverside, bridging plant biology and entomology, highlights the importance of interdisciplinary approaches to address complex ecological challenges. Malmstrom's mentorship of early-career researchers like Shates exemplifies the collaborative spirit essential for advancing scientific understanding and developing sustainable solutions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-and-agriculture-are-intricately-linked">Nature and agriculture are intricately linked</h2>



<p>"This project bridges the gap between agriculture and natural systems, reminding us that nature and agriculture are intricately linked. It also underscores the need for a more holistic approach to managing plant health and shows that understanding the complex dynamics of viruses in natural systems is essential for developing sustainable solutions that benefit both <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/agriculture-developed-surplus-conditions/">agriculture</a> and biodiversity.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-about-crop-viruses">More about crop viruses</h2>



<p>Crop viruses are a significant category of plant pathogens that cause diseases affecting agricultural productivity worldwide. These viruses can infect a wide variety of crops, including fruits, vegetables, grains, and ornamental plants, leading to reduced yield, lower quality of produce, and significant economic losses.</p>



<p>A <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/a-plant-virus-could-help-cure-cancer/">crop virus</a> is essentially a piece of genetic material, either DNA or RNA, encapsulated within a protein shell. Unlike bacteria or fungi, viruses cannot replicate on their own and require living cells of their host plants to multiply.&nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-spread-of-plant-viruses">Spread of plant viruses</h3>



<p>They are spread in several ways: through infected seeds, by the mechanical damage caused during farming operations, and most commonly, by vectors such as insects. Aphids, whiteflies, and mites are among the most notorious carriers, transferring viruses from infected to healthy plants as they feed on plant sap.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-symptoms-of-infection">Symptoms of infection</h3>



<p>Once inside the host, viruses hijack the plant's cellular machinery to reproduce, often leading to symptoms such as stunted growth, leaf curling, yellowing, and mosaic patterns on leaves. These symptoms can severely affect the plant's ability to photosynthesize, ultimately reducing crop yields.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-crop-viruses-nbsp">Controlling crop viruses&nbsp;</h3>



<p>Controlling crop viruses remains a challenge due to their ability to evolve rapidly, overcoming resistance in crops. Ongoing research focuses on understanding virus-host interactions, virus transmission mechanisms, and developing innovative control strategies to safeguard food security.</p>



<p>The study is published in the <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/PBIOMES-05-23-0033-R" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Phytobiomes Journal</em></a><em>.</em></p>



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Wild desert plants are not immune to crop viruses

Just as humans grapple with seasonal illnesses, wild desert plants...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that scientists never expected.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hidden-waters-beneath-ancient-craters">Hidden waters beneath ancient craters</h2>



<p>Scientists have made a startling discovery that challenges everything we thought we knew about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/saturn-moon-mimas-has-remarkably-young-ocean/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Saturn's moon Mimas</a>. Beneath the heavily cratered surface that earned it the nickname "Death Star" lies a global ocean that formed just 5 to 15 million years ago—a remarkably young age by cosmic standards.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cassini-data-reveals-orbital-secrets">Cassini data reveals orbital secrets</h2>



<p>The discovery, led by Dr. Valéry Lainey of the <a href="https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Observatoire de Paris</a>, emerged from careful analysis of <a href="https://www.nasa.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NASA</a>'s Cassini spacecraft data. By studying subtle irregularities in Mimas's orbit around Saturn, researchers detected the gravitational signature of liquid water hidden 20 to 30 kilometers beneath the moon's icy shell.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-an-unlikely-ocean-world">An unlikely ocean world</h2>



<p>At only 400 kilometers in diameter, Mimas seemed like the least likely candidate to harbor a subsurface ocean. Unlike other ocean moons such as Europa and Enceladus, which show clear surface signs of internal activity, Mimas displays no obvious hints of the liquid water beneath its ancient, crater-scarred exterior.</p>



<p>"Mimas is a small moon, and its heavily cratered surface gave no hint of the hidden ocean beneath," explained Dr. Nick Cooper from <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>, a study co-author.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-astrobiology">Implications for astrobiology</h2>



<p>The ocean's recent formation makes Mimas a prime target for studying how oceans develop and potentially support life. This discovery adds another member to the exclusive club of ocean worlds in our solar system, each offering unique insights into the conditions necessary for habitability.</p>



<p>The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a></em> journal, demonstrates how advanced orbital analysis can reveal hidden features of celestial bodies, opening new possibilities for understanding ocean formation throughout the cosmos.</p>



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Scientists discover unexpected young ocean on Saturn's cratered moon Mimas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E0mn5mTvhQ 'Death Star' moon Mimas conceals a 15-million-year-old ocean that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



<p>On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.</p>



<p>This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.</p>



<p>Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.</p>



<p>The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators.  Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas.  These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.</p>



<p>Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.</p>



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



<p>Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.</p>



<p>Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



<p>385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.</p>



<p>The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.</p>



<p>Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



<p>The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."</p>



<p>This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a></em> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.</p>



<p>Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet <em>Archaeopteris</em>: the first modern tree</h2>



<p>The star of this ancient forest is <em>Archaeopteris</em> – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur <em>Archaeopteryx</em>. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.</p>



<p>William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.</p>



<p>Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



<p>These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.</p>



<p>This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



<p>The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified <em>Eospermatopteris</em>, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.</p>



<p>All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



<p>Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.</p>



<p>Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."</p>



<p>The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



<p>In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.</p>



<p>Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



<p>Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.</p>



<p>Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.</p>



<p>These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.</p>



<p>The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em>Current Biology</em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



<p>Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?</p>



<p>The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What was acid rain?</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The science behind it</strong></h2>



<p>Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.</p>



<p>While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The crisis at its peak</strong></h2>



<p>During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Environmental devastation</strong></h2>



<p>The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.</p>



<p>By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.</p>



<p>Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Economic impact</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The solution: government action and technology</strong></h2>



<p>Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The Clean Air Act of 1990</strong></h2>



<p>The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Cap-and-trade success</strong></h2>



<p>Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.</p>



<p>The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Technology advances</strong></h2>



<p>Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.</p>



<p>The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today"><strong>Why we don't hear about it today</strong></h2>



<p>Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Success doesn't make news</strong></h2>



<p>There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Mission accomplished</strong></h2>



<p>The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone"><strong>Is it really gone?</strong></h2>



<p>The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.</p>



<p>EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What this teaches us</strong></h2>



<p>The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.</p>



<p>Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.</p>



<p>Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.</p>



<p>This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.</p>



<p>Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.</p>



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



<p><strong>Sources:</strong> <em>This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.</em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Frequently Asked Questions</strong></h2>



<p><strong>1. Is acid rain completely gone?</strong> No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.</p>



<p><strong>2. How long did solving take?</strong> Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.</p>



<p><strong>3. What made the solution successful?</strong> Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.</p>



<p><strong>4. Do other countries have acid rain problems?</strong> Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.</p>



<p><strong>5. Could acid rain return?</strong> Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.</p>



<p><strong>6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"?</strong> The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a></p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>



<p></p>



<p>Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. </p>



<p>Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. </p>



<p>These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.</p>



<p>Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. </p>



<p>For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.</p>



<p>Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. </p>



<p>Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.</p>



<p>This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. </p>



<p>With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by <a href="https://www.earth.com/author/eralls/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eric Ralls</a> and Earth.com.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>-----</p>

What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



<p>A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. </p>



<p>Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. </p>



<p>Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. </p>



<p>Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. </p>



<p>The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.</p>



<p>Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.</p>



<p>Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.</p>



<p>This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. </p>



<p>The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the <em><a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

<p>Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. </p>



<p>The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



<p>Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. </p>



<p>Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.</p>



<p>Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. </p>



<p>They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).</p>



<p>Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.</p>



<p>Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.</p>



<p>This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.</p>

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.</p>



<p>"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"]</div>



<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.</p>



<p>"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.</p>



<p>"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."</p>



<p>"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."</p>



<p><em>Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?</p>



<p>One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ACS Reactions</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

How does salt makes things taste better?

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;</p>



<p>'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."</p>



<p>"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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<p>Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.</p>



<p>The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."</p>



<p>"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."</p>



<p>"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."</p>



<p>The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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<p>Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.</p>



<p>According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."</p>



<p>Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;</p>



<p>ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. </p>



<p>Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> </em>Staff Writer </p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.</p>



<p>"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."</p>



<p>Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.</p>



<p>"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."</p>



<p>Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



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<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.</p>



<p>In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.</p>



<p>The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.</p>



<p>The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.</p>



<p>The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. </p>



<p>Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.</p>



<p>The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.</p>



<p>At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.</p>



<p>"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."</p>



<p>The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.</p>



<p><em>Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."</p>



<p>The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.</p>



<p>"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: NASA Goddard</em></p>



<p><em>Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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