Look out over the desert east of Aswan in southern Egypt, and it might seem like there’s nothing but rocks and sand - no sign of the kings who once ruled here. But look closer, and the walls start talking.



Thousands of years ago, long before the famous pharaohs ruled from pyramids, kings carved their power into stone.



These carvings weren’t just decorations. They were public declarations of who was in charge. And they’ve finally gotten the attention they deserve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lost-rulers-carved-into-stone">Lost rulers carved into stone</h2>



More than 5,000 years ago, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/solar-eclipse-may-have-changed-the-architecture-of-ancient-egypt-forever/">Egypt</a> was on the edge of something big. Small local rulers had started forming a more connected and controlled territory. 



The place we now call Egypt was becoming the world’s first territorial state. It stretched about 500 miles from north to south. That’s not small for a place that had no highways or phones - just boats, legs, and grit.



In the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/850-paleolithic-artifacts-discovered-with-the-naked-eye-in-a-desert/">desert</a> valleys like Wadi el Malik and Wadi Abu Subeira, rulers made their presence known with carvings. One of the most fascinating figures from this time was a ruler called Scorpion. 



His name appears in rock inscriptions along with a few other symbols, including one that marks it as a place name.



That particular place-name sign is believed to be the oldest one ever found. That discovery made international headlines a few years back. Now, there’s more.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-egypt-s-lineup-of-early-kings">Egypt's lineup of early kings</h2>



Scorpion wasn’t alone. The rocks tell the story of other rulers too. There’s King Bull, who came before him, and Horus-Falcon, who may have been the first in this royal line. 



Some of their names reference dangerous animals - <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/centipede/">centipedes</a>, falcons, bulls - creatures that symbolized strength and fear.



This lineup of names and animal symbols is what researchers call a "royal rock art tableau." It's not just a list - it’s a way to show power, legacy, and control over a tough, rugged landscape. These kings wanted people in Egypt to know: This land is ours. We rule here.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/ancient-egypt_rock-art_ruler-godlike-powers_credit-Johann-Thiele_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/ancient-egypt_rock-art_ruler-godlike-powers_credit-Johann-Thiele_1s.webp" alt="The ruler tramples a man (lying). The two round circular areas behind this are not balls, but rather decapitated heads. Credit: Johann Thiele" class="wp-image-1983776"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The ruler tramples a man (lying). The two round circular areas behind this are not balls, but rather decapitated heads. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Johann Thiele</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-violence-and-power-on-display">Violence and power on display</h2>



These carvings didn’t shy away from violence. One scene shows a ruler standing over a fallen enemy. In the background, two decapitated heads leave no doubt about the message. These weren’t peaceful monuments - they were warnings.



“The most extreme scene is the one showing the ruler trampling an enemy, with two decapitated heads visible in the background,” said Egyptologist Professor Dr. Ludwig Morenz from the <a href="https://www.uni-bonn.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bonn</a>, who has been studying these carvings with his colleague Mohamed Abdelhay Abu Bakr.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kings-carved-ties-to-egypt-s-gods">Kings carved ties to Egypt's gods</h2>



The kings from this period didn’t call themselves gods. But they made it clear they were close. 



They aligned themselves with two powerful deities from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-human-highways-revealed-beneath-the-sea/">Nile Valley</a> - Bat, a celestial cow often shown with a star-covered face, and Min, a hunting god tied to the deserts and outer regions.



“They formed a divine couple, with Bat associated with the fertile land along the Nile and Min with the peripheral regions as a kind of hunting god,” Morenz said.



The connection to these gods helped build something called “pharaoh-fashioning.” This was how early rulers shaped their image - as chosen leaders backed by divine power. They didn’t inherit power quietly. They carved it in stone.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/ancient-egypt_rock-art_ruler-defeating-enemies_credit-Johann-Thiele_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/ancient-egypt_rock-art_ruler-defeating-enemies_credit-Johann-Thiele_1s.webp" alt="Combined with the motif of defeating enemies. Credit: Johann Thiele/ Matthias Lang edited with GigaMesh" class="wp-image-1983774"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Combined with the motif of defeating enemies. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Johann Thiele/ Matthias Lang edited with GigaMesh</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trade-and-faith-carved-together">Trade and faith carved together</h2>



At the time, this region was more than desert. It had resources, water, and wildlife. People passed through on hunting trips or mineral expeditions. That made it valuable - and contested. It also made it the perfect spot to mark territory.



“It is actually all about a grandiose presentation of the claim to sovereignty,” Morenz said.



And part of that grand display included religion. One large carving shows a "boat of the gods" being hauled by 25 men. This likely represents a sacred procession that tied the desert valley to the better-known Nile Valley.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/ancient-egypt_rock-art_ruler-godlike-powers_credit-Ludwig-Morenz_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/ancient-egypt_rock-art_ruler-godlike-powers_credit-Ludwig-Morenz_1s.webp" alt="The inscription of King &quot;Bull&quot; is on the top, the one with the placename in front. Credit: Photo: Ludwig Morenz" class="wp-image-1983778"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The inscription of King "Bull" is on the top, the one with the placename in front. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Photo: Ludwig Morenz</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-desert-valleys-served-as-crossroads">Desert valleys served as crossroads</h2>



These carvings aren’t easy to see with the naked eye. Thousands of years of wind and sand have taken their toll. But new digital tools have made a difference. 



Researchers used high-powered photo analysis to reveal carvings that would otherwise go unnoticed.



“This is an important region when it comes to our understanding of the emergence of the state at the sociocultural periphery in the late fourth millennium,” Morenz said.



It’s clear there's more to learn here. Compared to central Egypt, this area has barely been studied. But it played a major role in shaping one of the most influential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-calendar-discovery-could-rewrite-history-of-civilization/">civilizations</a> in history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-scans-revived-ancient-history">Modern scans revived ancient history</h2>



Morenz hopes this area will get the attention it deserves. That means more research, bigger projects, and maybe even making the site accessible to visitors.



“I consider this so important that this hot spot should also be made accessible to interested parties with tours and a visitor center,” he said.



What was once forgotten desert might soon become one of Egypt’s most important historical windows. Not just because of what’s carved in stone - but because of what it shows about the earliest rulers who helped create a state that would shape human history.



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Early Egyptian king named "Scorpion" told his blood-thirsty tales in ancient rock art

Look out over the desert east of Aswan in southern Egypt, and it might seem like there’s nothing but rocks and sand - no sign of the kings who once ruled here. But look closer, and the walls start talking. Thousands of years ago, long before the famous pharaohs ruled from pyramids, kings carved their power into stone. These carvings weren’t just decorations. They were public declarations of who was in charge. And they’ve finally gotten the attention they deserve. Lost rulers carved into stone More than...

Technician,Placing,Blood,Tubes,In,The,Laboratory,Centrifuge

Memory problems are scary, and getting clear answers often takes a long time. For years, the dependable ways to check patients for Alzheimer’s disease have been PET scans or spinal taps, no blood tests involved.



Both can be effective. Both can also be expensive, invasive, or hard to get. That leaves many people waiting, worrying, and bouncing between appointments.



A new blood test aims to change that first step in care. It looks for the same biological signals that define Alzheimer’s disease and turns them into a single score - how likely it is that Alzheimer’s biology is present. 



This breakthrough gives doctors a faster, simpler way to decide what should happen next.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alzheimer-s-blood-test-is-huge">Alzheimer's blood test is huge</h2>



Most people with early memory concerns start in primary care. Those clinics are busy and don’t have advanced imaging on hand. 



A reliable blood test would help sort patients sooner. Some could be <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/targeting-the-gut-might-be-key-in-preventing-alzheimers-disease/">referred to a specialist</a> right away.



Others could be monitored while doctors check for sleep issues, depression, thyroid problems, medication effects, or other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/traffic-related-air-pollution-might-increase-alzheimers-risk/">common causes</a> of cognitive symptoms.



That kind of triage saves time, cuts costs, and reduces unnecessary procedures. It also helps families move from uncertainty to a plan. Not months from now, but much sooner.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-it-works">How it works</h2>



Alzheimer’s has two key features in the brain: abnormal amyloid and tau proteins. The new blood test examines a form of tau called p-tau217 and the ratio of two amyloid fragments: <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3716832/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aβ42 to Aβ40</a>. 



Together, these numbers capture the core biology doctors care about. The result is a probability score that indicates how closely a person’s blood pattern matches Alzheimer’s changes.



Using both markers strengthens the signal. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41398-024-03084-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">P-tau217</a> tracks Alzheimer’s-type changes, and the amyloid ratio helps keep false positives in check. 



When combined, the result becomes clearer - either likely Alzheimer’s biology or not.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-blood-for-alzheimer-s-anywhere">Testing blood for Alzheimer's anywhere</h2>



To see how the test would perform in everyday practice - not just in labs - researchers enrolled more than a thousand people in Sweden who came in with memory or thinking concerns. 



Some were evaluated in primary care. Others were seen in specialty memory clinics. Everyone received the usual clinical evaluations provided in those settings.



Blood samples were handled the way a hospital lab would: in batches, on a set schedule. That detail matters because it tests reliability under normal conditions, not just under perfect, hands-on supervision.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-test-methods">Comparing test methods</h2>



In straightforward terms, the blood test matched more definitive <a href="https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/alzheimers-causes-and-risk-factors/what-happens-brain-alzheimers-disease" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">measures of Alzheimer’s biology</a> approximately nine times out of ten. Its performance held up in both primary care and specialty clinics, which is exactly where it needs to work.



"Primary care doctors' accuracy in identifying Alzheimer's disease was 61 percent, while specialist physicians were correct 73 percent of the time," explained <a href="https://www.lunduniversity.lu.se/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lund University</a> neurologist Sebastian Palmqvist. 



"This underscores the lack of good, cost-effective diagnostic tools, particularly in primary care, and indicates the potential improvement in diagnosis with the adoption of this blood test in healthcare settings."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fixed-thresholds-were-used">Fixed thresholds were used</h2>



The team set the Alzheimer's blood test thresholds ahead of time and kept them fixed. That’s how a real diagnostic would be used in practice. 



No tuning after reviewing the results. No custom cutoffs for each clinic. A fixed cutoff increases the chance that the same test will work the same way in other places.



That approach adds confidence for doctors who <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-may-not-be-brain-disorder-important-data-was-fabricated/">need predictable tools</a>. Consistency across settings is the difference between a research project and something a health system can actually roll out.



When standard evaluations were used alone, clinicians did well. With blood test information added, decisions became more precise. 



A negative result in someone with mild, vague memory complaints gives doctors support to forgo invasive tests and monitor for changes over time.



As <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-disruptions-could-signal-the-onset-of-alzheimers/">symptoms progress</a> to mild cognitive impairment or dementia, a positive result supports referrals for confirmatory testing and, when appropriate, treatments that target Alzheimer’s biology. 



The blood test does not replace PET scans or spinal fluid analysis. It helps focus those tools where they are most useful.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-public-should-know">What the public should know</h2>



This isn’t a casual screening for people without symptoms. It’s a first-line tool when memory concerns are real and doctors need to decide what to do next. 



Used appropriately, it can shorten the path to answers for those who need a deeper look and spare others from procedures they don’t need.



It also fits into normal workflows. A routine draw, a lab run on schedule, and a clear, interpretable score. That kind of practicality is what busy clinics need to act quickly and confidently.



"The test is already available in the USA and is likely to become available in many other countries soon," says senior researcher <a href="https://portal.research.lu.se/en/persons/oskar-hansson" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oskar Hansson</a>, a neurologist at Lund University. 



"Initially, it will mainly be used in specialist memory clinics, and it may take approximately one to two years to implement guidelines and training in primary care."



As availability grows, expect specialist clinics to lead the way. Primary care will follow as training, protocols, and reimbursement catch up. That staged rollout is typical when new diagnostics enter real-world care.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-alzheimer-s-blood-tests">What's next for Alzheimer's blood tests</h2>



To sum it all up, this new blood test that reads the biology of Alzheimer’s gives primary care doctors something they’ve never really had: a quick, evidence-based signal that is correct 90 percent of the time to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stopping-alzheimers-before-it-starts-early-treatment-shows-potential/">guide next steps</a>. 



It won’t cure the disease. It will bring clearer direction, earlier in the process, for the people who need it most.



For families, that means fewer dead ends and faster referrals when appropriate. For clinicians, it means a practical tool that strengthens decisions. 



For health systems, it means aiming advanced testing where it can make the biggest difference. That’s progress measured not just in lab values, but in how care actually feels - faster, calmer, and more to the point.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2821669?resultclick=1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of the American Medical Association</a>.



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New blood test identifies early-stage Alzheimer's with 90% accuracy

Memory problems are scary, and getting clear answers often takes...

Ask yourself this: when was the last time you felt truly at peace, not just amused or entertained, but deeply rooted in who you are? A new study suggests that spending more time in nature may play a bigger role in that feeling than we assume.



That deeper layer has a name in psychology - <a href="https://link.springer.com/rwe/10.1007/978-94-007-0753-5_929" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eudaimonic well-being</a>. It is about purpose, self-acceptance, growth, and relationships. It sticks.



Does nature help with that? The short answer is a resounding "yes." Not only can nature boost your mood for an hour; it can also give you a clearer sense of self that lasts. 



This study examined that question and returned with an answer that feels both refreshing and practical.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-time-and-eudaimonic-well-being">Nature time and eudaimonic well-being</h2>



Researchers invited people in Turku, Finland, to share how the outdoors shows up in their real lives. 



First, 158 residents answered questions about time in nature and how their lives felt in terms of purpose, self-acceptance, growth, relationships, autonomy, and life management. 



Then, 20 people joined creative writing workshops to describe, in their own words, how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-forest-bathing-fresh-breath-for-teen-mental-health/">natural world shapes them</a>. The team paired numbers with stories to capture both patterns and personal depth.



“We wanted to explore how nature supports people's self-acceptance, purpose of life, positive relationships, autonomy, personal growth and agency, as well as life management," explains Joha Järekari, Doctoral Researcher at the <a href="https://www.utu.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Turku</a>.



"This is called eudaimonic well-being and it can be considered in contrast to <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hedonism/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hedonism</a>: whereas hedonism focuses on short-term pleasures, eudaimonia delves into longer and deeper well-being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-time-evokes-deep-feelings">Nature time evokes deep feelings</h2>



The study focused on two groups: ages 15 to 24 and adults over 60. Different life stages bring different needs. 



Yet a clear theme showed up in both: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/virtual-forest-bathing-can-reduce-stress-and-improve-mood/">nature felt nonjudgmental</a>. Trees do not judge. Water does not grade them. That sense of relief made room for honesty.



“Although there were some differences between the different age groups in how they spent time in nature and in what kinds of places, they also had many shared experiences," Järekari noted.



"What both age groups had in common was, among other things, a feeling that nature does not judge or criticize, which had a positive effect on the participants' self-acceptance."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-choices-and-belonging">Choices and belonging</h2>



Participants described two kinds of connection. One was inward. Time outside - on a trail, beside water, in a garden - made it easier to hear their own values and act on them. 



The other was outward. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-scents-linked-to-improved-health-and-well-being/">Being outdoors</a> helped people feel closer to friends and family, and also widened their sense of community to include birds, trees, and other living things. 



That broader bond pointed toward meaning, not just good moods.



“Spending time and being active in nature brought to the surface what was really important to the participants in their lives," Järekari describes.



"This increased people's agency and autonomy and had a positive impact on personal growth. The participants reported that it was easier to get in touch with oneself, with other people, and with other species."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-factoring-in-age-and-experience">Factoring in age and experience</h2>



Older adults often talked about shared moments with grandchildren and unhurried walks, the kind that leave room for quiet. 



Some mentioned <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/religious-leaders-tried-psilocybin-and-it-changed-their-lives/">moments of spirituality</a>, a quiet awareness of being part of something larger than themselves. 



Younger people leaned on the outdoors for healthy solitude. They could be alone without feeling lonely, or with friends without filling every second with conversation. Different routes, same endpoint: a more authentic self.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-worry-creeps-in">When worry creeps in</h2>



The picture was not perfect. Many participants, especially younger ones, felt the weight of environmental damage. 



Worry about climate change often chipped away at that comfort. Shame showed up too, a feeling of being part of the problem just by being human.



“However, this feeling grew stronger when participants noticed the visible effects of the ecological crisis on their surroundings," Järekari continued.



"Many young people also described a sense of shame about being part of the problem, so to speak, by being part of humanity, which challenged their self-acceptance."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-time-goes-deep">Nature time goes deep</h2>



Plenty of research shows that green space can lower stress and help attention bounce back. This work points to something deeper: <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0329411" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">identity-level effects</a> that unfold over time. 



It suggests that nature is not just a reset button. It is a steady setting where people practice being who they want to be.



“Our research unlocks the impact of nature on people's well-being on a deeper level than stress relief or positive emotions," Järekari emphasizes.



"Connection to nature is important to us on an identity level and often shapes our lives in ways that aren’t immediately obvious, but become clearer over time."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eudaimonic-well-being-in-society">Eudaimonic well-being in society</h2>



Design choices of public spaces matter. If we judge parks only by how many joggers they attract, we miss a big part of their value. 



People need quiet corners, meandering paths, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-environment-day-the-critical-role-of-nature-in-human-well-being/">benches under trees</a>. Those places support reflection, relationships, and responsibility - features, not extras.



“It is important to encourage a deeper public discussion about the meaning of nature in people’s lives," adds Salla Eilola, Postdoctoral Researcher at the University of Turku. 



"Consequently, these issues could also be taken into account in decision-making and, for example, in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adn3028" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban planning</a>, where nature still often unfortunately has to give way to built environment," 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-steps-lasting-benefits">Small steps, lasting benefits</h2>



You do not need a dramatic plan to make this real. Pick a nearby spot and go there on a regular day, not just on the best day. Let your mind settle and see what values bubble up. 



If you spend time with kids or elders, choose slow routes that welcome pauses. Put phones aside. Short, steady moments count.



None of this turns a park into a productivity tool. It simply gives you space to notice what matters and act on it. 



That's the heart of eudaimonic well-being, and nature offers a simple doorway - whether it is a patch of grass, a line of trees, or a stretch of water.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pan3.70104" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">People and Nature</a>.



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Walking through a forest can reshape who you are and bring inner peace, according to science

Ask yourself this: when was the last time you felt...

The sight of a whale shark, the largest fish alive today, leaves most people humbled. Its slow, graceful movements and gentle nature often make them symbols of the ocean’s mystery. Yet behind this serene image lies a struggle for survival.



Populations have fallen sharply, and their biology makes recovery slow. The findings of a new study from Indonesian waters not only reveal the scale of human impacts but also highlight why protecting whale sharks is vital for ocean health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whale-shark-decline-accelerates">Whale shark decline accelerates</h2>



Over the last 75 years, global whale shark numbers have dropped by more than half. In the Indo-Pacific, declines are even steeper. 



Hunting, habitat disruption, and entanglements push whale sharks closer to extinction. Because they take up to 30 years to mature, populations rebound very slowly. 



Large-bodied species like whale sharks face unique risks in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/silent-invasion-how-microplastics-are-disrupting-land-ecosystems/">ecosystems</a> since they grow slowly, reproduce late, and invest heavily in fewer offspring. 



The researchers noted that the disappearance of such giants can ripple through marine systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-injuries-trace-back-to-people">Injuries trace back to people</h2>



In the Bird’s Head Seascape of West Papua, the research team found 62 percent of whale sharks bore scars or wounds, mostly from human actions.



“We found that scars and injuries were mainly from anthropogenic causes, such as collisions with ‘bagans’ - traditional fishing platforms with lift nets - and whale shark-watching tour boats,” said Dr. Edy Setyawan of the <a href="https://www.elasmobranchinstitute.id" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Elasmobranch Institute Indonesia</a>.



“Relatively harmless minor abrasions were the most common. Serious injuries from natural causes such as predator attacks, or from boat propellers were much less common."



Patterns in ecology show that when human activities concentrate near feeding or breeding grounds, injury rates increase significantly. 



According to the study, direct human pressures such as vessel strikes and fishing gear interactions remain among the greatest global threats to megafauna. Whale sharks are no exception.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-following-the-gentle-giants">Following the gentle giants</h2>



Between 2010 and 2023, the scientists tracked whale sharks across Cenderawasih Bay, Kaimana, Raja Ampat, and Fakfak. This biodiversity hotspot hosts 26 marine protected areas. Using the distinctive spot patterns of each shark, the researchers identified 268 individuals.



Nearly all sightings occurred near bagans, where whale sharks fed on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-warming-threatens-the-global-fish-supply/">baitfish</a> like anchovies and sprats. Most were juvenile males, four to five meters long. More than half were resighted, including one young male recorded 34 times over three years.



From an ecological lens, these observations support a classic theory: young individuals often use coastal waters rich in food, while adults migrate offshore into deeper, less accessible habitats.



Such ontogenetic shifts are common across marine megafauna and are essential for population survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-injuries-reshape-populations">Injuries reshape populations</h2>



Of 206 sharks with scars, over 80 percent carried human-caused injuries. Serious wounds, including lacerations and blunt trauma, were rare but concerning. More often, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-sharks-move-into-dangerous-territory-as-the-climate-warms/">sharks</a> bore superficial abrasions from rubbing against fishing gear and boats.



Studies across marine ecology emphasize that while minor wounds may not kill, cumulative injuries reduce overall fitness.



Injured animals often change behavior, avoid key feeding zones, or expend more energy healing. Over time, this shapes population dynamics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-female-whale-sharks-live-in-deep-seas">Female whale sharks live in deep seas</h2>



A lingering question is the absence of females and older individuals, since previous studies show that adult whale sharks - especially females - prefer the deep ocean where they feed on prey like krill and schooling fish.



By contrast, younger males remain near shore in shallow, plankton-rich waters that help them grow quickly.



“Our own satellite tracking data also show that females and adults frequently use deep sea features such as canyons and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seamounts-are-gathering-hubs-for-ocean-predators/">seamounts</a>,” said study co-author Mochamad Iqbal Herwata Putra.



Ecological theory explains this pattern: sexual segregation often arises in large marine vertebrates, with males and females exploiting different ecological niches to reduce competition and improve survival chances. This strategy is a driver of population resilience across species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tourism-brings-dangers-to-whale-sharks">Tourism brings dangers to whale sharks</h2>



Staying near coasts, whale sharks offer strong potential for ecotourism. 



“Whale sharks in Cenderawasih Bay and Triton Bay (Kaimana) had high rates of residency and resighting, indicating that they should be viewed as valuable tourism assets for local communities and governments,” said Dr. Mark Erdmann of Rewild.



However, unmanaged <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-change-their-daily-schedules-when-tourists-are-watching/">wildlife tourism</a> can create a risky cycle: attraction leads to proximity, which heightens disturbance and injury risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-changes-big-impact">Small changes, big impact</h2>



The researchers recommend small but effective changes, such as modifying fishing platforms to remove sharp edges.



“We aim to work with the management authorities of the marine protected areas to develop regulations to require slight modifications to the bagans, including the removal of any sharp edges from boat outriggers and net frames," said Erdmann. "We believe those changes will greatly reduce scarring of whale sharks in the region."



Ecological models highlight that even minor adjustments in human practices can dramatically reduce stress on threatened populations. 



Protecting whale sharks is more than conserving one species. It safeguards a keystone component of marine food webs, maintains ecosystem balance, and secures benefits for communities who depend on healthy seas.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2025.1607027/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.



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Whale sharks are literally scarred by human activity

The sight of a whale shark, the largest fish alive...

A new mouse study tested what happens when food is prepared on plastic cutting boards and the resulting microplastics end up in the diet. The team chopped on polyethylene and polypropylene boards, mixed the released particles into feed, and watched how the gut responded over weeks.



These tiny particles, called microplastics, are fragments of plastic smaller than 0.2 inches that can carry additives and hitchhiking chemicals. The results did not look the same for each plastic, which matters for everyday kitchens.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inside-the-cutting-board-study">Inside the cutting board study</h2>



The team, led by Hai-Jun Gan from the School of Environment at <a href="https://hjxy.nju.edu.cn/English/HOME/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nanjing University</a>, used two common plastics, polypropylene and polyethylene - then prepared mouse diets on these boards for four and 12 weeks. 



Polypropylene particles averaged about 10 micrometers, while polyethylene pieces averaged about 27 micrometers, which means the polypropylene feed contained many more particles for the same mass.



By week 12, the diets prepared on plastic carried roughly a milligram of microplastics per gram of feed, and the number rose with repeated chopping cycles. 



Independent laboratory work reported that a single cut on a new polypropylene board can release on the order of 100 to 300 particles, which helps explain why older boards tend to shed more.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-different-plastics-different-effects">Different plastics, different effects</h2>



Polypropylene did not just ride through the gut. Mice eating polypropylene board <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dishwashers-release-nearly-a-million-plastic-particles-per-cycle/">particles</a> showed higher blood markers that track inflammation and gut barrier stress.



The markers included lipopolysaccharide and <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/c-reactive-protein-test/about/pac-20385228" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">C-reactive protein</a>, and lower expression of tight junction genes that help seal the intestinal wall.



Polyethylene told a different story. The mice did not show clear signs of inflammation, but their gut microbiota shifted after 12 weeks, with a lower share of Firmicutes and a higher share of Desulfobacterota in the cecum. 



That shift lined up with distinct changes in fecal and liver metabolites, especially bile-acid related compounds.



The contrast matters. It points to particle size, count, surface chemistry, and additives as separate levers of harm, instead of a single “plastic effect.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-polypropylene-boards-and-microplastics">Polypropylene boards and microplastics</h2>



Plastic cutting boards are not the only source of microplastics in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-packaging-is-leaking-harmful-chemicals-into-meals/">food</a>, but they are close to the action. 



An analysis estimating real-world chopping suggested that people could ingest 7.4 to 50.7 grams per year from polyethylene boards and about 49.5 grams from polypropylene boards, depending on use.



Those numbers track with the lab result that repeated chopping increases particle release as surfaces become scarred.



Microplastics are not limited to kitchens. They have been <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/glass-bottles-contain-more-microplastics-than-plastic-containers/">measured in human blood</a>, which tells us that particles are bioavailable and can circulate to different tissues.



Clinical researchers have also detected plastics in carotid artery plaques and linked their presence to higher rates of heart attack, stroke, or death over nearly three years in a 304 patient cohort.



Those findings do not prove that plastic cutting boards cause disease. They show that human exposure is real, widespread, and worth reducing where it is sensible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gut-response-to-different-plastics">Gut response to different plastics</h2>



The gut barrier is more than a wall. It is a dynamic system that includes mucus, tight junctions, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/daylight-boosts-the-immune-systems-ability-to-fight-infections/">immune</a> signals, and bacterial metabolites. 



Polypropylene particles in this experiment lined up with lower expression of genes that help seal that barrier and higher activity of myosin light chain kinase, a protein that can loosen junctions and permit lipopolysaccharide to enter the bloodstream.



Polyethylene pushed on metabolism and community structure instead. Bile acids, the detergents our livers make to manage fat and signal to the gut, dropped in the liver.



On top of that, specific microbially shaped bile acids in the gut also shifted. That pattern fits a gut liver axis response, not a classic inflammatory spike.



One plastic leaned toward barrier injury. The other leaned toward ecosystem drift. Neither path is good news.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wood-is-not-a-perfect-solution">Wood is not a perfect solution</h2>



People switch to wood to avoid plastic shedding. That can reduce <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/microplastics-are-escaping-from-water-treatment-plants/">microplastic</a> ingestion, but any swap needs basic hygiene. 



Knife scars, moisture, and fat can trap microbes on any surface, and regulators have wrestled with these tradeoffs for years.



Food safety guidance has long noted that wooden boards behave differently from scarred plastics and can be harder or easier to sanitize depending on use and cleaning. 



The key is routine cleaning, separation of raw and ready-to-eat foods, and timely replacement of boards that are deeply grooved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-to-weigh-plastic-risks">How to weigh plastic risks</h2>



“Based on the limited evidence available, chemicals and biofilms associated with microplastics in drinking-water pose a low concern for human health,” according to the World Health Organization (<a href="https://www.who.int" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">WHO</a>).



But that is drinking water, not food, and it reflects what we know today, not a permanent verdict.



This is where kitchen practice and common sense meet science. Replace old plastic boards more often. 



Avoid harsh scraping that chews up surfaces. Keep raw meat, seafood, and produce on separate boards, and clean thoroughly with hot water and detergent after each use.



There is also a bigger picture. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-from-plastic-bottles-linked-to-high-blood-pressure-and-heart-problems/">Plastics</a> differ by polymer and additives, and they age in different ways. Real exposure rarely involves clean, single-polymer spheres.



Results in people may hinge on mixtures, particle sizes, and how the gut is already primed by diet, stress, medications, and infections.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions-in-cutting-board-studies">Future directions in cutting board studies</h2>



The mouse study used realistic chopping, not pristine pellets, which is why it stands out. Next steps include human exposure tracking that can pair biomarkers with what people actually do in their <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plastic-kitchen-utensils-may-leach-toxic-chemicals-in-food/">kitchens</a>. 



Researchers also plan to compare particle counts and sizes from new, moderately used, and heavily scarred boards across brands. 



They are also working to standardize sampling and detection from tap water to tissue so estimates line up.



That will help translate animal data into sharper human guidance, without overstating confidence or downplaying potential trouble.



The study is published in <a href="https://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/doi/10.1289/EHP15472" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Environmental Health Perspectives</a>.



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This everyday kitchen tool could be leaching toxins into your food

A new mouse study tested what happens when food is...

When you think about Earth’s building blocks, your mind probably doesn’t jump to a giant space butterfly 3,400 light-years away. But scientists studying one of the galaxy’s most dramatic nebulae - the Butterfly Nebula - say it might offer real answers about how rocky planets like ours came to be.



Thanks to the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), researchers got the clearest look yet inside this strange, fiery structure. What they found were signs of dust - the kind that helped form Earth itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-spots-building-blocks-of-planets">Webb spots building blocks of planets</h2>



Cosmic dust consists of minute mineral and organic debris suspended in space. It contains ingredients that probably took part in the beginning of life. Scientists weren’t entirely certain how it develops until now.



The Webb Telescope directed its keen eyes toward the dense center of the Butterfly Nebula, an incredible wing-like cloud of gas and dust in the constellation <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/dark-wolf-nebula-in-the-constellation-scorpius/">Scorpius</a>, far beyond Earth. Instead of seeing just one type of dust, scientists found two. 



“We were able to see both cool gemstones formed in calm, long-lasting zones and fiery grime created in violent, fast-moving parts of space, all within a single object,” said lead researcher Dr. Mikako Matsuura of <a href="https://www.cardiff.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cardiff University</a>.



Most dust in space is messy and disorganized, like soot. But some forms perfect crystals - much more structured, like tiny gems. The nebula contains both, all in one place. This suggests that different kinds of cosmic environments can create very different types of dust, even right next to each other.



“This discovery is a big step forward in understanding how the basic materials of planets, come together," said Dr. Matsuura.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-star-hiding-in-plain-sight">A star hiding in plain sight</h2>



The Butterfly Nebula’s bright, complex glow comes from a white-hot central star - one of the hottest of its kind, blazing at around 220,000 Kelvin (over 395,000°F). 



But the star itself has been hard to spot. It’s buried inside a thick, dusty ring of gas shaped like a doughnut, called a torus. That doughnut blocks visible light, making it impossible to see with regular telescopes.



Webb’s Mid-Infrared Instrument (MIRI) employs a camera and a spectrograph that are capable of seeing through the dust. Using this technology, the researchers discovered the obscured star by identifying a glowing cloud of dust surrounding it, radiating in infrared wavelengths.



This dusty torus is made of crystalline silicates like quartz, plus irregular grains about a millionth of a meter across - surprisingly large for cosmic dust. Their size and shape suggest they’ve been growing steadily for a long time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fiery-jets-carve-a-cosmic-butterfly">Fiery jets carve a cosmic butterfly</h2>



Past the torus, things get more chaotic. The nebula’s shape is bipolar, meaning it has two giant lobes stretching in opposite directions like wings. A pair of high-speed jets shoot out from the center, traced by elements like iron and nickel.



The new observations also uncovered layered shells of different atoms. Elements that need more energy to form cluster closer to the hot star, while others settle farther out. This paints a picture of a very organized - yet wild - environment.



Another surprise came in the form of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/building-blocks-of-life-found-in-asteroids-were-formed-in-cold-regions-of-space/">polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons</a> (PAHs). These carbon-based molecules are built like tiny rings and are found on Earth in things like car exhaust, smoke from campfires, and even burnt toast.



The PAHs showed up in a place no one expected - inside an oxygen-rich planetary nebula. Usually, these kinds of molecules form in carbon-rich environments. Their presence here hints at a unique type of chemical reaction happening as fast winds from the central star slam into surrounding gas.



The team suspects this may be the first evidence of PAHs forming under these conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nebula-chemistry-reshapes-rocky-worlds">Nebula chemistry reshapes rocky worlds</h2>



Planetary nebulae - despite the name - are the final stages of medium-sized stars like our Sun. They form when those stars puff off their outer layers before cooling down into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/white-dwarf-stars-may-be-billions-of-years-older-than-estimated/">white dwarfs</a>.



That’s where many of the raw materials for future stars and planets are made. These nebulae might last only around 20,000 years - a blink in cosmic time - but during that period, they shape the chemistry of the galaxy.



The Butterfly Nebula is one of the best-studied examples, previously imaged by the Hubble Space Telescope. But the James Webb Space Telescope goes deeper, letting scientists explore not just the shape of the nebula, but its internal chemistry.



Using Webb’s detailed imaging along with radio data from the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array, researchers found nearly 200 spectral lines - signals from different atoms and molecules. These signals showed how different chemicals are arranged in layers - revealing complex, nested structures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butterfly-nebula-reveals-planet-recipes">Butterfly Nebula reveals planet recipes</h2>



The Butterfly Nebula’s beauty is just the surface. Underneath its glow lies a complicated process that turns dying stars into factories for dust and molecules - the very kind that can help form planets.



"For years, scientists have debated how cosmic dust forms in space. But now, with the help of the powerful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-telescope-reveals-climate-never-before-seen-in-our-solar-system-pluto-haze/">James Webb Space Telescope</a>, we may finally have a clearer picture," said Dr. Matsuura.



With each new discovery, the question of how rocky worlds like Earth form becomes a little less mysterious - and a lot more exciting.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/542/2/1287/8241385" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society</a>.



Image Credit: ESA/Webb, NASA &amp; CSA, M. Matsuura, ALMA (ESO/NAOJ/NRAO), N. Hirano, M. Zamani (ESA/Webb)



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Butterfly Nebula may hold new clues to Earth’s origins

When you think about Earth’s building blocks, your mind probably...

Seventy million years ago, Patagonia was a land of rivers and floodplains. Dinosaurs wandered among turtles, frogs, and early mammals. 



In these wetlands lurked a powerful predator with crushing jaws. Its remains stayed buried until scientists uncovered them in Argentina’s Chorrillo Formation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kostensuchus-atrox-in-stone">Kostensuchus atrox in stone</h2>



The skeleton came from a large concretion and was perfectly preserved. The find includes a skull, jaws, ribs, and parts of the body. 



Measuring 3.5 meters (11.5 feet) in length and weighing around 250 kilograms (551 pounds), the animal stood as <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/Kostensuchus-atrox_crocodile-relative_Gabriel-Diaz-Yanten_1m.jpg">one of the largest hunters of its time</a>.



The massive animal had wide jaws and sharp, serrated teeth. Few <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-extinction-theories-are-challenged-by-new-research/">creatures</a> could escape its grasp.



Scientists named it Kostensuchus atrox. Kosten is the fierce Patagonian wind, Souchos is the Egyptian crocodile god, and atrox means harsh. The name captures both place and power.



“Kostensuchus atrox gives us an incredible window into a vanished ecosystem,” said Fernando Novas of the Bernardino Rivadavia Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crocodile-relative-not-a-dinosaur">Crocodile relative, not a dinosaur</h2>



Despite its size, K. atrox was not a dinosaur. It belonged to the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/joa.14182" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">peirosaurids</a>, close <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-on-earth-before-during-and-after-the-dinosaur-killing-asteroid-strike-mosasaurs/">relatives</a> of modern crocodiles.



This is the first crocodyliform from the <a href="https://dinodata.de/bibliothek/pdf_p/2019/002_655-2958-1-PB_dd.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chorrillo Formation</a> and one of the best preserved ever found. Its short, broad snout and strong jaw muscles reveal how it hunted. It was not a scavenger. It was a killer.



The teeth tell the story. Large, blade-like, and edged with fine serrations, they could slice flesh clean. Its jaws and muscles gave it a crushing bite. 



Earlier peirosaurids were smaller, many weighing only tens of kilograms. Kostensuchus was different. Evolution pushed it toward hypercarnivory, specializing in large prey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharing-the-top">Sharing the top</h2>



In its world, only the massive megaraptorid Maip was larger. Together, they ruled the Chorrillo ecosystem. Farther north, predator groups looked different.



Abelisaurid dinosaurs dominated there, but southern Patagonia had a split rule: theropods and crocodile relatives side by side. This mix highlights how predator guilds varied even within the same continent.



The study compares Kostensuchus with baurusuchids, another predator <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-dinosaur-skulls-reveal-unique-hunting-strategies/">lineage</a>. Both groups evolved slicing teeth and powerful skulls. But they didn’t look the same.



Baurusuchids had long, narrow heads. Kostensuchus had a wide, short snout. Its forelimbs were also stronger, with signs of flexibility in the humerus. That difference may point to different ways of bringing prey down.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-anatomy-of-kostensuchus-atrox">Anatomy of Kostensuchus atrox</h2>



Other bones offer more clues. Its shoulder girdle and pelvis suggest a posture not fully upright. It may have walked with limbs spread slightly wider, hinting at a lifestyle both on land and in water. Unlike modern crocodiles, it wasn’t limited to ambush in rivers. 



It may have chased prey across floodplains too. Strong forelimbs support this idea. They could have pinned prey while the jaws delivered fatal bites.



The skull shows clear adaptations for muscle attachment. Deep pits and ridges allowed large muscles to anchor, boosting bite force. 



The lower jaw bones were robust, and resisted stress from struggling prey and powerful thrashing movements.



Serrated teeth reveal repeated replacement, showing that it stayed well-armed throughout its life. These constant replacements meant damaged teeth never left the predator defenseless. 



Together, these features confirm a predator that was suited for active hunting, not passive feeding, and was fully adapted to dominate its environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaurs-and-kostensuchus-atrox">Dinosaurs and Kostensuchus atrox</h2>



Kostensuchus lived at the edge of extinction. It thrived in southern Patagonia’s warm, humid landscapes before the great asteroid ended the Cretaceous.



Its discovery proves that crocodile relatives were not background hunters. They were apex predators that, alongside dinosaurs, shaped ecosystems.



The find expands our view of crocodyliform evolution. It shows how these reptiles adapted to fill predator roles that were often thought exclusive to dinosaurs. 



It also reveals differences between ecosystems in South America, where predator communities could change drastically over distance.



Without fossils like this, we might still think crocodile relatives were secondary players. Instead, Kostensuchus atrox reminds us that they were central to the story of life at the end of the age of dinosaurs.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0328561" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



Image credit: Gabriel Diaz Yanten, CC-BY 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)



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Ancient crocodile relative was fierce predator alongside dinosaurs

Seventy million years ago, Patagonia was a land of rivers...

A pile of garden stones on Australia’s Central Coast held more than landscaping material. Inside one slab lay an ancient Arenaerpeton fossil, also known as a Chinese Giant Salamander, that dates back 240 million years.



This amphibian fossil, very well-preserved with skin outlines and an almost complete skeleton, was tucked away for decades before anyone realized what it was.



Researchers have now given it a name: Arenaerpeton supinatus, Latin for supine sand creeper. The fossil captures a moment from the Early Triassic, only a few million years after Earth’s worst mass extinction.



<a href="https://australian.museum/get-involved/staff-profiles/lachlan-hart/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lachlan J. Hart</a>, a PhD candidate in the School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences at <a href="https://www.unsw.edu.au/">UNSW</a> Sydney and the <a href="https://australian.museum/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian Museum</a> led the research that brought this animal out of obscurity and into the scientific record.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-garden-stones-to-science">From garden stones to science</h2>



In 2023, the formal description of the specimen appeared in a peer reviewed journal, establishing Arenaerpeton supinatus as a new member of a Gondwanan amphibian family. 



The paper documents an articulated skeleton preserved on its back with traces of soft tissue around the body.



“This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-find-a-47-million-year-old-cicada-fossil-with-preserved-wing-details/">fossil</a> is a unique example of a group of extinct animals known as temnospondyls, which lived before and during the time of the dinosaurs," Hart explained. 



"We do not often find skeletons with the head and body still attached, and the soft tissue preservation is an even rarer occurrence."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-the-arenaerpeton-fossil">Decoding the Arenaerpeton fossil</h2>



Arenaerpeton had a broad, low skull and a sturdy frame. The rock holds impressions of the body outline that suggest a heavy build, plus long ribs and stout limb bones.



The teeth tell another story. Along the jaws run many small marginal teeth, and on the roof of the mouth sit a pair of tusk like fangs. Those features point to a predator that seized slippery prey and did not let go.



Estimates put the total length around 4 feet. The UNSW team adds a precise figure from the fossil evidence, noting it was “estimated to be about 1.2m from head to tail,” said Hart. 



The comparison highlights head shape, not close kinship, since the fossil lineage followed its own path long before modern salamanders appeared.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-and-when-arenaerpeton-lived">Where and when Arenaerpeton lived</h2>



The animal came from the Sydney Basin, a stack of sandstones and shales that record rivers, swamps, and lakes in what is now New South Wales. Its host rock belongs to the Terrigal Formation, a unit laid down during the Early to Middle Triassic.



High precision U Pb zircon ages from nearby volcanic ash layers in the Garie Formation cluster near 248 million years. 



Those tuffs bracket the time when these river sands accumulated and help anchor Arenaerpeton in Earth’s timeline.



Waters in this basin carried <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/500-million-year-old-fish-armor-may-be-the-reason-your-teeth-hurt/">fish</a>, including species such as Cleithrolepis, and the skull and teeth of Arenaerpeton fit a life spent ambushing prey in slow channels. 



Fine sands and plant fragments surrounding the skeleton point to burial in a quiet setting, not a raging flood.



The preservation includes a broad halo of soft tissue around the ribs. That band shows the body outline without mineralized skin armor and hints at how the carcass settled before final burial.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-family-with-staying-power">Family with staying power</h2>



Arenaerpeton belongs to chigutisaurids, a branch of temnospondyls, the diverse early amphibian grade tetrapods that flourished before and during the age of dinosaurs. These animals radiated across southern continents when they were joined in Gondwana.



Their history in Australia stretches across much of the Mesozoic. 



An annotated <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03115518.2023.2228367" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">checklist</a> of Australian Mesozoic tetrapods notes that chigutisaurids persisted into the Early Cretaceous, with Koolasuchus from Victoria representing the youngest known temnospondyl anywhere.



Arenaerpeton sits earlier in that story, close to the recovery interval after the end Permian crisis. 



The size of this animal, coupled with features shared with later giants, hints at a long lived strategy that worked in varied climates and ecosystems.



“The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/living-fossil-reveals-clues-about-how-animals-learned-to-breathe/">fossil</a> record of temnospondyls spans across two mass extinction events, so perhaps this evolution of increased size aided in their longevity,” said Hart. He points to body size as a possible advantage over deep time.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-placing-arenaerpeton-on-the-tree">Placing Arenaerpeton on the tree</h2>



The team assessed traits across the skull, palate, lower jaw, shoulder girdle, and forelimb, then compared them with other Triassic and Jurassic relatives. 



Those comparisons place Arenaerpeton within Chigutisauridae alongside taxa from India and South America.



The analysis used a matrix of skeletal characters tested with parsimony methods. Results group Arenaerpeton with derived chigutisaurids, not with brachyopids that shared the basin at times.



Several features support that placement. The animal has many small marginal teeth, a narrow flat cultriform process on the palate, and adjacent intercentra in the vertebral column, a suite consistent with chigutisaurid identity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-arenaerpeton-matters-now">Why Arenaerpeton matters now</h2>



Beyond taxonomic placement, this fossil fills a geographic and temporal gap in Australia’s record. It is the first chigutisaurid named from New South Wales and shows that large bodied forms were already present early in the Triassic.



It also shows how science advances through community care as much as field campaigns. A homeowner saved a strange slab, museum staff preserved it, and researchers returned to it with new questions.



“This is one of the most important fossils found in New South Wales in the past 30 years, so it is exciting to formally describe it,” said <a href="https://australian.museum/get-involved/staff-profiles/matthew-mccurry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Matthew McCurry</a>, Senior Lecturer at UNSW and Curator of Palaeontology at the Australian Museum. The fossil is now part of the public story of the basin that buried it.



Arenaerpeton brings texture to a time often sketched in broad strokes. It offers a body outline, not just a list of bones, and it anchors a local river system to the global narrative of recovery after catastrophe.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02724634.2023.2232829" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>.



Photo credit: UNSW Sydney/Richard Freeman.



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What looked like a normal wall hid a secret from 240 million years ago

A pile of garden stones on Australia’s Central Coast held...

Asteroids have been drifting through our solar system since long before the Earth had continents, oceans, or even life itself. The ancient space rocks contain clues about the origins of our solar system, and now scientists have finally acquired some of these space treasures.



NASA’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/osiris-rex/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">OSIRIS-REx</a> mission has delivered samples from the asteroid Bennu, and their analysis is reshaping our understanding of ancient space rocks. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-color-changing-mystery-of-asteroids">Color-changing mystery of asteroids</h2>



When viewed through telescopes, some gray asteroids appear red while others look blue - despite being made of the same material. Astronomers have been puzzled by why these space rocks scatter light so differently.



It's not just about the colors. Knowing how asteroids diffuse light enables scientists to determine what they're composed of without having to travel to each one and take samples.



The answer lies in a process called <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-ryugu-holds-clues-about-bombardment-in-the-early-solar-system/">space weathering</a>. Just as a penny turns green over time or paint fades in the sun, asteroid surfaces change when bombarded by radiation, micrometeorites, and the solar wind. 



But the surprising part is this: it’s not different kinds of weathering that make the difference - it’s timing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-space-objects-change-over-time">How space objects change over time</h2>



Michelle Thompson, an associate professor of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences in <a href="https://www.purdue.edu/science/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Purdue's College of Science</a>, has been studying these space rocks and their interactions with the harsh environment of space. 



Her work focuses on understanding how the surfaces of rocky bodies, from our moon to distant asteroids, change over time.



"Sample return missions are a cornerstone of planetary science," Thompson said. "They give us snapshots of the chemistry and the composition of the very <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-meteorites-provide-a-window-into-the-early-solar-system/">early solar system</a>. They let us look at the building blocks of the planets and inventory what was there."



"We can also compare Bennu's samples to samples from Japan's <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/hayabusa/">Hayabusa</a> missions and get a better understanding of how these asteroids change and evolve, and what we can tell about asteroids from the surface of the Earth compared to when we look at the samples themselves."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-asteroids-one-story">Two asteroids, one story</h2>



The breakthrough came when scientists compared <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-bennu-holds-secrets-of-the-solar-systems-past/">Bennu</a> to another asteroid called <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-ryugu-may-be-a-leftover-from-the-suns-formation/">Ryugu</a>, which was visited by Japanese spacecraft. 



Both are what scientists call "rubble pile" asteroids - basically cosmic junk piles held together by weak gravity. They're both made of dark, carbon-rich materials and formed around the same time, roughly 4.6 billion years ago, when our solar system was just getting started.



Logic would suggest they should look identical through telescopes. But Ryugu appears slightly red while Bennu looks blue. 



Scientists thought this meant the asteroids were weathering differently in space. The samples revealed something much more interesting.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-cosmic-clock-of-color-changes">A cosmic clock of color changes</h2>



The real story is about time. These rubble pile asteroids are constantly shifting and tumbling, which brings fresh material from their interiors to the surface. It's like having a rock tumbler in space that occasionally spills out new pebbles.



Surface grains from Ryugu have been exposed to space for only a few thousand years - practically brand new in cosmic terms. Meanwhile, Bennu's surface particles have been getting blasted by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/3d-printed-hydrogels-developed-to-protect-astronauts-from-space-radiation/">space radiation</a> for tens of thousands of years. They're at different points in the same aging process.



"And so instead of looking at two different trajectories for how this process is operating on these bodies, we're seeing two different points in one cycle," Thompson said. "Their 'colors' are changing, meaning their spectral properties are changing relative to their surface exposure age."



This discovery is huge for future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/civilian-spacewalk-is-a-giant-leap-in-space-exploration/">space exploration</a>. With 1.45 million known asteroids in our solar system, we can't visit them all. But now scientists can look at an asteroid's color through a telescope and get a much better idea of what they'll find on its surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bennu-carries-ancient-recipes-for-life">Bennu carries ancient recipes for life</h2>



The Bennu samples revealed something else exciting. Hidden within the space rock were salts, including phosphates that are essential for life on Earth. These compounds help power our metabolism and make up the backbone of DNA.



Scientists found evidence of ancient brine - basically salty water that would have created perfect conditions for the chemical reactions that might lead to life. The asteroid essentially carried a recipe card for life's basic ingredients.



"Looking at the organic molecules from Bennu, we are getting an understanding of what kinds of molecules could have seeded life on early Earth," Thompson said. 



"Information about what compounds, what elements are there and in what proportions. We won't find life itself, but we're looking at the building blocks that could have eventually evolved into life."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-time-capsules-from-the-dawn-of-everything">Time capsules from the dawn of everything</h2>



What makes these asteroid samples so special is their age and pristine condition. Earth has been recycling its materials for billions of years through plate tectonics, erosion, and biological processes. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-may-have-always-held-the-key-ingredients-for-life/">ingredients for life</a> are still here, but they've been mixed and remixed countless times.



Bennu's samples, on the other hand, have been sitting in the cosmic freezer for 4.6 billion years. They're like finding a perfectly preserved meal from the very first restaurant in the Universe.



"Asteroids are relics of the early solar system," Thompson said. "They're like time capsules. We can use them to examine the origin of our solar system and to open a window to the origin of life on Earth."



The research shows that Bennu contains materials from across our solar system and possibly beyond, all mixed together and transformed by water and space weathering over billions of years. It's a cosmic mixtape of the early solar system's greatest hits.



This research opens doors for future asteroid missions, whether for science or resource extraction. By understanding how asteroid colors relate to their surface exposure and composition, future explorers will have a much better roadmap for choosing which space rocks to visit. 



The gray asteroids that shine red and blue aren't just pretty to look at - they're guidebooks to our solar system's past and potential keys to its future exploration.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-61201-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Asteroid colors: Clues from the dawn of the solar system

Asteroids have been drifting through our solar system since long...

Our corner of the universe looks tidy at first glance. But pull back, and patterns begin to surface that stretch across billions of light-years. 



New mapping work hints that our own galaxy belongs to a much larger basin shaped by gravity, while a separate find reveals a vast, ring-like arrangement of distant galaxies. 



The work was led by Alexia Lopez at the <a href="https://london.uclan.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Central Lancashire</a>.



In a peer reviewed <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/388956559_Investigating_ultra-large_large-scale_structures_potential_implications_for_cosmology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">analysis</a> of quasar absorption data, researchers report a nearly circular assemblage of galaxies, called the Big Ring. 



This colossal structure has a diameter of about 1.3 billion light-years and a circumference of nearly 4.1 billion light-years.



The structure sits roughly 9.2 billion light-years away, at a similar distance and position in the sky as the previously identified Giant Arc.



The team’s statistics show departures from random expectations of up to 5.2 sigma for selected tests, which makes a chance alignment unlikely. 



The Big Ring also appears not to be a simple loop but a coil-like arrangement when seen nearly face on.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-galaxy-rings-and-cosmology">Galaxy rings and cosmology</h2>



Cosmology rests on the cosmological principle, the idea that matter becomes evenly distributed when viewed on sufficiently large scales. 



Many cosmologists estimate a practical upper limit for coherent structures near 260 megaparsecs, which converts to roughly 1.2 billion light-years for common values of the <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/hubble-reveals-a-black-hole-hidden-in-a-distant-galaxy/">Hubble</a> parameter.



The Big Ring comes in above that rule of thumb and lands near a second giant feature in the same slice of the sky. Together they raise fair questions about how smooth the universe really looks at the very largest scales.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-not-your-standard-acoustic-ripple">Not your standard acoustic ripple</h2>



A well known yardstick in cosmology is the baryon acoustic oscillation (<a href="https://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/March14/Weinberg/Weinberg4.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BAO</a>) feature, a preferred clustering scale that acts as a standard ruler. 



This BAO has a characteristic scale of about 150 megaparsec or roughly 490 million light-years in today’s universe.



The Big Ring is larger than that and does not form a spherical shell the way a BAO imprint would. That mismatch thus points away from BAO as the explanation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-milky-way-and-the-big-ring">Milky Way and the Big Ring</h2>



Closer to home, new reconstructions of the local flow of galaxies identify large regions where matter streams toward gravitational minima known as basins of attraction. 



The new <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-024-02370-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a>, built from the <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2009.00733" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cosmicflows-4 catalog</a> and analyzed under the standard cosmological model, finds the Milky Way’s domain likely connects to the far larger Shapley basin rather than being a standalone Laniakea basin.



That result means our galaxy may sit inside a much bigger dynamical catchment area than previously appreciated. 



At the same time, the largest basin recovered in that work is associated with the Sloan Great Wall within the surveyed volume, underscoring how extensive some of the already known structures are.



“From current cosmological theories we did not think structures on this scale were possible. We could expect maybe one exceedingly large structure in all our observable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/study-consciousness-is-a-quantum-process-connecting-us-all-to-the-entire-universe/">Universe</a>. Neither of these two ultra-large structures is easy to explain in our current understanding of the Universe,” said Lopez.&nbsp;



The statement reflects how both the scale and the geometry of these features strain simple expectations. 



Her remarks capture the mood among observers who wonder what to make of the data. The claims are cautious, yet they call for more checks and wider searches.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pulling-cosmic-strings">Pulling cosmic strings</h2>



Some theorists point to cosmic strings, threadlike defects that could have formed in the early universe and left long-range imprints in matter. 



Such strings would not bind galaxies together in clusters the way gravity does, yet they could seed unusual shapes.



Other researchers stress that statistical flukes and selection effects are stubborn. A feature that looks special in one slice of data can fade when a survey deepens or widens.



The Big Ring does not rely on bright galaxies alone. The team used quasar spectra to spot <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-4357/abbb34" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mg II absorbers</a>, which trace the presence of intervening galaxies and groups invisible to imaging surveys at these distances.



That strategy turns quasars into backlights, letting faint matter outline their positions through absorption lines. Using those positions and redshifts, the team built a three dimensional map and applied independent tests of significance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-data-on-the-big-ring">More data on the Big Ring</h2>



Confirmation needs fresh data from other surveys that can sample the same region with different instruments and selection cuts. If the ring <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/einstein-ring-discovered-normal-galaxy-ngc-6505-gravitational-lens/">appears</a> in independent catalogs, confidence will grow that it is not an artifact.



The other priority is to find more examples in other parts of the sky and at other redshifts. A larger census would show whether such features are rare outliers or common pieces of the cosmic web.



The local basin result and the faraway Big Ring point in the same direction. Large scale structure may be richer and more organized in the Universe than the simplified pictures many of us learned.



That is not a crisis for cosmology, but it is a nudge to refine models and test assumptions. Scale, geometry, and cosmic history are the levers to watch.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-024-02370-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics</a>.



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Astronomers find evidence that we live inside a colossal structure never before imagined

Our corner of the universe looks tidy at first glance....

A child’s skeleton, found nearly a century ago in Skhul Cave on Mount Carmel in Israel, has taken on new meaning after a modern re-analysis. 



A fresh look at the skull and jaw, dated to roughly 140,000 years ago, suggests that the remains show a blend of Homo sapiens and Neanderthal traits.



The authors say this specimen is the earliest anatomically modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/denisova-cave-concealed-the-history-of-a-forgotten-human-lineage-denisovans/">human</a> fossil to show this mix of features, and they propose the child may reflect early population contact in the Levant. 



Other researchers welcome the data but note that proof of a hybrid requires more than bones alone.



This work comes from Professor Israel Hershkovitz of Tel Aviv University (<a href="http://tau.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">TAU</a>) and Anne Dambricourt-Malassé of the French National Centre for Scientific Research (<a href="https://www.cnrs.fr/en/the-cnrs" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CNRS</a>). 



Their international team revisited the specimen known as Skhul I with state-of-the-art imaging.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-features-of-the-skhul-child">Fossil features of the Skhul child </h2>



The braincase has the overall curved vault seen in modern humans, while the lower jaw lacks a chin and shows dental patterns more typical of Neanderthals, according to the study. 



In paleoanthropology, the bony chin, or mentum osseum, is usually considered a hallmark of our species, so its absence matters to the anatomical argument.



“Genetic studies over the past decade have shown that these two groups exchanged genes,” said Professor Hershkovitz. 



Genetic <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature12961" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a> over the last decade shows that many people living outside Africa carry a small share of Neanderthal DNA, and the primary wave of gene flow likely occurred around 50,000 to 60,000 years ago.&nbsp;



The team also noted inner ear anatomy that is consistent with Neanderthal-like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthals-vanished-from-uv-rays-no-clothes-homo-sapiens-adapted/">traits</a> in parts of the skull. 



That line of evidence has weight because the bony <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12662940/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">labyrinth</a> of the inner ear preserves well and is useful for sorting ancient populations, even if there is some overlap between groups.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/Skhul-I-child-skull_neanderthal-human-interbreeding_Tel-Aviv-University_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/Skhul-I-child-skull_neanderthal-human-interbreeding_Tel-Aviv-University_1s.webp" alt="The skull of Skhul I child showing cranial curvature typical of Homo sapiens. Credit: Tel Aviv University" class="wp-image-1983561"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The skull of Skhul I child showing cranial curvature typical of Homo sapiens. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Tel Aviv University</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-skhul-child-matters">Why the Skhul child matters</h2>



Skhul and nearby Qafzeh have long been <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4920294/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">known</a> for early intentional burials, a sign that complex social behavior was in play among Pleistocene people in the Levant. 



If the Skhul I child is not purely Homo sapiens, then the earliest formal burials may not belong to a single lineage.



The Levant already looks like a long-term meeting zone. A 2021 <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abh3169" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">report</a> from Israel’s Nesher Ramla site described a Middle Pleistocene group with a patchwork of features, consistent with repeated contact among regional populations. 



That context makes a mixed-feature child from Skhul easier to imagine in population terms.



A later and famous case often raised in comparisons is the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.96.13.7604" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lagar Velho</a> child from Portugal. 



This evidence, dated to about 24,500 years ago, showed a mosaic of features and sparked debate about mixing late in Europe’s prehistory. Skhul I predates that Iberian burial by well over 100,000 years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-an-old-fossil">Testing an old fossil</h2>



The researchers scanned the skull and jaw using <a href="https://www.microphotonics.com/what-is-micro-ct-an-introduction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">micro-CT</a>, built detailed 3D models, and virtually “removed” historic plaster from the jaw to avoid biasing measurements. 



The team corrected the position of a frontal bone piece and compared the inner ear and dental structures with known Neanderthal and modern human samples.



Inner ear form is not a casual choice here. Because this structure develops early and sits in dense bone, it tends to resist environmental noise and often tracks population history in comparative datasets. 



That makes the labyrinth a useful, though not perfect, marker alongside cranial and mandibular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tinshemet-cave-discovery-neanderthals-early-humans-sharing-and-complex-interactions/">traits</a>.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/Skhul-I-child-lower-jaw_neanderthal-human-interbreeding_Tel-Aviv-University_1.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/Skhul-I-child-lower-jaw_neanderthal-human-interbreeding_Tel-Aviv-University_1s.webp" alt="The lower jaw of Skhul I child showing features characteristics of Neanderthals. Credit: Tel Aviv University" class="wp-image-1983558"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The lower jaw of Skhul I child showing features characteristics of Neanderthals. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Tel Aviv University</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controversy-surround-the-hybrid-claim">Controversy surround the hybrid claim</h2>



Skepticism centers on whether bones alone can prove hybrid ancestry. Paleoanthropologist Chris Stringer noted that, in his view, the material still primarily aligns with Homo sapiens while allowing that some gene flow could be reflected at Skhul.&nbsp;



Other specialists point out that the main wave of Neanderthal ancestry in living people traces to encounters tens of thousands of years later than the Skhul burial. 



Studies mapping archaic segments across modern genomes consistently place the largest signal of Neanderthal ancestry in a window around 50,000 years ago.



The cleanest way to settle this for Skhul I would be ancient DNA. That may be difficult in warm environments. 



However, the petrous portion of the <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0129102" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temporal bone</a> often yields far more endogenous DNA than other skeletal elements and has transformed work on ancient genomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



Two things can change the conversation fast: new genome data from Skhul remains and broader comparative frameworks for Levantine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-link-autism-to-neanderthal-dna-genetic-variants-found-in-modern-humans/">fossils</a> of this age. 



The inner ear and mandible findings invite a re-check of other Mount Carmel material with the same toolkit the team used here.



Separately, the Levant’s cultural record matters for how we read identity in these bones. 



Mousterian stone tools made with the <a href="https://stonetoolsmuseum.com/story/levallois-method/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Levallois method</a> appear with both Neanderthals and early modern humans in this region, so toolkits alone do not sort populations cleanly&nbsp;



A final note on expectations helps keep things grounded. Anatomy can document a mosaic of traits, but deciding whether that mosaic means a first-generation hybrid or long-term gene flow across neighboring groups is a question that only genetics can pin down with confidence.



Click here to watch a <a href="https://youtu.be/t0TktMFPDPM" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">video explanation of the Skhul child...</a>



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0003552125000366?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">L’Anthropologie</a>.



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Skeleton is determined to be a 'hybrid child' of a human and Neanderthal interbreeding

A child’s skeleton, found nearly a century ago in Skhul...

A new study traces how our hips changed so our ancestors could walk on two legs. It identifies two precise changes during early development that reshaped the pelvis and set the stage for stable, efficient bipedal movement.



The work follows what happens inside a forming hip, from early cartilage to bone. It clarifies when a key growth zone turns and when bone hardening is delayed, producing a short, wide, bowl-like pelvis suited for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/upright-walking-may-have-sparked-human-creativity-and-music/">upright walking</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rotation-of-hip-growth-plate">Rotation of hip growth plate</h2>



The research was led by Professor Terence D. Capellini, Chair of Human Evolutionary Biology at Harvard University.



The first discovery centers on the growth plate, a thin zone where cartilage cells multiply and stack as a bone lengthens. In humans, the iliac growth plate starts out like other primates, then by day 53 of development it swings 90 degrees, so growth runs across the pelvis instead of head to tail.



That single rotation turns the ilium from tall and narrow into short and wide. “What we’ve done here is demonstrate that in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earliest-known-evidence-of-humans-and-neanderthals-interbreeding-skhul-child/">human</a> evolution there was a complete mechanistic shift,” said Capellini.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-delayed-bone-hardening">Delayed bone hardening</h2>



The second change is all about timing. In a process called ossification, most bones start hardening from a center point in the shaft, then spread inward and outward.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-early-homo-species-discovered-lived-with-australopithecus-challenges-human-evolution-theory/">Human</a> ilia break that pattern. Bone begins near the back, next to the sacrum, and spreads radially along the outer rim while the inside stays cartilaginous for roughly 16 weeks. This allows the pelvis to keep its shape as it enlarges.



That delay keeps the “basin” geometry intact while muscles and ligaments find their anchors. “But the histology really revealed that it actually flipped 90 degrees,” said Capellini.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pelvis-rotation-and-timing">Pelvis rotation and timing</h2>



Behind those shifts are cells called chondrocytes that build cartilage and a ring of tissue called the perichondrium that helps initiate bone. The team mapped more than 300 active genes and highlighted three with outsized roles in these steps.



Mutations in the SOX9 gene can cause <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK1760/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">campomelic dysplasia</a>, which includes unusually narrow hip bones with reduced lateral flare. That clinical pattern matches what you would expect if iliac growth plate widening fails.



Activating variants in the PTH1R gene cause Jansen metaphyseal chondrodysplasia, a disorder tied to abnormal growth plate signaling. Changes in that same pathway appear to help reorient the human iliac growth plate.



Homozygous PTH1R (a genetic state where an individual inherits two non-functional copies of the PTH1R gene) mutations are linked to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/medgen/325097" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eiken syndrome</a> with delayed bone ossification. That mirrors the second developmental shift documented in the iliac growth plate’s development.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-hip-changes-began-early">Human hip changes began early</h2>



The research team scanned and sectioned 128 embryonic and fetal samples, covering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meat-consumption-drove-an-evolutionary-leap-in-early-humans/">humans</a> and nearly two dozen primates. The human pattern was different, and it was different early.



According to the researchers, the growth plate reorientation began after our branch split from African apes. Later, as selection balanced walking efficiency with childbirth, the ossification delay likely emerged to preserve shape while the pelvis grew.



“All fossil hominids from that point on were growing the pelvis differently from any other primate that came before,” said Capellini. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pelvis-shaped-walking-and-birth">Pelvis shaped walking and birth</h2>



A short, wide ilium changes how key muscles work. The flaring blades reposition gluteus medius and gluteus minimus muscles so they stabilize the pelvis when one leg is on the ground during a step.



Comparative work shows that flaring ilia reorient hip muscles and influence birth canal shape, as outlined in a <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4305164/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">review</a>. That broader context helps explain why the pelvis must serve walking, load transfer, and childbirth together.



The study also notes early attachments for the rectus femoris and the iliofemoral ligament near the front of the <a href="https://radiopaedia.org/articles/ilium" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ilium</a>. Those connections fit the demands of upright gait and help resist pelvic drop during single-leg support.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-changes-in-hips">Tracking changes in hips</h2>



The investigators combined micro CT with histology to see shape changes over time. They then layered single-cell multiomics and spatial transcriptomics to match gene activity with exact locations in the tissue.



That blend linked a rotated growth plate to SOX9, PTH1R, and related signals. It also tied the unusual rim-first, inside-late ossification to the RUNX2 gene and factors that govern when and where bone cells appear.



The combined picture shows a coordinated pathway that first widens the pelvic blades, then slows internal mineralization to hold geometry while size increases. That two-step sequence explains the basin-like hips required for stable <a href="https://www.ashdin.com/articles/bipedalism-the-evolutionary-leap-that-shaped-humanity-110447.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bipedalism</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-questions-remain">Many questions remain</h2>



Open questions remain about how mechanical forces from early muscle contractions might reinforce the new growth directions. It is also unclear how much variation these developmental programs show across modern human populations.



Future work can probe how regulatory DNA near these genes changed through time. That could reveal whether selection acted in bursts or nudged many switches at once.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09399-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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How human hips evolved for walking on two legs

A new study traces how our hips changed so our...

Orangutans don’t count calories or track macros, yet they still maintain their fitness naturally. These great apes, who swing through the peat swamps of Borneo, have figured out how to stay healthy in a world that constantly changes what’s available to eat.



Orangutans don’t get fat, develop diabetes, or suffer from the kinds of metabolic diseases that now affect millions of people around the world.



And no, it’s not magic. It’s biology - mixed with smart behavior and a deep connection to the natural rhythms of their environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orangutans-strike-a-healthy-balance">Orangutans strike a healthy balance</h2>



For 15 years, researchers followed wild orangutans through the humid forests of Central Kalimantan in Indonesia, keeping track of their diets, movements, and how their bodies reacted when fruit was scarce.



Turns out, orangutans have a built-in system for balance. When food is plentiful, they eat more. When it’s not, they adjust - both what they eat and how they use energy.



Unlike most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-link-autism-to-neanderthal-dna-genetic-variants-found-in-modern-humans/">modern humans</a>, orangutans remain metabolically flexible. That is, their bodies shift between using carbs, fats, and proteins depending on what’s available. 



They also understand when to conserve energy. When fruit is hard to find, orangutans reduce activity to conserve energy. They rest more, sleep earlier, travel less, and spend less time socializing.



Compare that to modern human habits: easy access to high-calorie, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breaking-free-from-ultra-processed-foods-the-surprising-health-benefits/">processed foods</a> and little <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-bursts-of-intense-exercise-can-slow-brain-aging/">movement</a>. We don’t adjust our activity to match what we eat. Orangutans do. That’s a big reason why they avoid the health problems humans often face.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orangutans-keep-protein-on-the-menu">Orangutans keep protein on the menu</h2>



Fruit is a favorite for orangutans. It’s rich in carbs and energy. But when the forest stops producing enough fruit - which happens often - orangutans shift gears. They eat more leaves, bark, and seeds. These foods are lower in sugar but higher in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meat-protein-boosts-survival-but-plants-boost-longevity/">protein</a>.



Even in times of plenty, orangutans don’t overdo it. They still get protein in, no matter what. This consistent protein intake keeps them lean and with muscle mass: something that many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/western-diet-identified-as-major-cause-of-colon-cancer/">Western diets</a> lack, particularly when meals are high in sugar and fat but low on nutrients.



The orangutans' capacity for switching fuel sources also maintains their health. During times of low-fruit availability, they burn stored body fat and muscle protein as a fuel source.



The strategy is akin to when humans fast intermittently. These periods of rest from perpetual eating might actually lower oxidative stress - a process associated with aging and illness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-natural-dietary-patterns">Understanding natural dietary patterns </h2>



The lead scientist on this research is Erin Vogel, who collaborated with an international team through <a href="https://www.rutgers.edu/">Rutgers University</a>. Fieldwork took place at the Tuanan Orangutan Research Station in a conservation area of about the same size as Rhode Island.



“These findings show how wild Bornean orangutans adapt to changes in their environment by adjusting their nutrient intake, behavior and energy use,” said Vogel. “The work highlights the importance of understanding natural dietary patterns and their impact on health, both for orangutans and humans.”



Vogel added that human beings and orangutans share a common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pierolapithecus-catalaunicus-recreating-face-of-an-ancient-human-ancestor/">ancestor</a>, and therefore we share very fundamental biological systems. 



Both share the capability of adapting metabolism based on what is consumned. But human diets high levels of ultra-processed foods can interfere with this adaptability, which results in metabolic conditions such as diabetes.



“Understanding these adaptations can help us learn more about how humans can manage their diets and health,” Vogel said. “It also highlights the importance of conserving orangutan habitats to ensure their survival.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-plants">The power of plants</h2>



Earlier this year, another study led by doctoral student Will Aguado found that orangutans at the Tuanan site get most of their protein from just one plant — Bowringia callicarpa, a vine among nearly 200 species in their diet. 



Its leaves and seeds help fuel them through fruit shortages and may be one reason the population at Tuanan is thriving.



That’s a sharp contrast to the protein options humans usually rely on. Many diets today lean heavily on animal products or processed supplements. Orangutans, on the other hand, pull what they need straight from the forest.



“In essence, the research on orangutans underscores the importance of dietary balance and metabolic flexibility, which are crucial for maintaining health in both orangutans and humans,” said Vogel. 



“It suggests that modern dietary habits, characterized by high consumption of processed foods rich in sugars and fats, can lead to metabolic imbalances and health issues.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-orangutan-fitness">Lessons from orangutan fitness</h2>



The big takeaway? Balance and flexibility matter. Orangutans don’t eat the same thing every day. They don’t force their bodies to process more energy than they need. 



They eat what the environment provides, adjust their activity levels, and stay metabolically adaptable.



Paying attention to quality of food, staying active, and recognizing when to rest - those are lessons worth learning.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adv7613">Science Advances</a>.



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What orangutans can teach humans about food and fitness

Orangutans don’t count calories or track macros, yet they still...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-natural-solution-to-disease-through-crop-modification">A natural solution to disease through crop modification.</h2>



The agricultural industry stands at a crossroads between productivity and environmental responsibility, and crop modification often carries a negative connotation. While chemical pesticides have long been the go-to solution for crop protection, their harmful effects on ecosystems and human health have prompted scientists to seek alternatives. The recent breakthrough by <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southampton</a> researchers offers a promising path forward through the precise manipulation of plant-associated microbial communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-microbial-partnerships">The science behind microbial partnerships</h2>



Plants naturally harbor diverse ecosystems of bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms that function as biological allies. These microscopic partners contribute to disease resistance, nutrient absorption, and stress tolerance. However, until now, scientists lacked the tools to deliberately reshape these communities to enhance crop protection.



The Southampton team's approach centered on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-plant-microbiomes-the-future-of-crop-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modifying lignin biosynthesis genes in rice plants</a>. This strategic intervention altered the plant's metabolic output, creating conditions that favored beneficial bacterial populations while suppressing harmful ones. The result was a living defense system embedded within the plant itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-global-food-security">Implications for global food security</h2>



The successful demonstration against Xanthomonas oryzae, the pathogen responsible for bacterial blight in rice, represents more than a laboratory achievement. Rice feeds nearly half the world's population, and bacterial blight causes devastating crop losses annually. Traditional control methods rely heavily on pesticides that contaminate soil and water systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-disease-resistance">Looking Beyond Disease Resistance</h2>



While disease protection represents the immediate application, the research framework opens doors to broader agricultural improvements. Future developments could engineer microbiomes to enhance nutrient uptake, reducing dependence on synthetic fertilizers. This dual benefit addresses both crop productivity and environmental sustainability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-forward">The path forward</h2>



As this technology advances from laboratory to field applications, it promises to reshape sustainable agriculture. The ability to program plants with their own biological defense systems could herald a new era where crops protect themselves naturally, reducing chemical inputs while maintaining yields necessary for global food security.



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44335-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Revolutionizing agriculture through microbiome engineering

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4 Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease A natural...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Some children read facial expressions when making food choices.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-people-s-reactions-influence-children-s-eating-habits">Other people's reactions influence children's eating habits</h2>



Many children are finicky eaters, but research explains how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-learned-why-so-many-kids-dislike-vegetables/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watching others eat and social modeling</a> influence the eating habits of children.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Study Methodology Demonstrates Social Learning Impact</h2>



Researchers at <a href="https://www.aston.ac.uk/hls/school-of-psychology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aston University School of Psychology</a> have published findings in Frontiers in Psychology that illuminate the neurobiological foundations of food preference development through observational learning. The investigation employed controlled video stimuli featuring adults consuming raw broccoli while displaying systematically varied facial expressions to measure participant responses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Asymmetrical Response Patterns Identified</h2>



The research, conducted with 204 female participants, revealed a pronounced asymmetry in social modeling effects. Negative facial expressions during vegetable consumption significantly diminished observer food preference ratings, while positive expressions failed to produce corresponding increases in vegetable appeal. This finding challenges conventional assumptions about the bidirectional nature of social influence in dietary behavior formation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Evolutionary Psychology Framework Applied</h2>



Dr. Katie Edwards and her research team propose that these results reflect adaptive mechanisms developed through evolutionary processes. The heightened sensitivity to disgust expressions likely functions as a protective system, enabling individuals to identify potentially harmful foods through social cues without direct risk exposure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Clinical and Educational Implications</h2>



These findings carry substantial implications for pediatric nutrition interventions and family meal dynamics. The research suggests that parental expressions of distaste during vegetable consumption may inadvertently reinforce children's existing food aversions through unconscious social transmission pathways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Future Research Directions</h2>



The study establishes a foundation for expanded investigation into real-time social modeling effects and cross-demographic applicability. Researchers emphasize the necessity for longitudinal studies examining actual consumption behaviors rather than preference ratings alone, particularly within family contexts where social learning occurs most frequently.



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Social modeling affects our food choices

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc Some children read facial expressions when making food choices....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cancer-causing-protein-bound-and-blocked">Cancer-causing protein bound and blocked</h2>



In a discovery that can one day revolutionize cancer treatment, researchers at the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Riverside</a> have successfully developed a means of controlling MYC, a notoriously slippery protein that causes approximately <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chaotic-protein-that-fuels-75-of-cancers-can-be-controlled/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">75% of all cancers in humans</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-myc-different">What makes MYC different</h2>



MYC presents a unique challenge when studying cancer. Normally, this protein plays a vital role in healthy cells. It carefully controls transcription - the process that converts genetic information from DNA and RNA into proteins.



However, cancer changes everything. In cancer cells, MYC becomes a destructive force. It operates in overdrive mode with no regulation whatsoever.



Professor Min Xue, who led the research team, explains it simply: "MYC is less like food for cancer cells and more like a steroid. It drives cancer's aggressive growth." This superactive behavior makes MYC involved in three out of every four cancer cases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-myc-is-hard-to-target">Why MYC is hard to target</h2>



Despite its clear role in cancer, targeting MYC has been one of medicine's biggest challenges. The main problem lies in MYC's unusual structure - or rather, its complete lack of structure.



Professor Xue describes the protein as "basically a glob of randomness." This means conventional drug discovery methods don't work. These traditional approaches rely on sharply defined protein structures. MYC simply doesn't have one.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">A New Approach to Fighting MYC</h2>



The UCR research team developed a clever solution. They designed a special peptide molecule that could selectively bind to MYC. More importantly, this peptide could block MYC's destructive activity.



The key was fine-tuning two specific features: the peptide's stiffness and its shape. Through careful adjustments, researchers achieved something remarkable. They reached "sub-micro-molar affinity" - meaning their peptide binds as strongly as antibodies do.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-results">Breakthrough results</h2>



This accomplishment represents a major leap beyond previous attempts. The researchers enhanced their peptide's binding strength by two orders of magnitude. This dramatic improvement brings the work significantly closer to practical drug development goals.



The research opens new possibilities for treating the vast majority of cancers where MYC plays a destructive role.



The researchers are presently optimizing peptide-delivery systems based on lipid nanoparticles that deliver the peptide effectively into cancer cells. The<a href="https://www.nih.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> National Institutes of Health</a> and the <a href="https://www.defense.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Department of Defense</a> funded the study, which appeared in the Journal of the <a href="https://www.acs.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Chemical Society</a>. This research offers renewed hope against cancer, and it can potentially open a door to more effective cancer therapies for most cancer patients worldwide.



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The protein that fuels 3 out of 4 cancers has been controlled

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-map-exact-ages-when-your-body-rapidly-ages">Scientists Map Exact Ages When Your Body Rapidly Ages</h2>



Scientists have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-bodies-begin-breaking-down-two-very-precise-ages/#google_vignette">discovered that aging</a> isn't the gradual, steady process many assume it to be. Instead, researchers from Stanford Medicine have found that our bodies undergo dramatic molecular changes at two specific ages: 44 and 60. This research, published in Nature Aging, reveals that aging happens in sudden bursts rather than smooth transitions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-waves-of-rapid-aging">Two waves of rapid aging</h2>



The Stanford study tracked over 135,000 different molecules and microbes in 108 participants aged 25 to 75 over several years. Results showed that 81% of all molecules studied exhibited non-linear changes, meaning they shifted dramatically at certain ages rather than changing gradually over time.



Michael Snyder, chair of genetics at Stanford School of Medicine and the study's senior author, noted significant findings. "We're not just changing gradually over time; there are some really dramatic changes. It turns out the mid-40s is a time of dramatic change, as is the early 60s. And that's true no matter what class of molecules you look at."



The first wave of changes occurs around age 44, affecting molecules related to alcohol metabolism, caffeine processing, lipid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/age-related-changes-in-metabolism-dont-match-our-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">metabolism</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-disease-remains-the-leading-cause-of-death-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cardiovascular disease</a>, and skin and muscle function. The second wave hits around age 60, involving changes in carbohydrate metabolism, immune regulation, kidney function, and again cardiovascular and muscle health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-during-these-aging-bursts">What happens during these aging bursts</h2>



During the mid-40s transformation, researchers observed significant changes in how the body processes alcohol and fats. This period often coincides with increased stress levels in many people's lives, potentially contributing to lifestyle factors that accelerate these molecular shifts.



"It's possible some of these changes could be tied to lifestyle or behavioral factors that cluster at these age groups, rather than being driven by biological factors," Snyder explained. For instance, alcohol metabolism dysfunction might result from increased consumption during the typically stressful mid-40s period.



The changes at age 60 are perhaps less surprising, as this is when many age-related diseases begin to manifest more prominently. The molecular shifts affect immune function and kidney health, both critical for maintaining overall wellness as we enter our senior years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-latest-research-confirms-aging-patterns">Latest research confirms aging patterns</h2>



Recent 2025 studies have validated these findings. Research examining tissue samples from 76 people found similar aging patterns, noting an "inflection point" between ages 45 and 55.



Scientists discovered that blood vessels, particularly the aorta, age fastest among all body tissues. This vascular aging may drive aging in other body parts, highlighting cardiovascular health's central role in the aging process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cellular-changes-and-microbiome-shifts">Cellular changes and microbiome shifts</h2>



The Stanford research revealed that these aging bursts affect our microbiome – the trillions of bacteria, viruses, and fungi living in and on our bodies. These microbial communities undergo substantial shifts during both aging periods, potentially affecting everything from digestion to immune function.



Additionally, researchers found that protein production and gene expression begin to fall out of sync as we age. This breakdown in cellular communication becomes especially pronounced during the two aging waves, contributing to the accumulation of damaged proteins associated with diseases such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-may-not-be-brain-disorder-important-data-was-fabricated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer's</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-implications-and-longevity-considerations">Health implications and longevity considerations</h2>



Understanding these aging patterns has important implications for healthcare strategies. Research suggests that people should pay particular attention to their health during their 40s and 60s, when these dramatic molecular changes occur.



Snyder emphasized the importance of proactive health measures. "I'm a big believer that we should try to adjust our lifestyles while we're still healthy," he noted. This might include increasing exercise to protect heart health and maintain muscle mass, or reducing alcohol consumption in the 40s as the body's ability to metabolize it declines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-approaches-to-anti-aging-treatment">New approaches to anti-aging treatment</h2>



Aging research has seen notable advances in 2025. Harvard Medical School scientists developed chemical cocktails that reverse cellular aging without genetic modification. These six combinations restored aged cells to youthfulness in under a week, offering safer alternatives to gene therapy.



Researchers identified new biomarkers like "InflammAge," a saliva-based test measuring chronic inflammation associated with aging. This non-invasive approach could change how we monitor aging and intervention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions-in-aging-research">Future directions in aging research</h2>



Emerging technologies including artificial intelligence, cellular reprogramming, and senolytic therapies, are opening new possibilities for extending healthspan. Companies develop treatments targeting aging's fundamental mechanisms rather than just managing age-related diseases.



The Stanford findings provide a roadmap for implementing preventive measures. Rather than waiting for symptoms, people can prepare for and potentially mitigate these predictable aging waves.



As aging understanding evolves, one thing becomes clear: aging isn't inevitable decline, but specific biological events we may learn to prevent or reverse. The key is recognizing when these transitions occur and taking proactive health steps during vulnerable periods.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nataging" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Aging</a>.



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Scientists discover we age in bursts

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The hidden science behind tickling.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-discover-the-brain-s-tickling-command-center">Scientists discover the brain's 'tickling command center'</h2>



Researchers have finally solved one of humanity's most enduring mysteries: why we can't <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/after-centuries-of-debate-we-still-dont-know-how-tickling-works/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tickle</a> ourselves and what makes some people incredibly ticklish while others barely react? Recent scientific discoveries are revolutionizing our understanding of this peculiar human behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-discovery-in-the-brain">Breakthrough discovery in the brain</h2>



In 2023, Dr. Michael Brecht's team at <a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humboldt University</a>-<a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Berlin</a> made a major discovery published in the <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(22)01991-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">journal Neuron</a>. They identified the brain's actual "tickling command center" – specific neurons in a region called the periaqueductal gray that control both tickling responses and play behavior.



When researchers used cutting-edge optogenetic technology to shut down these neurons in laboratory rats, something remarkable happened. The animals completely lost their ability to be tickled or engage in playful behavior.



"We found that global blockade of the rat periaqueductal gray with either muscimol or lidocaine interfered with ticklishness and play," the research team reported in their study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-types-of-tickling-revealed">Two types of tickling revealed</h2>



What we call "tickling" is two completely different phenomena, according to the latest research. Light tickling – that feathery sensation that makes you want to scratch – is essentially your body's sophisticated bug detection system. This alerts you to potential insects or parasites on your skin.



Deep tickling – the kind that makes you laugh uncontrollably – involves complex brain circuits and is fundamentally social. You literally cannot tickle yourself with this type of stimulation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-self-tickling-is-impossible">Why self-tickling is impossible</h2>



Your cerebellum acts like a prediction machine, recent findings show. When you move your own hand to touch yourself, your brain generates precise predictions about what you will feel and then cancels out the tickling sensation through neural inhibition.



When someone else tickles you, your brain can't predict their movements, so the full tickling response activates. It's like your brain's way of distinguishing between self and others.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-individual-differences-explained">Individual differences explained</h2>



Individual differences in ticklishness depend on genetics, psychology, and even trust. Dr. Xinzhong Dong at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins University</a> notes that people with denser nerve endings tend to be more sensitive.



Psychological factors matter just as much. You respond more strongly when tickled by people you trust, and anxiety completely shuts down tickling responses. This explains why the same physical stimulus can produce completely different reactions depending on who's doing the tickling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-your-ticklishness">Controlling your ticklishness</h2>



Science offers answers for controlling your ticklishness. You can reduce tickling sensitivity through systematic desensitization – gradual exposure in controlled settings.



Dr. Konstantina Kilteni's 2025 research, published in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt0350" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>, reveals another technique: place your hand on the tickler's hand. This allows your brain to partially predict the sensations, reducing the tickling response by up to 90 percent.



"Your brain is essentially learning to override its own reflexes," Kilteni explained in her review of tickling research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-purpose-discovered">Evolutionary purpose discovered</h2>



From an evolutionary perspective, tickling serves vital functions according to <a href="https://www.umd.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maryland</a> researcher Dr. Robert Provine's extensive studies. It trains our defense reflexes for vulnerable body areas and facilitates social bonding between family members.



Tickling-induced laughter is actually one of the first forms of communication between infants and caregivers. "Tickle involves a neurological self/nonself discrimination, providing the most primitive social scenario," Provine noted in his research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clinical-applications-emerge">Clinical applications emerge</h2>



Research shows people with autism spectrum disorder perceive touches as more ticklish than people without the condition. Investigating this difference could provide insight into brain differences and help advance autism research.



People with schizophrenia tend to experience self-touches similarly to external tickles, allowing them to essentially tickle themselves. This suggests altered sensory prediction mechanisms in the condition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-research-reveals-universal-nature">Animal research reveals universal nature</h2>



Scientists have discovered that many species beyond humans are ticklish. Rats emit ultrasonic "laughs" when tickled, while chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans all respond to tickling stimulation.



This widespread occurrence across species suggests that tickling serves fundamental biological and social functions that evolved long before humans developed complex language and culture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



Dr. Kilteni argues that tickling research deserves more scientific attention. "It is a complex interplay of motor, social, neurological, developmental, and evolutionary aspects," she stated in her recent review.



New haptic technologies and advanced research methodologies now permit scientists to investigate tickle sensation with unprecedented precision. Standardized experimental methods using mechanical tickling devices ensure consistent results across studies.



Recent findings published in Science Advances show that tickling research is opening new doors in neuroscience, potentially leading to a better understanding of social behavior, sensory processing, and neurological conditions.



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Scientists solve the mystery of tickling

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4 The hidden science behind tickling. Scientists discover the brain's...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals secret mission to create working time travel device.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-an-equation-truly-bend-time-a-physicist-s-decades-long-quest-to-rewrite-reality">Could an equation truly bend time? A physicist's decades-long quest to rewrite reality</h2>



Imagine the impossible: stepping back through time in a time machine, not in fantasy, but through a scientific endeavor driven by profound personal loss. For <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astrophysicist-says-hes-cracked-the-equation-for-time-travel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Ronald Mallett</a>, a distinguished astrophysicist and professor emeritus at the <a href="https://uconn.edu/">University of Connecticut</a>, this deeply human longing has fueled a lifelong mission. He claims to have discovered the equation that could unlock temporal displacement, pushing boundaries once deemed purely science fiction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-profound-grief-that-forged-a-vision">A profound grief that forged a vision</h2>



Mallett's extraordinary pursuit began with devastating tragedy in 1955. At merely 10 years old, he endured his father Boyd's sudden death—a television repairman whose passion for science had ignited a similar spark in his young son. Boyd Mallett, only 33, succumbed to a heart attack, leaving behind a grief-stricken child searching for solace.



That solace came through H.G. Wells' The Time Machine. Within its pages, Mallett found a captivating concept: "Time is only a kind of Space." These words transformed from a literary phrase into a guiding principle, becoming the driving force behind his unwavering commitment to unraveling time's fundamental mysteries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-humble-beginnings-to-academic-heights">From humble beginnings to academic heights</h2>



Mallett's journey was far from straightforward. After serving in the Air Force during the Vietnam War era, he utilized the GI Bill for higher education, earning his Ph.D. in physics from Pennsylvania State University in 1973 at the age of 28.



In 1975, he made history as the first African American professor in the University of Connecticut's physics department, achieving full professorship in 1987 before retiring in 2024 as professor emeritus.



Throughout these successful academic years, Mallett harbored his radical ambition as a closely guarded secret. "I kept my time travel goal a secret," he confessed. "I worried people would think I was nuts." His public research centered on black holes, serving as a "cover story" while he quietly developed his revolutionary time travel theory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-breakthrough-moment">The breakthrough moment</h2>



His pivotal insight arrived while hospitalized for a heart condition—a profound irony given his father's heart attack started this journey. The breakthrough was elegantly simple yet revolutionary: "If gravity can bend time, and light can create gravity, then light can bend time."



"It turns out that black holes can create a gravitational field that could lead to the creation of time loops that could allow us to go back in time," he explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-blueprint-for-a-temporal-vortex">The blueprint for a temporal vortex</h2>



Mallett's vision for a functioning time machine replicates spacetime-warping phenomena around black holes. He offers a compelling analogy: "Picture a cup of coffee. Stir it with a spoon, and the coffee swirls. A spinning black hole does the same to spacetime."



In Einstein's general relativity, the universe is a dynamic fabric woven from space and time. Massive objects like black holes warp this fabric—an effect we perceive as gravity. Mallett theorizes that an intense, continuous, circulating beam of light from a ring of powerful lasers could replicate this gravitational torsion, effectively twisting time into a loop.



This "time loop" would theoretically allow information—or perhaps matter—to travel backward in time. He detailed this mathematical concept in his 2006 autobiography, Time Traveler: A Scientist's Personal Mission to Make Time Travel a Reality.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-published-research-and-recognition">Published research and recognition</h2>



His work, published in respected journals including <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/physics-letters-a" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physics Letters A</a> and <a href="https://link.springer.com/journal/10701" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Foundations of Physics</a>, suggests circulating laser light could generate gravitational fields potent enough to create closed timelike curves, enabling time travel for data.



Mallett's research has gained worldwide media attention, featured on <a href="https://www.thisamericanlife.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Public Radio's This American Life</a>, the <a href="https://www.history.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">History Channel</a>, and <a href="https://www.today.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NBC's Today Show</a>. The widespread interest reflects both his compelling personal story and rigorous scientific approach.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-galactic-hurdles-and-persistent-skepticism">The galactic hurdles and persistent skepticism</h2>



While Mallett's equations captivate imagination, the path to reality faces immense obstacles. The energy requirement is staggering—Mallett acknowledges needing "galactic amounts of energy," far beyond current technological capabilities.



There's also a poignant limitation: even if realized, his machine could only send information back to when it was first activated, meaning it couldn't transport him to 1955 to prevent his father's death.



The scientific community remains skeptical. Physicists Ken Olum and Allen Everett argue that Mallett's proposed laser ring would need to be larger than the observable universe to achieve the necessary spacetime distortion. They invoke Stephen Hawking's chronology protection conjecture, suggesting physics may prevent macroscopic time travel.



Astrophysicist Paul Sutter has voiced doubts about Mallett's underlying mathematics, while science writer Brian Clegg finds the concept intriguing enough to warrant experimental investigation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legacy-that-transcends-time">A legacy that transcends time</h2>



Now approaching 80, Dr. Mallett remains steadfast. "I believe my work will show time travel is possible," he asserts. "Future generations will build on it in ways we can't yet imagine."



His equations, though yet to physically bend time, have bent our collective imagination. Ongoing public interest, evidenced by his continued media appearances and Spike Lee's film adaptation of his memoir, underscores his ideas' profound impact.



More than a scientific pursuit, Mallett's story testifies to human resilience, intellectual courage, and hope's enduring power. Whether his theoretical time machine ever materializes, his legacy is immeasurable—inspiring countless individuals to challenge conventional limits and perceive time not as an unyielding barrier, but as a boundless frontier awaiting exploration.







-----



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Retired professor claims he solved time travel

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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