<p>Astronomers have caught a nearby stellar duo in a dramatic act. A super-dense white dwarf star is siphoning material from its larger companion at a pace never seen before.</p>



<p>The system, known as V Sagittae (V Sge), sits about 10,000 light-years away and orbits so tightly that the two stars whirl around each other every 12.3 hours. </p>



<p>As the white dwarf feeds, the pair blazes far brighter than similar systems - a century-old mystery that a new study says it has finally cracked.</p>



<p>Led by Pasi Hakala from the <a href="https://www.utu.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Turku</a> in Finland, the team used the European Southern Observatory’s Very Large Telescope in Chile to probe V Sge’s extreme behavior. The results point to a runaway case of “stellar cannibalism.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-white-dwarf-in-a-feeding-frenzy">White dwarf in a feeding frenzy</h2>



<p>White dwarfs are the ultra-compact embers left behind when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planet-forming-disks-surrounding-stars-often-last-much-longer-than-expected/">sun-like stars</a> exhaust their fuel. On their own, they glow faintly. Paired with a close companion, they can become voracious, as gravity from the white dwarf pulls gas - mostly hydrogen - off the neighboring star.</p>



<p>As that gas piles up, it heats to extraordinary temperatures and ignites thermonuclear burning on the dwarf’s surface. </p>



<p>The study concludes that V Sge’s famous overbrightness comes from this very process operating at ferocious rates. It turns the white dwarf’s outer layers into a sustained, nuclear-powered beacon.</p>



<p>The V Sge system has baffled astronomers since its discovery in 1902 because it outshines its peers so dramatically. The study argues the system is in a “feeding frenzy,” with mass transfer exceeding what the white dwarf can absorb.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-luminous-halo-signals-instability">Luminous halo signals instability </h2>



<p>One of the team’s most striking finds is a broad ring of gas - a luminous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breathtaking-photo-shows-an-ice-halo-forming-around-the-sun/">halo</a> encircling both stars. That ring appears to be the overflow. </p>



<p>The system rips material from the companion that the white dwarf can’t accrete and flings it outward to form a circumbinary shroud.</p>



<p>The sheer energy released in the process, the researchers say, is also jostling the system, contributing to the erratic, “wild” motion seen in monitoring data.</p>



<p>That halo isn’t just window dressing. It’s a clue that V Sge is being pushed toward instability. When the inflow of fuel momentarily overwhelms the white dwarf’s ability to burn it steadily, pressure can build until the surface layers detonate in a thermonuclear flash.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-rare-outburst-on-the-horizon">A rare outburst on the horizon</h2>



<p>The team warns that V Sge is primed for a classic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/t-coronae-borealis-nova-explosion-nearby-star-light-up-earths-skies/">nova</a> - a powerful, but non-destructive outburst triggered when accumulated hydrogen ignites on the white dwarf’s surface. </p>



<p>If that happens in the coming years, the system could brighten enough to be visible to the naked eye. It would be a rare treat for skywatchers.</p>



<p>Farther down the line, the endgame could be even more spectacular. As the stars spiral inward and the white dwarf gains mass, they may collide or reach a catastrophic limit.</p>



<p>In that scenario, V Sge would explode as a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supernovae-explosions-seem-to-have-altered-earths-climate-in-the-past-and-could-do-so-again-at-any-time/">supernova</a> - an event so luminous it would be visible even in daylight. That fate isn’t guaranteed, and it may be centuries away. But the current feeding rate and the presence of the gas ring suggest this binary is on a dangerous trajectory.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-star-system-in-real-time">A star system in real time</h2>



<p>For decades, astronomers struggled to explain why V Sge was the brightest system of its kind. </p>



<p>By tying its glare to sustained thermonuclear burning driven by extreme mass transfer - and by revealing the telltale, system-wide gas ring - the new study provides a coherent picture of how this oddball works.</p>



<p>It also offers a living laboratory where scientists can study how close binaries evolve and how novae trigger. It may even explain how some white dwarfs cross the threshold into supernovae.</p>



<p>Most of the time, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/massive-star-redefines-our-understanding-of-stellar-evolution/">stellar evolution</a> plays out slowly, across eons. V Sagittae is a rare exception: a nearby, rapidly changing system writing its next chapter in real time. Keep an eye on the southern sky. The next burst from this hungry white dwarf could be bright enough for all of us to see.</p>



<p>The research is published in the journal <em><a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2507.22637" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society</a></em>. </p>



<p>Image Credit: University of Southampton</p>



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White dwarf star devours its companion in record feeding frenzy

Astronomers have caught a nearby stellar duo in a dramatic act. A super-dense white dwarf star is siphoning material from its larger companion at a pace never seen before. The system, known as V Sagittae (V Sge), sits about 10,000 light-years away and orbits so tightly that the two stars whirl around each other every 12.3 hours. As the white dwarf feeds, the pair blazes far brighter than similar systems - a century-old mystery that a new study says it has finally cracked. Led by Pasi Hakala...

<p>You read words with your eyes, but you also hear them with a voice in your head. That inner speech isn’t just a feeling. It leaves a clear footprint in the brain that can be mapped to text on a screen. </p>



<p>For people who can’t speak because of paralysis or other conditions, that shift could open the door to faster, more natural conversation.</p>



<p>Scientists have now identified brain activity patterns linked to inner speech and decoded them into text with a 74% accuracy rate.</p>



<p>Published in the journal <em>Cell</em>, the work could enable <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-computer-interface-device-lets-users-play-games-with-only-their-minds/">brain-computer interface</a> (BCI) systems to help people who cannot speak out loud communicate by silently thinking a password to activate the system.</p>



<p>“This is the first time we’ve managed to understand what brain activity looks like when you just think about speaking,” explains lead author Erin Kunz of <a href="https://www.stanford.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Stanford University</a>. </p>



<p>“For people with severe speech and motor impairments, BCIs capable of decoding inner speech could help them communicate much more easily and more naturally.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-movement-decoding-to-inner-speech">Movement decoding to inner speech</h2>



<p>BCIs already help people with disabilities by interpreting brain <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-the-speed-at-which-the-brain-processes-information/">signals</a> that control movement. </p>



<p>These systems operate prosthetic devices or type text by decoding attempted speech - when users engage speech muscles but produce unintelligible sounds. </p>



<p>This is faster than eye-tracking but still demands effort, which can be tiring.</p>



<p>The Stanford team explored decoding purely imagined speech. “If you just have to think about speech instead of actually trying to speak, it’s potentially easier and faster for people,” says co-first author Benyamin Meschede-Krasa.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-study-worked">How the study worked</h2>



<p>Four participants with severe paralysis from ALS or brainstem stroke took part. Researchers implanted microelectrodes into the motor cortex, a speech-related <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/multitasking-messes-with-your-brains-natural-rhythm/">brain</a> area. </p>



<p>Participants either attempted speaking or imagined saying words. The two tasks activated overlapping regions, though inner speech produced weaker signals.</p>



<p>The researchers also observed that imagined speech involved reduced activity in non-primary motor areas compared to attempted speech, suggesting more streamlined neural pathways. </p>



<p>Their models could reliably distinguish between the two types of speech despite these similarities.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-and-unexpected-findings">Decoding and unexpected findings</h2>



<p>Artificial intelligence models, trained specifically on data from participants’ imagined speech, demonstrated the ability to decode complete sentences from a remarkably large vocabulary of up to 125,000 words, achieving an accuracy rate of 74%. </p>



<p>In addition to decoding prompted sentences, the system was sensitive enough to pick up on unplanned, spontaneous <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/our-brain-stops-paying-attention-to-repeated-distractions/">mental activity</a>.</p>



<p>For example, when participants were asked to count the number of pink circles on a screen, the BCI detected the numbers they silently tallied, even though they were never instructed to think them. </p>



<p>This finding indicates that imagined speech generates distinct and identifiable neural patterns, even without direct prompting or deliberate effort from the user.</p>



<p>Furthermore, the research revealed that inner speech signals tend to follow a consistent temporal pattern across multiple trials. </p>



<p>In other words, the timing of brain activity during silent speech remained stable each time the participants imagined speaking.</p>



<p>This reliable internal rhythm could be an important factor in refining future decoding algorithms, as it provides a predictable framework for translating thought into text with greater accuracy and speed.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distinguishing-speech-types">Distinguishing speech types</h2>



<p>While the brain activity patterns for attempted speech and inner speech showed many similarities, the researchers discovered that there were still consistent and measurable differences between them. </p>



<p>These differences were significant enough for the system to accurately tell the two apart, even when the signals came from overlapping brain regions.</p>



<p>According to Frank Willett, this distinction opens the door for developing BCIs that can selectively respond to one type of speech over the other. </p>



<p>In practical terms, this means a device could be programmed to completely ignore inner speech unless the user chooses to activate it.</p>



<p>To give users full control, the team designed a password-based activation method. In this setup, decoding of inner speech would remain locked until the person silently thought of a specific phrase - in this case, “chitty chitty bang bang.” </p>



<p>When tested, the system successfully recognized the password with more than 98% accuracy, ensuring both security and intentional use.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-inner-speech-decoding">Future of inner speech decoding</h2>



<p>Summing it all up, your inner voice leaves a measurable trace in the brain’s speech-planning system. With thin sensors and well-trained models, that trace can be turned into text in real time, without any physical movement. </p>



<p>Free-form inner speech decoding remains a challenge due to variability in brain activity and limited vocabulary coverage. </p>



<p>However, the authors highlight that higher-density electrode arrays, advanced machine learning models, and integration of semantic context could improve accuracy.</p>



<p>“The future of BCIs is bright,” Willett says. “This work gives real hope that speech BCIs can one day restore communication that is as fluent, natural, and comfortable as conversational speech.”</p>



<p>It’s not telepathy, and it’s not flawless, but it points toward a faster, more humane way for people who can’t speak to be heard - using the voice they already have, the one inside.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell/fulltext/S0092-8674(25)00681-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Cell</em></a>.</p>



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New brain-computer interface 'reads' your innermost thoughts and translates them into text

You read words with your eyes, but you also hear...

<p>Australia’s Bogong moth uses a stellar compass with help from Earth’s geomagnetic field to stay on course across about 620 miles to cool alpine caves, according to a new study. </p>



<p>The work shows that the moths can distinguish specific geographic directions at night using the starry sky alone.</p>



<p>Billions of bogong <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-moth-species-revealed-after-a-century-of-mistaken-identity/">moths</a> head for high country each spring, then reverse the journey in autumn after months of aestivation in cave walls. The feat is precise, seasonal, and inherited rather than learned.</p>



<p>Professor Eric Warrant of <a href="https://www.lu.se/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lund University</a> led the research with collaborators across Europe and Australia.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moths-navigate-by-stars">Moths navigate by stars</h2>



<p>The team ran night flights in a rural, non-magnetic laboratory using a custom flight simulator that projected a natural star field above tethered moths, while removing magnetic cues so only the sky pattern could guide flight. They also ran outdoor tests under real <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/moths-read-the-stars-to-complete-an-epic-migration/">skies</a> to confirm the behavior in the field.</p>



<p>“When the starry sky was rotated 180 degrees, the moths also changed direction 180 degrees, but when the stars were distorted, their orientation disappeared. It was a real eureka moment to experience this in the experiments,” said David Dreyer, a researcher at Lund.</p>



<p>“Navigating by the stars is a capacity that only humans, often with the help of a sextant, and certain birds that migrate at night possess. Now we can establish that the Bogong moth is the first invertebrate so far known to master this feat,” said Warrant.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-moths-rely-on-stars-for-journeys">Why moths rely on stars for journeys</h2>



<p>The night sky shifts across hours, yet the moths held their inherited course when the stars moved across the dome. That suggests they are extracting a stable cue from changing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stressed-plants-make-sounds-and-moths-can-hear-them/">patterns</a>.</p>



<p>Birds have long been shown to use star patterns, a result established in classic planetarium experiments with indigo buntings. </p>



<p>Moths now join the list of celestial navigators, but with a key twist, because they use the stars to aim for a specific geographic bearing, not just to keep a straight line.</p>



<p>Short range sky use is not unprecedented in insects. Dung beetles orient using the Milky Way to roll in a straight line away from competitors at the dung heap, which is a different task from long distance navigation to a fixed destination.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moths-switch-to-magnetic-cues-nbsp">Moths switch to magnetic cues&nbsp;</h2>



<p>On overcast nights, the moths still maintained their seasonally correct heading in field tests, a pattern consistent with a magnetic compass that steps in when the sky is hidden. That redundancy makes sense for nocturnal travel that can span many nights.</p>



<p>Earlier work in 2018 had already shown Bogong moths sense and use Earth’s magnetic field to steer, aligning magnetic and visual cues when they agree and losing orientation when the cues conflict. </p>



<p>The new results show that either cue alone can be sufficient, with stars taking the lead under clear skies.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-moths-decode-sky-patterns">How moths decode sky patterns</h2>



<p>The study did not stop at behavior. The team recorded activity from visual neurons that responded when the projected star sky rotated, and those responses vanished when the stars were randomized, indicating tuning to natural celestial structure rather than generic motion.</p>



<p>Some cells peaked when the moth was oriented toward a common sky direction, which hints at how the brain encodes a stable heading from complex light patterns. The responses appeared in regions that interconnect sensory input with motor steering.</p>



<p>One navigation hub, the central complex, is known across <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/why-predators-attack-adult-moths-instead-of-caterpillars/">insects</a> as a circuit that computes heading and desired direction, and the new data are consistent with that role. </p>



<p>The pattern suggests a compact neural solution for fusing sky and magnetic information into a single steering command.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-plausible-magnetic-sensor">A plausible magnetic sensor</h2>



<p>How an insect detects a weak magnetic field is still an open question. A leading hypothesis proposes a light dependent chemical reaction in cryptochrome proteins that forms magnetically sensitive radical pairs, which can change reaction yields depending on field orientation.</p>



<p>There is direct experimental support for cryptochrome-based magnetic sensing in another migratory insect, the monarch butterfly. </p>



<p>In this species, CRY1 mediates light-dependent inclination responses under Earth-strength fields and relies on both the antennae and the eyes as magnetosensory organs. Bogong moths may use a related mechanism, although that remains to be nailed down.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



<p>The findings raise the bar for what a small nervous system can do. A moth brain smaller than a grain of rice can extract compass information from dim, complex star fields and keep it calibrated with a magnetic fallback.</p>



<p>The approach is robust, portable, and cheap in energy. It also highlights why dark, clear skies still matter for nocturnal migrants that rely on faint celestial structure.</p>



<p>Two puzzles stand out. How do these moths decide they have reached the right mountain caves, and which local cues trigger the stop after the long haul?</p>



<p>There is also the question of calibration. The system likely needs a way to keep sky and magnetic compasses aligned over time, and to decide which to trust when the cues disagree.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09135-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature</em></a>.</p>



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Bogong moths navigate using stars and magnetic fields

Australia’s Bogong moth uses a stellar compass with help from...

<p>A team in Japan reports that switching on one gene in a specific set of brain cells made one fruit fly species perform the courtship ritual of another.</p>



<p>The two species involved, split from a common ancestor roughly 30 to 35 million years ago, so copying behavior across that divide is no small feat.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-changing-behavior-by-gene-transfer">Changing behavior by gene transfer</h2>



<p>“When we activated the fru gene in insulin-producing neurons of singing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-convert-living-creatures-flies-into-remote-controlled-microrobots/">flies</a> to produce FruM proteins, the cells grew long neural projections,” said <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ryoya-Tanaka" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ryoya Tanaka</a>, co-lead author and lecturer at <a href="https://www.sci.nagoya-u.ac.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nagoya University</a>’s Graduate School of Science.</p>



<p>The <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adp5831" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">project</a> was led by Tanaka alongside colleagues at Japan’s National Institute of Information and Communications Technology (<a href="https://www.nict.go.jp/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NICT</a>), in partnership with Nagoya University.</p>



<p>The manipulated males of <em>Drosophila melanogaster</em> stopped relying only on song and instead offered a nuptial gift, a regurgitated droplet, (vomit) the hallmark move of <em>Drosophila subobscura</em>.</p>



<p>The team boosted a sex-specific isoform of the fruitless gene, FruM, inside <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/physiology/articles/10.3389/fphys.2013.00252/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">insulin-producing neurons</a> that sit in the brain and normally regulate metabolism and growth signals.</p>



<p>Those neurons sprouted new connections to the brain’s courtship control center, forming a circuit that drives gift offering rather than song, according to the paper and editor’s summary.</p>



<p>The authors also pinpointed a small cluster of 16 to 18 such neurons and tied their output to mouthpart motor pathways that enable regurgitation and transfer to the female’s proboscis.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-this-shifts-views-of-evolution">This shifts views of evolution</h2>



<p>“Our findings indicate that the evolution of novel behaviors does not necessarily require the emergence of new neurons,” noted <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Yusuke-Hara" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Yusuke Hara</a>, co-lead author at NICT.</p>



<p>Small genetic changes that rewire existing cells can yield new behaviors, which is a tighter, more economical route than inventing whole networks from scratch.</p>



<p>That idea is consistent with work showing modular, plug-and-play features in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flies-are-more-vulnerable-to-climate-change-than-bees/">fly</a> courtship circuits that can accept different sensory inputs or outputs without rebuilding the entire system.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fruitless-gene-in-courtship-behavior">Fruitless gene in courtship behavior</h2>



<p>The <a href="https://elifesciences.org/articles/59224" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">fruitless</a> program sets up the male courtship network during development, and experiments show that FruM is required in a critical window to produce normal male-female courtship.</p>



<p>About 2,000 <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/physiology/articles/10.3389/fphys.2018.00780/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FruM-positive neurons</a> dot the male nervous system, and subsets control steps such as song, pursuit, and copulation timing.</p>



<p>Earlier <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6705751/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">work</a> comparing species already hinted that fru-labeled circuitry is wired differently in subobscura versus melanogaster, supporting the notion that conserved genes can drive distinct behaviors in related animals.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-insulin-neurons-guide-courtship-behavior">Insulin neurons guide courtship behavior</h2>



<p>In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-on-treadmills-video-shows-how-insects-walk-and-balance/">flies</a>, a compact set of brain endocrine cells secretes insulin-like peptides, and this cluster sits in a neuroendocrine hub called the pars intercerebralis.</p>



<p>Those cells normally track nutritional status and help regulate growth, stress resistance, and lifespan, so recruiting them into a courtship circuit links internal state to mating tactics in a direct way.</p>



<p>The new study shows that giving these cells FruM builds a bridge from internal metabolic nodes to the courtship command center, adding a behavioral output that one species has never used before.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-gift-giving-does-for-flies">What gift giving does for flies</h2>



<p><em>Drosophila subobscura</em> males offer a <a href="https://academic.oup.com/beheco/article/20/2/289/220004" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">regurgitated droplet</a> to females during courtship, and experiments show that this gift influences female choice and reproductive output.</p>



<p>The gift is tiny, but in a resource-limited world it carries information about the male’s condition and foraging success, and it can provide nutrients that matter to a female’s egg production.</p>



<p>Embedding that behavior in the primary courtship sequence ties mating success to an ecologically meaningful performance.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-circuit-likely-works">How the circuit likely works</h2>



<p>The study’s mapping implicates neurite growth from insulin cells and connections onto proboscis-innervating motoneurons, which can trigger regurgitation and mouth-to-mouth transfer seen in subobscura courtship.</p>



<p>That path bypasses the wing-vibration pathway that dominates in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fruit-flies-can-walk-jump-and-dance-using-the-same-motor-neurons/">melanogaster song</a>, so the act of giving replaces the act of singing in a way the nervous system can execute without training.</p>



<p>By locating the few neurons that matter and showing how they wire in, the team gives neurogenetics a clear, testable circuit to manipulate in either species.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limits-and-next-questions">Limits and next questions</h2>



<p>“We’ve shown how we can trace complex behaviors like nuptial gift-giving back to their genetic roots to understand how evolution creates entirely new strategies that help species survive and reproduce,” said <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=_Qd9-xMAAAAJ&amp;hl=ja" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Daisuke Yamamoto</a>, senior author at NICT.</p>



<p>This result does not mean complex social behaviors in other animals are controlled by a single switch, or that they can be changed safely outside the lab.</p>



<p>It does show that a few preexisting neurons, given the right transcriptional program, can be redirected toward a new behavioral output.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genes-behavior-and-future-science">Genes, behavior, and future science</h2>



<p>The work strengthens the case that behavior evolves by redeploying shared parts, not just by adding parts, which helps explain how related <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flies-like-to-play-and-have-fun-like-other-animals-according-to-a-fascinating-new-study/">species</a> end up with strikingly different courtship rituals over time.</p>



<p>It also provides a tidy experimental blueprint for tracing a behavior to its molecular driver, the specific cell type, and the synapses that make the action happen.</p>



<p>That level of precision is rare for any innate behavior, so the field now has a scaffold for testing how internal state, environment, and sex-specific genes integrate inside the brain.</p>



<p>The study is published in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adp5831" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Science</em></a>.</p>



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Scientists can now change animal behavior by transferring genes

A team in Japan reports that switching on one gene...

<p>Maize does not stand quietly when fields get crowded. New work shows that plants packed close together release linalool - an airborne cue that prompts neighbors to change what their roots release, reshaping soil life and stiffening defenses against pests.</p>



<p>The response comes with a catch. Stronger defense can shave off growth, so the same chemistry that deters attackers can also slow the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/maize-plant-genetics-shape-root-health-and-growth/">plant</a> itself.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-maize-signals-neighbors">Maize signals neighbors</h2>



<p>The research team reports that a dense canopy raises linalool in the air to a threshold that neighboring plants notice. Once that signal lands, roots ramp up jasmonate signaling, which is a well studied stress pathway in plants.</p>



<p>“High planting density boosts crop yields but also heightens pest and pathogen risks,” wrote study lead author Dongsheng Guo of <a href="https://www.zju.edu.cn/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Zhejiang University</a>.</p>



<p>The team's coordinated experiments linked signals above ground to changes below ground in a simple chain, ran field plots at different densities, then tracked the chemistry in the air and the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/maize-samples-found-in-brazil-may-rewrite-the-crops-history/">soil</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-roots-change-soil-microbes">Roots change soil microbes</h2>



<p>After jasmonate switches on in roots, plants exude more benzoxazinoids, a class of indole-based defense metabolites that maize makes naturally. </p>



<p>These molecules leak into the soil zone around roots, the rhizosphere microbiome, where they can favor some microbes and sideline others.</p>



<p>One key benzoxazinoid in this story is HDMBOA-Glc. It is a major member of the benzoxazinoid family in maize roots and exudates that has been tracked for more than a decade.</p>



<p>Microbial communities do not change randomly. Prior work has shown that benzoxazinoids help assemble specific root bacteria and fungi, and those communities then echo back into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mixed-cover-crops-may-be-the-future-of-sustainable-farming/">plant</a> traits in the next growth cycle.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stronger-defense-makes-plants-smaller">Stronger defense makes plants smaller</h2>



<p>The dense inner rows of the field plots suffered less herbivore damage than edge plants, but they also stayed smaller. That trade is consistent with a long line of <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4168297/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">studies</a> showing that investment in immunity can pull resources away from growth when conditions demand it.</p>



<p>Plants juggle these priorities through hormone cross-talk. Jasmonate tends to organize responses to chewing insects and tissue damage, while salicylic acid often coordinates responses to biotrophic pathogens. The two pathways can compete or reinforce each other depending on context.</p>



<p>The study shows that the microbial shift in linalool-conditioned soils pushes subsequent plants toward stronger salicylic acid signaling. This pattern matches the classic growth defense tension documented across species under stress.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-speed-and-specificity">Speed and specificity</h2>



<p>Timing matters in fields where pests can spike quickly. A related <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40811559/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">perspective</a> notes that the high-density response emerged after only three days of maize growth, which is fast enough to matter for early herbivore pressure.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The experiments also showed breadth. Soils conditioned under dense maize reduced not only insect damage but pressure from nematodes and pathogens in later plantings. This finding indicates a broad-spectrum tilt in defensive readiness that outlived the first crop.</p>



<p>The authors pinpointed the sequence from airborne cue to root exudate to microbial shift to hormone state. The sequence sets a clear set of targets for breeding and management without assuming one silver bullet.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-farmers-nbsp">What this means for farmers&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Farmers have leaned on denser planting to drive yield per acre, but density can make a field more vulnerable to outbreaks. Using an internal warning cue like linalool to pre-set defenses could help reduce losses without heavy chemical inputs if the growth costs can be managed.</p>



<p>There is a second lever in the soil legacy. Field studies show that benzoxazinoid-conditioned soils can lift the yield of the next crop under the right conditions, even when overall fertilizer inputs remain unchanged.</p>



<p>“A yield increase of 4 percent may not sound spectacular, but it is still significant considering how challenging it has become to enhance wheat yields without additional inputs,” explained Matthias Erb, professor at the University of Bern. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-plant-defense-research">Future of plant defense research </h2>



<p>Plant breeders could select lines that tune linalool output at useful thresholds, or lines that change root exudation patterns with minimal penalties. </p>



<p>Microbial inoculants that mimic the linalool legacy effect are another route already being explored in other crops.</p>



<p>Agronomists will need to map when the costs outweigh the benefits. Heat, water stress, and pathogen loads can all shift how salicylic acid and jasmonate signals interact, so prescriptions will likely be seasonal and region specific rather than one size fits all.</p>



<p>For now, the study offers a clear lesson. Packed <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetic-fixes-may-save-crops-from-climate-stress/">fields</a> are not just noisier in scent, they are also busier below ground, and that bustle can be steered toward resilience when we understand who sends which signal and when it lands.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adv6675" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Science</em></a>.</p>



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Maize plants signal neighbors when it's time to boost defenses

Maize does not stand quietly when fields get crowded. New...

<p>Over the last 12,000 years, the Atlantic’s great heat mover - the AMOC - stayed mostly on an even keel. Scientists now have a quantitative picture of that long stretch, and the story mixes calm background with a few sharp bends. </p>



<p>The AMOC is the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation, a system of currents that transports heat and freshwater between the tropics and higher <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/slowing-ocean-currents-could-dry-out-the-tropics/">latitudes</a>.</p>



<p>The new research focuses on the Holocene, the relatively mild period that began about 11,700 years ago and continues today.</p>



<p>The reconstruction comes from an international team led by Lukas Gerber and Jörg Lippold at <a href="https://www.uni-heidelberg.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Heidelberg University</a>, working with collaborators at the <a href="https://www.unibe.ch/index_eng.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bern</a> and partners in Germany and Brazil. </p>



<p>The team combined geochemical measurements from six North Atlantic sediment sites with an Earth system model to turn isotope ratios into actual flow rates.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-atlantic-circulation-matters">Why Atlantic circulation matters</h2>



<p>The AMOC moves warm water north and returns colder, denser water south at depth, with the Gulf Stream as a major surface component that influences European <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cold-spot-in-the-atlantic-could-signal-big-trouble-for-global-climate/">climate</a>. </p>



<p>That large, steady transport helps moderate temperature gradients and shapes rainfall patterns across the Atlantic basin.</p>



<p>Because the AMOC affects weather and climate on both sides of the ocean, scientists track its strength and structure closely. Long records help separate natural fluctuations from human-driven change.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-mud-records-past-changes">Ocean mud records past changes</h2>



<p>The researchers used the ratio of protactinium and thorium isotopes, buried in deep sea mud, to infer past circulation. This proxy responds to how vigorously the deep Atlantic exports protactinium relative to thorium, and it has become a key tool for reconstructing overturning <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/critical-ocean-current-may-be-more-stable-than-previously-thought/">changes</a>.</p>



<p>Flow rates are expressed in Sverdrups, a unit equal to one million cubic meters per second, which oceanographers use to describe basin scale transport. In practical terms, the study reports a late Holocene mean near 18 Sv for the modern-like-state.</p>



<p>To turn these isotope ratios into flow, the team used the Bern3D model, which embeds the isotope ratio physics. This enabled the team to convert multi-site records into a single time series of overturning strength through the Holocene.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-history-shows">What history shows</h2>



<p>The analysis reveals a post-Ice Age recovery of overturning, followed by a marked slowdown between roughly 9,200 and 8,000 years ago.</p>



<p>About 6,500 years ago, the circulation stabilized and reached a preindustrial state close to 18 Sv.</p>



<p>That early Holocene dip lines up with bursts of meltwater from the waning North American ice sheet, which climate models and proxy evidence identify as a trigger for temporary AMOC weakening. </p>



<p>The well-known 8,200-year cold event appears sharply in Greenland ice cores, while marine records tend to smooth over its shorter fluctuations.</p>



<p>From about 6,500 years ago to the preindustrial era, the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/polar-warming-could-reduce-ocean-currents-amoc-and-cause-massive-flooding-in-the-us/">record</a> points to low variability around a stable mean. That long plateau provides a valuable baseline for assessing modern change.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-circulation-stabilized-during-the-holocene">Circulation stabilized during the Holocene</h2>



<p>One Bermuda Rise core shows a short-lived increase in these isotope ratios around 4,200 years ago, a timing that overlaps with a widely discussed climate episode. </p>



<p>The authors argue that local bottom processes likely amplified the isotope signal through intense nepheloid layers, particle rich waters near the seafloor that can scavenge isotopes and mimic circulation changes.</p>



<p>Large compilations of global proxy data also suggest the 4.2 ka event was not uniformly expressed worldwide, which supports caution when tying a single marine signal to a basin scale overturning shift. </p>



<p>Together, these lines point to a stable large scale AMOC through the mid to late Holocene.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-lies-ahead">What lies ahead</h2>



<p>Climate models participating in <a href="https://repository.library.noaa.gov/view/noaa/30634" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CMIP6</a> point to a 21st century slowdown of the overturning. An emergent constraint analysis suggests a decline of roughly 6 to 8 Sv by 2100 when models are calibrated against present-day observations.</p>



<p>“Anthropogenic climate change may result in an AMOC slowdown unprecedented for most of the ongoing Holocene interglacial,” wrote Gerber. This conclusion rests on comparing the new 12,000 year baseline with modeled futures under different emissions paths.</p>



<p>The paper also explains why some short-lived events are difficult to detect in sediment records. Bioturbation and limited sampling resolution smooth the signal, making perturbations lasting less than about 180 years hard to discern in the isotope ratios.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-atlantic-circulation">Significance of the Atlantic circulation</h2>



<p>A weaker overturning reduces northward ocean heat transport, shifts storm tracks, and can alter rainfall belts. </p>



<p>Multi-model studies connect AMOC weakening to shifts in tropical Atlantic rainfall, with implications for food security, water resources, and regional climate extremes.</p>



<p>For roughly 6,500 years, the Atlantic’s overturning remained near a steady state, but model projections suggest it could leave that range within our lifetimes.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-61793-z" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Communications</em></a>.</p>



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Atlantic circulation may become unstable after 6,500 steady years

Over the last 12,000 years, the Atlantic’s great heat mover...

<p>Some wild birds can develop the body of one sex while carrying the DNA of the other. New evidence suggests this happens more often than scientists realized, and it may matter for species already under pressure.</p>



<p>Researchers led by the <a href="https://www.usc.edu.au/">University of the Sunshine Coast</a> (UniSC) examined nearly 500 birds from five familiar species and found that up to 6% showed a mismatch between their physical sex and their genetic sex.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The work points to a hidden source of error in bird studies and a potential risk for threatened populations.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-females-with-male-reproductive-organs">Females with male reproductive organs </h2>



<p>“This indicates that sex determination in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-wild-bird-is-expecting-again-at-74/">wild birds</a> is more fluid than we thought - and can persist into adulthood,” said co-author Dominique Potvin, an associate professor at UniSC.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The birds - including magpies, kookaburras, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pigeons-exhibit-same-behavior-as-humans-by-following-the-gaze-of-others-in-their-flock/">pigeons</a>, and lorikeets - were examined after death at wildlife hospitals in southeast Queensland.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Each bird’s reproductive organs were identified, and DNA tests determined genetic sex.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“One of the key findings was that 92% of sex-reversed birds were genetically female but had male reproductive organs,” Potvin said.</p>



<p>A single case demonstrated how dramatic the reversal can be. “We also discovered a genetically male kookaburra who was reproductively active with large follicles and a distended oviduct, indicating recent egg production.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-team-defined-sex-reversal">How the team defined sex reversal</h2>



<p>The team classified sex-reversed birds in three ways. Some were genetic males with a complete feminine phenotype. Some were genetic females with a complete masculine phenotype. Others showed a mix of ovarian and testicular features. </p>



<p>Importantly, the mismatches were not limited to juvenile birds. Many were adults, meaning the reversal had persisted beyond early development.</p>



<p>Sex reversal is not a new idea in biology. It is well documented in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/some-fish-use-the-moon-cycle-to-manipulate-their-offsprings-sex/">fish</a>, amphibians, and reptiles. But it has rarely been confirmed in wild birds and mammals.&nbsp;</p>



<p>This study offers a baseline for Australian birds, showing that the phenomenon is present across multiple species living in the same region.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sex-reversal-and-bird-conservation">Sex reversal and bird conservation</h2>



<p>“Understanding how and why sex reversal occurs is vital for conservation and for improving the accuracy of bird research,” Potvin said.&nbsp;</p>



<p>If a population carries more functional males than its DNA suggests - or vice versa - managers could misjudge breeding potential. That matters for small or declining groups, where every breeding season counts.</p>



<p>Lead author Clancy Hall, a UniSC doctoral student. warned about the demographic effects. “This can lead to skewed sex ratios, reduced population sizes, altered mate preferences, and even <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-are-declining-fastest-where-they-were-once-common/">population decline</a>,” he said.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-distinguishing-male-from-female">Distinguishing male from female</h2>



<p>Traditional cues like plumage, size, and behavior can mislead. DNA tests are often treated as the gold standard. The new results show that even genetic markers do not always match a bird’s functional sex.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“The ability to unequivocally identify the sex and reproductive status of individuals is crucial across many fields of study,” Hall said. “We've now established that DNA evidence does not always reflect the suspected sex.”</p>



<p>“Bird researchers often take small DNA samples from blood or feathers and make decisions based on the results showing male or female, but this actually could be wrong up to 6% of the time.”</p>



<p>That error rate might seem small. It is not, if it clusters in particular species or habitats, or if census sizes are low. For threatened birds, a few percentage points can tip the balance between stability and decline.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-causes-sex-reversal">What causes sex reversal?</h2>



<p>The study did not pin down causes. The authors highlight several possibilities for future investigation. </p>



<p>Endocrine-disrupting chemicals can interfere with hormones needed for sex development. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chronic-stress-disrupts-gut-bacteria-and-fuels-cancer-progression/">Chronic stress</a> can elevate hormone levels and shift development, too. </p>



<p>The environment around some birds suggests exposure is also plausible. For example, the reproductively active, genetically male kookaburra was found in a peri-urban agricultural zone, where such chemicals may accumulate.</p>



<p>More research will be needed to sort out timing and triggers. Does reversal arise in the egg, during nestling growth, or later in life? Are some species more susceptible than others? Do heat waves or drought play a role through stress pathways?&nbsp;</p>



<p>The answers to these questions will help conservationists target the most effective protections.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



<p>The immediate step is methodological. Field biologists may need to pair DNA testing with direct examination of reproductive anatomy when possible, or develop noninvasive hormonal assays that better reflect functional sex.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Museum and hospital specimens, like those used here, can anchor the science, even as live-animal tools improve.</p>



<p>The broader step is ecological. If sex reversal is common enough to shift local sex ratios, managers will need to account for it when modeling population growth, setting harvest limits, or designing recovery plans.</p>



<p>The study’s message is clear and practical. Birds do not always fit neatly into genetic boxes. Their bodies - and their populations - can be more fluid. Recognizing that reality will make research more accurate and conservation more effective.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/epdf/10.1098/rsbl.2025.0182" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Biology Letters</em></a>.</p>



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Sex reversal is more common in wild birds than expected

Some wild birds can develop the body of one sex...

<p>Human civilization depends on ecosystems that quietly maintain the conditions of life. Plants capture sunlight, cycle water, balance carbon, and nourish soils. These processes allow agriculture, forests, and rivers to thrive. </p>



<p>Yet today, pressures from human activity are overwhelming many of these natural systems. Scientists warn that when ecological thresholds are crossed, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-2025-what-were-really-fighting-for/">nature</a>’s ability to stabilize the planet begins to falter.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-functional-biosphere-integrity">Functional biosphere integrity</h2>



<p>A new study has mapped the planetary boundary of “functional biosphere integrity” in both space and time. The results reveal that 60 percent of global land areas are already outside the safe zone, with 38 percent in the high-risk category. </p>



<p>The research, led by the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research (PIK) with <a href="https://boku.ac.at/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BOKU University</a> in Vienna, is published in the journal <em>One Earth</em>.</p>



<p>Functional biosphere integrity refers to the plant world’s ability to co-regulate Earth’s systems. Through photosynthesis, vegetation captures energy that sustains the flows of carbon, water, and nitrogen essential for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-day-honors-success-in-clean-energy-and-wildlife-recovery/">ecosystems</a>. </p>



<p>Alongside biodiversity loss and climate change, this integrity is one of the “core boundaries” that define a safe operating space for humanity.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mounting-strain-on-the-biosphere">Mounting strain on the biosphere</h2>



<p>“There is an enormous need for civilization to utilize the biosphere - for food, raw materials and, in future, also for climate protection,” said Fabian Stenzel, lead author and <a href="https://www.pik-potsdam.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PIK</a> researcher.</p>



<p>“After all, human demand for biomass continues to grow - and on top of that, the cultivation of fast-growing grasses or trees for producing bioenergy with carbon capture and storage is considered by many to be an important supporting strategy for stabilizing climate."</p>



<p>"It is therefore becoming even more important to quantify the strain we’re already putting on the biosphere - in a regionally differentiated manner and over time - to identify overloads. Our research is paving the way for this.”</p>



<p>This growing strain highlights the urgency of tracking how different regions are approaching or exceeding ecological limits. Without such knowledge, society risks eroding the very systems it relies upon.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-health-of-earth-s-ecosystems">The health of Earth's ecosystems </h2>



<p>The researchers used two methods to measure how healthy Earth’s <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-may-have-three-million-undiscovered-animal-species/">ecosystems</a> are. The first, called HANPP, shows how much plant energy humans take away or reduce through farming, forestry, and land use.</p>



<p>The second, called EcoRisk, looks at how much ecosystems are being disturbed. This method tracks changes in plants and in important natural cycles of water, carbon, and nitrogen.</p>



<p>If HANPP is high, it means people are taking too many resources, which can harm wildlife. If EcoRisk is high, it means ecosystems are becoming unstable, which can trigger bigger problems in nature.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-thresholds-and-transgressions">Thresholds and transgressions</h2>



<p>Scientists compared these indicators with ecological benchmarks to determine safe, risky, and high-risk zones. </p>



<p>The analysis shows that by 1900, humanity had already crossed safe boundaries for biosphere integrity, largely due to expanding agriculture.</p>



<p>By 1990, global averages had entered the high-risk zone. Fertilizer use, deforestation, and climate-driven changes accelerated the trend throughout the 20th century.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-regional-differences-and-historical-context">Regional differences and historical context</h2>



<p>The data show that mid-latitude regions began to experience strain as early as 1600. By 1900, 37 percent of land had already breached local safety thresholds, with 14 percent in high-risk zones. Today, those numbers stand at 60 and 38 percent. </p>



<p>Europe, Asia, and North America are the most affected due to centuries of agricultural expansion and forest clearing. </p>



<p>Even relatively untouched regions such as the Arctic and high mountains now show ecological stress driven by climate change.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-biosphere-protection-and-climate-action">Biosphere protection and climate action</h2>



<p>“This first world map showing the overshoot of the boundary for functional integrity of the biosphere, depicting both human appropriation of biomass and ecological disruption, is a breakthrough from a scientific perspective, offering a better overall understanding of planetary boundaries,” said Johan Rockström, PIK Director.</p>



<p>“It also provides an important impetus for the further development of international climate policy. This is because it points to the link between biomass and natural carbon sinks, and how they can contribute to mitigating climate change. Governments must treat it as a single overarching issue: comprehensive biosphere protection together with strong climate action.”</p>



<p>The study shows that keeping nature healthy is key for Earth’s balance. We must protect ecosystems and avoid taking too much from them. These actions are necessary to keep both people and the planet safe.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/one-earth/fulltext/S2590-3322(25)00219-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">One Earth</a>.</em></p>



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Human pressures are pushing the biosphere out of balance

Human civilization depends on ecosystems that quietly maintain the conditions...

<p>In 2024, the planet faced more hot, sticky days than ever before. The American Meteorological Society reported that humid heat days over land rose by 35.6 compared to the 1991-2020 average. That broke the previous record from 2023 by nearly 10 days.</p>



<p>This is not just about hotter summers. Humidity is climbing to levels that make normal cooling impossible. </p>



<p>When air holds too much moisture, sweat doesn’t evaporate. The body keeps the heat inside, which quickly becomes dangerous.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-our-body-struggles-in-humid-heat">Our body struggles in humid heat</h2>



<p>Kate Willett from the UK <a href="https://www.metoffice.gov.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Met Office</a> explained the risk clearly. “Your body starts to really struggle to offload heat, and so it can be really dangerous."</p>



<p>Meteorologists track this with a “wet bulb temperature.” They cover a thermometer with a wet cloth. </p>



<p>Normally, evaporation cools the reading. In muggy conditions, that effect fades, and the wet bulb temperature rises close to the dry one. It represents how oppressive the air feels.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humid-heat-around-the-world">Humid heat around the world</h2>



<p>A warmer atmosphere holds more water. That means heavier rains, stronger storms, and more humid days. Willett said 2024 was “exceptionally” humid, second only to 2023.</p>



<p>The numbers tell the story. In the Middle East, South-East Asia, and eastern China, wet bulb temperatures often surpassed 29°C (84°F). </p>



<p>Some places even touched 31°C (88°F). At that point, being outside for long periods is unsafe.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-much-heat-can-humans-take">How much heat can humans take?</h2>



<p>For years, scientists believed survival ended at 35°C (95°F) wet bulb temperature. But research in 2022 lowered the limit. The real danger may begin around 31°C (88°F). </p>



<p>“30°C and above is where your body is really struggling,” Willett said. That means the danger line is much closer than many assumed.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-america-s-muggiest-summer">America’s muggiest summer</h2>



<p>The United States faced its own climate crisis as the summer of 2025 began. More than 70 million people endured what scientists have called the muggiest start to a summer in recorded history. </p>



<p>Across much of the eastern half of the country, the air felt thick and heavy for weeks, with heat combining with record-breaking humidity.</p>



<p>Data showed that parts of 27 states, along with Washington, D.C., experienced an unusual number of days with dew points above 65°F. </p>



<p>Meteorologists often use this mark as the point when the air shifts from merely noticeable humidity to levels that feel uncomfortable and oppressive for most people. In simple terms, the air felt more like a tropical zone than a typical American summer.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humidity-rises-in-u-s-cities">Humidity rises in U.S. cities</h2>



<p>Some cities felt it worse than others. Philadelphia reported 29 separate days when dew points soared beyond 75°F, creating air that many residents described as suffocating. Washington, D.C., had 27 days at this extreme level, while Baltimore experienced 24. </p>



<p>To put that in perspective, even the National Weather Service office in Tampa, a city used to sticky summers, classifies dew points of 75°F and above as “oppressive.” </p>



<p>“This has been a very muggy summer. The humid heat has been way up,” said Bernadette Woods Placky from Climate Central.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dew-points-rising-fast">Dew points rising fast</h2>



<p>Dew point measures moisture in the air. It’s the most accurate way to explain humidity. In cities like Washington, Baltimore, and St. Louis, dew points this summer were about six degrees higher than the 1951–2020 average.</p>



<p>Cameron Lee, a climate scientist at <a href="https://www.kent.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Kent State University</a>, measured dew points of 82°F at his home in Ohio. </p>



<p>“There are parts of the United States that are experiencing not only greater average humidity, especially in the spring and summer, but also more extreme humid days,” Lee said. </p>



<p>The data shows that what used to happen once a year is now happening several times a summer.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nights-stay-hotter-with-humid-heat">Nights stay hotter with humid heat</h2>



<p>High humidity keeps heat trapped at night. Normally, the body cools off while we sleep. But this summer, cities from the Ohio Valley to the Atlantic broke records for the hottest overnight lows. </p>



<p>“What really impacts the body is that nighttime temperature,” said Zack Taylor from the <a href="https://www.weather.gov" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Weather Service</a>. Without cooling, the body doesn’t recover from the day. The strain builds day after day.</p>



<p>Meteorologists link these conditions to both climate change and shifting weather patterns. Persistent high-pressure systems trapped heat, while heavy rains added more moisture. Missing were the cooler air fronts that once offered relief.</p>



<p>“Summers now are not your grandparents’ summers,” noted Marshall Shepherd, a professor at the <a href="https://www.uga.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Georgia</a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Humid heat days are a growing threat to public health

In 2024, the planet faced more hot, sticky days than...

<p>A new study watching whales and dolphins together suggests play is not rare and not always one-sided. The team sifted through videos and images from around the world to classify exactly what each animal did during these encounters </p>



<p>The research lands at a moment when millions of people are capturing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whales-now-migrate-weeks-early-signaling-big-ocean-changes/">wildlife</a> on their phones, and scientists are turning that stream into data. The project was led by Dr. Olaf Meynecke of <a href="https://www.griffith.edu.au/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Griffith University</a>’s Whales &amp; Climate Program .</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-study-tracked">What the study tracked</h2>



<p>The dataset covered 199 independent events involving 19 species and documented 425 baleen whales and an estimated 1,570 dolphins. </p>



<p>Humpback whales accounted for most whale <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-whale-with-razor-sharp-teeth-discovered-in-australia/">observations</a>, while bottlenose dolphins were the most frequently recorded dolphins.</p>



<p>The researchers coded where dolphins positioned themselves relative to the whales, how both sides moved, and which age classes were present. </p>



<p>The analysis treated each shift in position or behavior as a datapoint rather than only counting a whole event.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-footage-of-whales-and-dolphins">Footage of whales and dolphins</h2>



<p>The team combined publicly shared footage, tourism operator videos, and research clips,  and then applied verification checks to confirm identities and avoid duplicates. </p>



<p>Two whale-mounted camera tags added a view from the whales themselves and showed dolphins staying engaged below the surface as well.</p>



<p>Baleen whales belong to the group Mysticeti - the massive filter feeders that include <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-orca-day-2025-saving-the-oceans-top-predators/">humpbacks</a>, fin whales, and blue whales. Dolphins, on the other hand, are members of the Delphinidae family - known for their complex social lives and swift, agile movements.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whale-and-dolphin-interactions">Whale and dolphin interactions</h2>



<p>In most events, dolphins favored the whale’s head region, the rostrum, where pressure waves can help them move with less effort. This positioning lined up with widespread reports of bow riding, when dolphins surf the wave in front of a moving body.</p>



<p>Humpbacks often responded with slow, oriented <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/humpback-whales-are-giving-birth-where-we-least-expected/">movements</a>, pectoral fin gestures, rolling, and belly presentations. The researchers said that tail slaps and signs of aggression were rare and made up only 5% of the whale-dolphin interactions.</p>



<p>“And in particular for humpback whales, we found that for one third of the events the behavioral responses towards the dolphins appear positive," said Meynecke.</p>



<p>"The humpback whales were rolling from side to side, undertaking belly presentation and other behaviors that are associated with courtship or friendly socializing."</p>



<p>The experts suggested that not only do whales and dolphins coexist - but also seem to seek each other out. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-play-matters-in-marine-life">Why play matters in marine life</h2>



<p>Animal play is more than a-feel-good idea. A leading framework describes play as voluntary, rewarding, and different in form from serious behavior, often occurring when an animal is not stressed.</p>



<p>Scientists also split play into categories, including locomotor play, object play, and social play. </p>



<p>When two species interact, researchers refer to it as interspecific social play - mutual, cooperative behavior that displays typical play signals, though sometimes the interaction may be one-sided.</p>



<p>Energetics add another layer to the story of dolphins near whale heads. A 2024 study found bow riding dusky dolphins had significantly lower respiration rates at the same travel speeds than free-swimming dolphins, supporting the idea that this position can save energy while the animals move.</p>



<p>That does not mean every close pass is playful or efficient. Context matters, and the same behaviors can carry different meanings during feeding, traveling, or social bouts.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-for-patterns-in-the-data">Looking for patterns in the data</h2>



<p>Reports of whales and dolphins in close contact go back decades, but systematic counts across many species and places have been rare. </p>



<p>One well documented case described humpback whales lifting bottlenose dolphins out of the water, a striking interaction debated as play, caregiving, or a response to harassment.</p>



<p>Those events were unusual, yet they helped shape today’s questions about intent and reciprocity. The new analysis builds on that history by treating many everyday encounters as data rather than curiosities.</p>



<p>Social media and drone clips now extend the reach of field observations without replacing traditional surveys. With consistent verification, these sources can reveal patterns that were hard to see when studies were limited to a few sites and seasons.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-of-dolphin-whale-interactions">Future of dolphin-whale interactions</h2>



<p>Play and tolerance across species hint at flexible social rules in the open ocean. If whales and dolphins often meet without conflict, those interactions could influence how they share space, find food, or learn about each other over time.</p>



<p>Future work can test whether specific whale behaviors invite or discourage close approaches and whether local conditions change the odds that play turns mutual. </p>



<p>Tag videos, UAV footage, and standardized ethograms will help sort those possibilities with fewer gaps and fewer assumptions.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s44338-025-00099-2" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Discover Animals</em></a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Whales and dolphins seek each other out to play

A new study watching whales and dolphins together suggests play...

<p>When we talk about mental health, traits like resilience or neuroticism usually dominate the discussion. Yet, another trait quietly shapes how people experience the world: sensitivity. </p>



<p>For some, it brings creativity, empathy, and awareness. For others, sensitivity comes with challenges such as overstimulation and vulnerability to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/traffic-noise-exposure-increases-mental-health-risks/">stress</a>.</p>



<p>A new study shows sensitivity strongly affects mental health. After reviewing 33 studies, researchers found links to depression and anxiety. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sensitivity-and-its-nature">Sensitivity and its nature</h2>



<p>Sensitivity, sometimes described as environmental sensitivity, reflects how people perceive and respond to their surroundings. About 31% of the population fall into the highly sensitive category. These individuals notice subtle details, feel <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/living-near-nature-and-greenspaces-shown-to-reduce-mental-health-issues-by-60-percent/">emotions</a> deeply, and process experiences more intensely than most.</p>



<p>Scientists view sensitivity as biologically rooted, influenced by genetics and brain activity in regions tied to empathy and reflection. </p>



<p>The Highly Sensitive Person Scale (HSPS) is the main tool used to measure it, with three core subdimensions: Ease of Excitation, Low Sensory Threshold, and Aesthetic Sensitivity. Each reveals how differently sensitivity can influence mental well-being.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sensitivity-and-mental-health">Sensitivity and mental health</h2>



<p>The systematic review found clear links between sensitivity and a wide range of conditions. Depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, agoraphobia, and avoidant personality disorder all showed associations with higher sensitivity.</p>



<p>Mechanisms behind this include a tendency toward overstimulation, emotional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tiny-worms-could-change-how-we-test-mental-health-drugs/">reactivity</a>, and deeper cognitive processing. </p>



<p>For example, highly sensitive individuals may dwell on negative experiences longer, which can lead to rumination. They may also become quickly overwhelmed, creating feelings of helplessness and reinforcing anxiety.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strong-links-confirmed">Strong links confirmed</h2>



<p>“This is the most extensive systematic review on sensitivity and mental health in adolescents and adults to date, and is the first ever meta-analysis on the topic to estimate the impact of this relationship,” noted Tom Falkenstein, a psychotherapist and PhD student at Queen Mary University of London. </p>



<p>“We found positive and moderate correlations between sensitivity and various mental health problems such as depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, agoraphobia and avoidant personality disorder." </p>



<p>According to Falkenstein, the team's findings suggest that sensitivity should be considered more in clinical practice.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-better-treatment-for-sensitive-people">Better treatment for sensitive people</h2>



<p>“In addition, our findings could help improve treatment for these individuals. Around 31% of the general population are considered highly sensitive, and, as our findings show, are more likely to respond better to some psychological interventions than less sensitive individuals,” said Falkenstein.</p>



<p>“Therefore, sensitivity should be considered when thinking about treatment plans for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-mental-disorder-called-solastalgia-linked-to-environmental-climate-distress/">mental health</a> conditions." </p>



<p>"Our work shows it is crucial that the awareness of sensitivity is improved among mental health care professionals, so clinicians and practitioners can recognize the trait in their patients, and tailor treatment to their sensitivity.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vulnerability-to-anxiety-and-depression">Vulnerability to anxiety and depression </h2>



<p>The review’s meta-analysis revealed a medium correlation between sensitivity and both depression (r = .36) and anxiety (r = .39). </p>



<p>This suggests sensitivity significantly shapes vulnerability to these conditions. While results varied across studies, the overall evidence was consistent.</p>



<p>Importantly, not all aspects of sensitivity contribute equally. Ease of Excitation and Low Sensory Threshold showed stronger links to distress, while Aesthetic Sensitivity often had weaker or inconsistent effects.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mental-health-of-highly-sensitive-people">Mental health of highly sensitive people </h2>



<p>Study co-author Michael Pluess is a professor of developmental psychology at University of Surrey and visiting professor at <a href="https://www.qmul.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Queen Mary University of London</a>.</p>



<p>“This is the first meta-analysis providing robust evidence that highly sensitive people are more prone to common mental health problems,” said Pluess.</p>



<p>“However, it is important to remember that highly sensitive people are also more responsive to positive experiences, including psychological treatment." </p>



<p>Professor Pluess noted that the results provide further evidence that sensitive people are more affected by both negative and positive experiences and that the quality of their environment is particularly important for their well-being.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-broader-perspective-and-future-work">Broader perspective and future work</h2>



<p>The researchers argue that sensitivity could serve as a transdiagnostic factor. Because it influences multiple conditions, treatment should prioritize emotional regulation, mindfulness, and relaxation techniques. </p>



<p>Early education about sensitivity could also help young patients see it not as a weakness, but as part of their unique makeup.</p>



<p>Future studies will explore how sensitivity interacts with gender, age, and upbringing. Evidence already suggests supportive environments reduce risks, while negative ones amplify them. This highlights the importance of tailoring therapy to the individual.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <em><a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/21677026251348428" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Clinical Psychological Science</a></em>.</p>



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Sensitive people are more likely to develop mental health issues

When we talk about mental health, traits like resilience or...

<p>In a new analysis from the Dog Aging Project, researchers have built the first large-scale comorbidity map for companion dogs using owner-reported health histories from 26,614 pets across the United States.</p>



<p>The result is a network that highlights which illnesses tend to cluster and, when timing is available, which ones usually come first.</p>



<p>The goal is practical. If certain conditions line up in a common sequence, veterinarians can screen earlier, counsel dog owners more clearly, and manage risks with fewer blind spots.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-dogs-and-diseases">Studying dogs and diseases</h2>



<p>Pet <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-suffer-from-the-january-blues-just-like-humans/">dogs</a> share our homes, daily environments, and many age-related illnesses, which makes them strong models for understanding how multiple diseases stack up over time in real-life settings. </p>



<p>Dogs often receive consistent veterinary care, so their medical records can reveal surprisingly insightful patterns.</p>



<p>The comorbidity study was led by Antoinette Fang of the <a href="https://www.uchicago.edu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Chicago</a>, with colleagues from Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, <a href="https://www.tamu.edu/index.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Texas A&amp;M University</a>, and Tufts University.</p>



<p>“Because <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-dogs-binge-watch-television-everyday/">pet</a> dogs share our homes, environments and many of our age-related diseases, mapping how their illnesses cluster and cascade offers a powerful window into the same multimorbidity processes that erode human health and points to earlier detection and prevention strategies for people too,” said Fang.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-dog-disease-map-reveals">What the dog disease map reveals</h2>



<p>The team constructed an undirected comorbidity network that flags statistically significant condition pairings after adjusting for age, sex and reproductive status, weight, and mixed-breed versus purebred status.</p>



<p>Connections involving otitis externa - a condition marked by inflammation of the outer ear canal - reflect a familiar reality: allergies are a frequent underlying cause of ear problems and infections in dogs.</p>



<p>The network also linked proteinuria - an excess of protein in the urine - to anemia in the setting of chronic kidney disease. This connection is consistent with the biology of kidney-driven anemia in dogs.</p>



<p>The analysis highlights associations such as protein in the urine alongside low red blood cell counts, which may signal more advanced kidney disease. This connection demonstrates the importance of monitoring red blood cell production early.</p>



<p>A parasite cluster pattern was also found in the data, which aligns with clinical experience that many parasitic infections co-occur in the same animal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-timing-matters">Why timing matters</h2>



<p>To examine the sequence in which conditions arise, the team incorporated reported onset dates and built a directed network to estimate which condition is more likely to precede another within a 12-month period.</p>



<p>This guide becomes useful when a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-head-shape-influences-dog-behavior/">dog</a> shows an early sign and a clinician needs to decide what to check next.</p>



<p>One example stands out from everyday ophthalmology. In dogs, diabetes is strongly associated with cataracts, and about 75 percent of diabetic dogs develop blinding cataracts within two years of diagnosis. This pattern aligns with the network’s diabetes-before-cataracts signal. </p>



<p>The network also places keratoconjunctivitis sicca - commonly known as dry eye, where inadequate tear production leaves the eye unprotected - before corneal ulceration, a painful condition in which the cornea develops open sores. </p>



<p>This sequence aligns with the way insufficient tears can leave the cornea vulnerable to injury and infection.</p>



<p>A cardiovascular example points the same direction. The ordered map shows hypertension preceding chronic kidney disease in older dogs, which matches consensus guidance that sustained high blood pressure damages target organs, including the kidneys. </p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dog-diseases-change-with-age">Dog diseases change with age</h2>



<p>As dogs age, disease webs change shape, with more connections concentrating around a smaller set of hubs in senior dogs according to the authors’ age-stratified analyses. </p>



<p>The shift lines up with what many owners see, a long stretch of minor problems, then a steeper cascade later in life.</p>



<p>Body size complicates this picture in useful ways. In Dog Aging Project <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38232117/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">data</a>, larger dogs carry higher lifetime prevalence for several categories like orthopedic, endocrine, and cancer, while smaller dogs show higher prevalence in some eye and cardiac categories, patterns that can shape size-aware screening choices. </p>



<p>A veterinarian who knows a patient’s size risks can use this network as a clinical overlay rather than a one size fits all checklist.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-vets-can-use-the-map">How vets can use the map</h2>



<p>For primary care, the value is anticipatory. If a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dogs-followed-the-first-farmers-through-the-americas/">dog</a> presents with a new diagnosis that sits at the center of a cluster, a vet can plan targeted tests, schedule follow-up at tighter intervals, and talk with owners about what to watch for. </p>



<p>The lesson for owners is to share detailed histories. Reporting onset dates, even approximately, helps transform a static problem list into a timeline that can guide critical decisions. </p>



<p>“Mining owner-reported data from the Dog Aging Project, we built the first large-scale canine comorbidity network, confirming that diabetes often occurs before cataracts and revealing that health problems tend to cluster around a few key diseases as dogs age,” said Fang. </p>



<p>Such a map can guide practical clinical trials, refine breed- and size-specific screening guidelines, and improve how veterinarians and owners discuss health risks well before they escalate into a crisis.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/ploscompbiol/article?id=10.1371/journal.pcbi.1012728" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>PLOS Computational Biology</em></a>.</p>



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Mapping disease patterns in dogs can reveal what's ahead

In a new analysis from the Dog Aging Project, researchers...

<p>On the remote Rēkohu Chatham Islands, an ancestral duck that arrived hundreds of thousands of years ago evolved into a sturdier, more terrestrial bird with shortened wings and elongated legs. </p>



<p>Within a few hundred millennia, it was already on the road toward giving up flight. The now-extinct species adds a vivid chapter to the story of how islands reshape animals.</p>



<p>The new research, led by the <a href="https://www.otago.ac.nz/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Otago – Ōtākou Whakaihu Waka</a>, combines <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-dna-reveals-37000-years-of-hidden-human-infections/">ancient DNA</a> with detailed bone measurements to describe a previously unknown shelduck. </p>



<p>The species carries the scientific name <em>Tadorna rekohu</em> and the common name Rēkohu shelduck, both given by the <a href="https://www.moriori.co.nz/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Hokotehi Moriori Trust</a>, guardians of the islands’ plants and animals.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-island-life-favors-walkers">Island life favors walkers</h2>



<p>“In that time, the Rēkohu shelduck evolved shorter, more robust <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bats-once-had-hands-but-evolution-turned-them-into-wings/">wings</a> and longer leg bones, indicating it was going down the pathway towards flightlessness,” said co-lead author Nic Rawlence, an associate professor and director of the Otago Palaeogenetics Laboratory.</p>



<p>Those changes make ecological sense on Rēkohu. Food was plentiful. Ground <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/well-built-fences-keep-predators-from-harming-livestock/">predators</a> were scarce. Winds were strong, and flying wasn’t the safest or most efficient choice.</p>



<p>“Flight is energetically expensive, so if you don’t have to fly, why bother?” said co-lead author Pascale Lubbe, a postdoctoral fellow at the University of Otago. </p>



<p>“The longer leg bones are more robust to support more muscle and create increased force for takeoff  - necessary when you have smaller wings.”</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bird-dna-and-bones-tell-the-story">Bird DNA and bones tell the story</h2>



<p>Researchers pieced together the bird’s story from two lines of evidence. First, they sequenced ancient mitochondrial DNA from Chatham Islands fossils and compared it with living relatives. </p>



<p>Second, they analyzed the shapes and proportions of skull, wing, and leg bones, looking for consistent differences.</p>



<p>Together, the genetic tree and the measurements confirm that the Rēkohu shelduck was most closely related to the pūtangitangi paradise shelduck (<em>Tadorna variegata</em>) of mainland Aotearoa New Zealand, yet distinct in form.</p>



<p>The family tree also helps time the split. The best estimate is that the ancestor of the Rēkohu shelduck colonized the islands about 390,000 years ago during the Late Pleistocene.</p>



<p>That is enough time, on an isolated archipelago, for natural selection and island living to reshape a bird’s body - shorter wing bones with chunkier ends and longer, more robust legs - without making it fully flightless.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-life-on-a-windy-archipelago"><a></a>Life on a windy archipelago</h2>



<p>The Chathams sit roughly 785 kilometers (488 miles) east of mainland New Zealand and have long been a crucible of endemic bird life. Before people arrived, at least eight species of waterfowl bred there, from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-nesting-ducks-are-at-risk-from-climate-and-land-use-changes/">ducks</a> to swans and mergansers.</p>



<p>Island isolation and a different predator scene often push birds toward a classic “island syndrome:” reduced flight, stronger legs, and more time on the ground. </p>



<p>The Rēkohu shelduck fits that rulebook. It had a longer, narrower cranium, proportionally shorter forelimbs, and longer hindlimbs than its mainland cousin - signatures of a bird that spent more time walking and foraging on foot.</p>



<p>Genetically, <em>Tadorna rekohu</em> is the sister taxon to <em>T. variegata</em>. Morphologically, it diverged in ways that matter for survival on Rēkohu. Ratios of limb bones show a slight tilt toward leg power over wing power.</p>



<p> Analyses that compare <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/secrets-of-flight-feathers-may-reveal-which-dinosaurs-could-fly/">flight</a> capability across ducks suggest the Rēkohu shelduck was flight-reduced rather than fully flightless - a sensible compromise when winds are fierce and terrestrial food is reliable.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-overhunting-sealed-the-bird-s-fate">Overhunting sealed the bird's fate</h2>



<p>Archaeological clues indicate the Rēkohu shelduck did not survive into the 19th century. Its bones appear in early Moriori middens, pointing to overhunting as the likeliest cause of extinction, later compounded by habitat change and introduced predators. </p>



<p>That fate mirrors many island birds that evolved with few enemies on the ground. Yet discovery still carries meaning. </p>



<p>“This discovery is great for Rēkohu as a whole and helps connect imi Moriori with miheke (treasure) of the past,” said Levi Lanauze, Hokotehi Moriori Trust CEO.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-window-into-rapid-evolution">A window into rapid evolution</h2>



<p>Describing <em>Tadorna rekohu</em> does more than add a name to a list. It shows how quickly island environments can nudge anatomy and behavior. </p>



<p>It clarifies that the Chathams hosted a richer waterfowl community than survives today. And it underscores the value of pairing ancient DNA with careful measurements to resolve long-standing taxonomic puzzles.</p>



<p>Each new species described from Rēkohu helps sharpen the timeline of colonization, adaptation, and loss on an archipelago where evolution works fast.</p>



<p>The Rēkohu shelduck also illustrates how science and community can work together. The bird’s names acknowledge guardianship and genealogy that bind people, place, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/un-report-disturbing-details-about-the-state-of-earths-wildlife/">wildlife</a>.</p>



<p>As researchers continue to study bones, genomes, and sediments from the islands, more stories like this are likely to surface - reminding us how landscapes shape species, and how quickly those species can vanish without careful stewardship.</p>



<p>The study is published in the <a href="https://academic.oup.com/zoolinnean/article/204/3/zlaf069/8212055" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society</em></a>.</p>



<p>Image credit: Sasha Votyakova, Te Papa CC BY 4.0</p>



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Extinct duck reveals how island life reshapes birds

On the remote Rēkohu Chatham Islands, an ancestral duck that...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the opposite.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-contrasting-climate-response">A contrasting climate response</h2>



<p>Most coastal towns are <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sinking-land-will-intensify-the-effects-of-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">preparing for higher sea levels</a>, but <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-no-longer-has-to-worry-about-rising-sea-levels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Greenland presents</a> a different scenario during climate change. The ground there is rising at a remarkable rate. Over the past decade, some areas have lifted about 20 centimeters, which translates to roughly 2 meters per century. This rate significantly exceeds current projections for sea level rise.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-geological-rebound-process-through-climate-change">Geological rebound process through climate change</h2>



<p>The mechanism behind this phenomenon is straightforward. As the ice sheet melts, the immense weight is removed from the bedrock, causing the land to rebound upward. This process resembles the way compressed material springs back when pressure is released.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-monitoring-networks">Scientific monitoring networks</h2>



<p>Researchers at the <a href="https://www.dtu.dk/english/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Technical University of Denmark</a> are documenting this uplift using the GNET network, consisting of 61 GPS stations positioned around Greenland's coast. These sensors can detect movement with millimeter precision, providing detailed measurements of the ongoing changes.</p>



<p>The data reveal that current uplift rates exceed the gradual rebound occurring since the last ice age ended approximately 12,000 years ago. This acceleration corresponds directly with increased ice sheet melting rates.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-coastal-transformation">Coastal Transformation</h2>



<p>This uplift is actively reshaping Greenland's coastline. New islands and rocky formations, called "skerries," are emerging as previously submerged land surfaces rise above the water level. This represents a notable contrast to global concerns about rising seas.</p>



<p>The study, published in Geophysical Research Letters, demonstrates the varied regional impacts of climate change. While many locations face rising water levels, Greenland's bedrock is literally rising above the surrounding seas.</p>



<p>The full study was recently published in <em><a href="https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2023GL104851" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Geophysical Research Letters</a></em>.</p>



<p>—–</p>



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<p>—–</p>

Greenland's ground rises while coasts worldwide face higher seas

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXXGGiynIjs Greenland is not sinking. In fact, it is the...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to implement the latest AI Agent building platform.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ai-agent-training-transforms-the-workplace-fear-factor-into-a-competitive-advantage">AI agent training transforms the workplace 'fear factor' into a competitive advantage</h2>



<p>Organizations that offer comprehensive artificial intelligence training to their workers find remarkable value that extends well beyond basic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/mind-wandering-might-be-more-productive-than-you-think/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">productivity improvements</a>. Emerging research demonstrates that carefully crafted AI training programs <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ai-does-not-replace-human-creativity-but-enhances-it/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">enhance</a> corporate performance, lower operational costs, and dramatically improve employee psychological well-being by turning workplace uncertainty into professional empowerment.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-addressing-the-widespread-ai-anxiety-crisis-among-us">Addressing the widespread 'AI anxiety' crisis among us</h2>



<p>A staggering 53% of employees expressed concern that the use of AI tools to automate work tasks could make them appear disposable to their employers, according to <a href="https://www.microsoft.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Microsoft</a>'s 2024 workplace survey. Such pervasive worry about being substituted by machines has caused what researchers have termed "AI technostress" – a psychological state that can result in occupational burnout and poorer mental well-being.</p>



<p>Data published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a> showed that belief in AI learning ability was a moderator in the link between technology adoption and work pressure, and higher confidence significantly lowered negative psychological responses. Workers provided ample training to become competent with AI software have significantly lower stress.</p>



<p>Companies like <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a> have platforms for building what are known as "AI Agents".  In essence, AI Agents are simply tools that employees can build for themselves or their teams quickly and inexpensively.   MindStudio will even train entire companies, from the CEO on down, at no cost. By letting MindStudio empower employees, companies avoid hiring more IT staff, buying more software, and implementing solutions to problems that do not exist.</p>



<p>MindStudio even has partners locally for companies, like <a href="http://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dominnus</a> with offices in the Carolinas, California, and Denver, to help build AI Agents and support employees as they become resident AI experts for their organization.  The training provided by MindStudio is applicable across other AI Agent building platforms as well.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-productivity-through-focused-learning">Revolutionary productivity through focused learning</h2>



<p>Organizations that implement large-scale AI training programs achieve dramatic outcomes. Employees performed tasks significantly better when they utilized AI support compared to when they didn't, according to <a href="https://www.nngroup.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nielsen Norman Group</a> research findings. Their study documented productivity increases of 66% for a variety of professional tasks.</p>



<p>Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis research finds workers record 33% higher productivity in time working with generative AI tools. The benefit is equivalent to 5.4% of work time savings for AI users – around 2.2 hours per week for full-time workers.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-psychological-well-being-benefits-through-ai-competence">Psychological well-being benefits through AI competence</h2>



<p>The emotional transformation when employees are provided with proper technology training is a fundamental transformation from fear to professional confidence. A survey of 600 employees across industries, carried out by ScienceDirect, proved that AI capabilities strengthen work environment commitment and improve job satisfaction.</p>



<p>A <a href="https://www.lut.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">LUT University</a> study discovered that AI adoption has no direct effect on workers' well-being but does so indirectly through working conditions like task optimization and safety protocols. Strategically deployed AI that involves correct training can actually increase workplace mental well-being.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-replacement-anxiety-to-partnership-confidence">From 'replacement anxiety' to 'partnership confidence'</h2>



<p>Although 35% of those interviewed in recent McKinsey studies were concerned about workforce displacement, firms with large-scale training initiatives witness such fears dissipate quickly. The World Economic Forum found that two out of three respondents believe AI competencies will enhance their career prospects and job marketability.</p>



<p>This shift from fear to trust has measurable implications for job satisfaction. Applied Sciences research indicates AI can create tailored wellness programs based on individual employee requirements.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-financial-benefits-of-increased-retention">Financial benefits of increased retention</h2>



<p>The mental health advantages of AI learning have a direct impact on organizational bottom lines in the form of a positive feedback cycle with high retention of employees. Recent ROI research validates that artificial intelligence learning has a beneficial impact on employee turnover and satisfaction levels.</p>



<p>PriceWaterhouseCoopers' research documents 20% to 30% improvements in productivity, market speed, and revenue in organizations that attempt systematic AI adoption through comprehensive training.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environmental-advantages-of-ai-enabled-teams">Environmental advantages of AI-enabled teams</h2>



<p>AI training has unforeseen environmental benefits as it makes the work environment more efficient. According to a study in Scientific Reports, the carbon footprint in writing and illustrating work is significantly lower when AI performs it compared to humans. AI software produces 130 to 1,500 times less CO2 equivalent per page of text created than human authors.</p>



<p>In addition, AI-driven remote work functionality significantly reduces environmental impact. Research by Cornell University and Microsoft indicates that remote workers reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to 54% by not commuting daily to offices. Hybrid workers working remotely two to four days a week can reduce their carbon footprint by 11% to 29%.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cumulative-organizational-advantages">Cumulative organizational advantages</h2>



<p>The compounding gains of better mental well-being, reduced turnover, increased productivity, and environmental benefits flow to enterprises from the pairing. McKinsey analysis estimates the long-term AI potential at $4.4 trillion in incremental productivity growth opportunity from business use cases.</p>



<p>As of now, 75% of knowledge workers globally utilize generative AI, mirroring widespread adoption patterns. Organizations that provide organized training and assistance see the most favorable results in productivity, worker satisfaction, and ecological sustainability.</p>



<p>The research overwhelmingly indicates that companies that invest in proper AI education, like that offered through <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MindStudio</a>, establish win-win scenarios where employees are both more empowered and less stressed, and companies enjoy the gains of increased productivity, reduced turnover, and improved mental health outcomes throughout their workforce.</p>



<p>For more on MindStudio's free AI training for companies, visit the website's of MindStudio and Dominnus from the links below.</p>



<p>The research was published across a variety of peer-reviewed journals, including <a href="https://www.nature.com/palcomms/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a>, <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/artificial-intelligence" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence</a>, and <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci">Applied Sciences</a>.</p>



<p id="block-9bd989d6-2fd3-4580-957f-6cacce134f08">-----</p>



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<p id="block-1f9a227a-ec37-4140-81b8-ffa4a7cc6689">-----</p>



<p>MindStudio.AI: <a href="https://www.mindstudio.ai" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.mindstudio.ai</a></p>



<p>Dominnus: <a href="https://www.dominnus.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.dominnus.com</a></p>

AI agent training boosts mental health and profits

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DSM3EVeGHJU Companies like MindStudio help companies train their employees to...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-natural-solution-to-disease-through-crop-modification">A natural solution to disease through crop modification.</h2>



<p>The agricultural industry stands at a crossroads between productivity and environmental responsibility, and crop modification often carries a negative connotation. While chemical pesticides have long been the go-to solution for crop protection, their harmful effects on ecosystems and human health have prompted scientists to seek alternatives. The recent breakthrough by <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southampton</a> researchers offers a promising path forward through the precise manipulation of plant-associated microbial communities.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-microbial-partnerships">The science behind microbial partnerships</h2>



<p>Plants naturally harbor diverse ecosystems of bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms that function as biological allies. These microscopic partners contribute to disease resistance, nutrient absorption, and stress tolerance. However, until now, scientists lacked the tools to deliberately reshape these communities to enhance crop protection.</p>



<p>The Southampton team's approach centered on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-plant-microbiomes-the-future-of-crop-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modifying lignin biosynthesis genes in rice plants</a>. This strategic intervention altered the plant's metabolic output, creating conditions that favored beneficial bacterial populations while suppressing harmful ones. The result was a living defense system embedded within the plant itself.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-global-food-security">Implications for global food security</h2>



<p>The successful demonstration against Xanthomonas oryzae, the pathogen responsible for bacterial blight in rice, represents more than a laboratory achievement. Rice feeds nearly half the world's population, and bacterial blight causes devastating crop losses annually. Traditional control methods rely heavily on pesticides that contaminate soil and water systems.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-disease-resistance">Looking Beyond Disease Resistance</h2>



<p>While disease protection represents the immediate application, the research framework opens doors to broader agricultural improvements. Future developments could engineer microbiomes to enhance nutrient uptake, reducing dependence on synthetic fertilizers. This dual benefit addresses both crop productivity and environmental sustainability.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-forward">The path forward</h2>



<p>As this technology advances from laboratory to field applications, it promises to reshape sustainable agriculture. The ability to program plants with their own biological defense systems could herald a new era where crops protect themselves naturally, reducing chemical inputs while maintaining yields necessary for global food security.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44335-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"><em>Nature Communications</em></a>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Revolutionizing agriculture through microbiome engineering

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4 Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease A natural...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Some children read facial expressions when making food choices.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-people-s-reactions-influence-children-s-eating-habits">Other people's reactions influence children's eating habits</h2>



<p>Many children are finicky eaters, but research explains how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-learned-why-so-many-kids-dislike-vegetables/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watching others eat and social modeling</a> influence the eating habits of children.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Study Methodology Demonstrates Social Learning Impact</h2>



<p>Researchers at <a href="https://www.aston.ac.uk/hls/school-of-psychology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aston University School of Psychology</a> have published findings in Frontiers in Psychology that illuminate the neurobiological foundations of food preference development through observational learning. The investigation employed controlled video stimuli featuring adults consuming raw broccoli while displaying systematically varied facial expressions to measure participant responses.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Asymmetrical Response Patterns Identified</h2>



<p>The research, conducted with 204 female participants, revealed a pronounced asymmetry in social modeling effects. Negative facial expressions during vegetable consumption significantly diminished observer food preference ratings, while positive expressions failed to produce corresponding increases in vegetable appeal. This finding challenges conventional assumptions about the bidirectional nature of social influence in dietary behavior formation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Evolutionary Psychology Framework Applied</h2>



<p>Dr. Katie Edwards and her research team propose that these results reflect adaptive mechanisms developed through evolutionary processes. The heightened sensitivity to disgust expressions likely functions as a protective system, enabling individuals to identify potentially harmful foods through social cues without direct risk exposure.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Clinical and Educational Implications</h2>



<p>These findings carry substantial implications for pediatric nutrition interventions and family meal dynamics. The research suggests that parental expressions of distaste during vegetable consumption may inadvertently reinforce children's existing food aversions through unconscious social transmission pathways.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Future Research Directions</h2>



<p>The study establishes a foundation for expanded investigation into real-time social modeling effects and cross-demographic applicability. Researchers emphasize the necessity for longitudinal studies examining actual consumption behaviors rather than preference ratings alone, particularly within family contexts where social learning occurs most frequently.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>



<p></p>

Social modeling affects our food choices

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc Some children read facial expressions when making food choices....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cancer-causing-protein-bound-and-blocked">Cancer-causing protein bound and blocked</h2>



<p>In a discovery that can one day revolutionize cancer treatment, researchers at the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Riverside</a> have successfully developed a means of controlling MYC, a notoriously slippery protein that causes approximately <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chaotic-protein-that-fuels-75-of-cancers-can-be-controlled/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">75% of all cancers in humans</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-myc-different">What makes MYC different</h2>



<p>MYC presents a unique challenge when studying cancer. Normally, this protein plays a vital role in healthy cells. It carefully controls transcription - the process that converts genetic information from DNA and RNA into proteins.</p>



<p>However, cancer changes everything. In cancer cells, MYC becomes a destructive force. It operates in overdrive mode with no regulation whatsoever.</p>



<p>Professor Min Xue, who led the research team, explains it simply: "MYC is less like food for cancer cells and more like a steroid. It drives cancer's aggressive growth." This superactive behavior makes MYC involved in three out of every four cancer cases.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-myc-is-hard-to-target">Why MYC is hard to target</h2>



<p>Despite its clear role in cancer, targeting MYC has been one of medicine's biggest challenges. The main problem lies in MYC's unusual structure - or rather, its complete lack of structure.</p>



<p>Professor Xue describes the protein as "basically a glob of randomness." This means conventional drug discovery methods don't work. These traditional approaches rely on sharply defined protein structures. MYC simply doesn't have one.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">A New Approach to Fighting MYC</h2>



<p>The UCR research team developed a clever solution. They designed a special peptide molecule that could selectively bind to MYC. More importantly, this peptide could block MYC's destructive activity.</p>



<p>The key was fine-tuning two specific features: the peptide's stiffness and its shape. Through careful adjustments, researchers achieved something remarkable. They reached "sub-micro-molar affinity" - meaning their peptide binds as strongly as antibodies do.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-results">Breakthrough results</h2>



<p>This accomplishment represents a major leap beyond previous attempts. The researchers enhanced their peptide's binding strength by two orders of magnitude. This dramatic improvement brings the work significantly closer to practical drug development goals.</p>



<p>The research opens new possibilities for treating the vast majority of cancers where MYC plays a destructive role.</p>



<p>The researchers are presently optimizing peptide-delivery systems based on lipid nanoparticles that deliver the peptide effectively into cancer cells. The<a href="https://www.nih.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> National Institutes of Health</a> and the <a href="https://www.defense.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Department of Defense</a> funded the study, which appeared in the Journal of the <a href="https://www.acs.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Chemical Society</a>.<br>This research offers renewed hope against cancer, and it can potentially open a door to more effective cancer therapies for most cancer patients worldwide.</p>



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The protein that fuels 3 out of 4 cancers has been controlled

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



<p>On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.</p>



<p>This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.</p>



<p>Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.</p>



<p>The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators.  Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas.  These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.</p>



<p>Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



<p>Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.</p>



<p>Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



<p>385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.</p>



<p>The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.</p>



<p>Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



<p>The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."</p>



<p>This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <em><a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a></em> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.</p>



<p>Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet <em>Archaeopteris</em>: the first modern tree</h2>



<p>The star of this ancient forest is <em>Archaeopteris</em> – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur <em>Archaeopteryx</em>. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.</p>



<p>William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.</p>



<p>Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



<p>These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.</p>



<p>This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



<p>The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified <em>Eospermatopteris</em>, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.</p>



<p>All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



<p>Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.</p>



<p>Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."</p>



<p>The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



<p>In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.</p>



<p>Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



<p>Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.</p>



<p>Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.</p>



<p>These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.</p>



<p>The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.</p>



<p>The full study was published in the journal <em>Current Biology</em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-map-exact-ages-when-your-body-rapidly-ages">Scientists Map Exact Ages When Your Body Rapidly Ages</h2>



<p>Scientists have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-bodies-begin-breaking-down-two-very-precise-ages/#google_vignette">discovered that aging</a> isn't the gradual, steady process many assume it to be. Instead, researchers from Stanford Medicine have found that our bodies undergo dramatic molecular changes at two specific ages: 44 and 60. This research, published in Nature Aging, reveals that aging happens in sudden bursts rather than smooth transitions.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-waves-of-rapid-aging">Two waves of rapid aging</h2>



<p>The Stanford study tracked over 135,000 different molecules and microbes in 108 participants aged 25 to 75 over several years. Results showed that 81% of all molecules studied exhibited non-linear changes, meaning they shifted dramatically at certain ages rather than changing gradually over time.</p>



<p>Michael Snyder, chair of genetics at Stanford School of Medicine and the study's senior author, noted significant findings. "We're not just changing gradually over time; there are some really dramatic changes. It turns out the mid-40s is a time of dramatic change, as is the early 60s. And that's true no matter what class of molecules you look at."</p>



<p>The first wave of changes occurs around age 44, affecting molecules related to alcohol metabolism, caffeine processing, lipid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/age-related-changes-in-metabolism-dont-match-our-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">metabolism</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-disease-remains-the-leading-cause-of-death-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cardiovascular disease</a>, and skin and muscle function. The second wave hits around age 60, involving changes in carbohydrate metabolism, immune regulation, kidney function, and again cardiovascular and muscle health.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-during-these-aging-bursts">What happens during these aging bursts</h2>



<p>During the mid-40s transformation, researchers observed significant changes in how the body processes alcohol and fats. This period often coincides with increased stress levels in many people's lives, potentially contributing to lifestyle factors that accelerate these molecular shifts.</p>



<p>"It's possible some of these changes could be tied to lifestyle or behavioral factors that cluster at these age groups, rather than being driven by biological factors," Snyder explained. For instance, alcohol metabolism dysfunction might result from increased consumption during the typically stressful mid-40s period.</p>



<p>The changes at age 60 are perhaps less surprising, as this is when many age-related diseases begin to manifest more prominently. The molecular shifts affect immune function and kidney health, both critical for maintaining overall wellness as we enter our senior years.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-latest-research-confirms-aging-patterns">Latest research confirms aging patterns</h2>



<p>Recent 2025 studies have validated these findings. Research examining tissue samples from 76 people found similar aging patterns, noting an "inflection point" between ages 45 and 55.</p>



<p>Scientists discovered that blood vessels, particularly the aorta, age fastest among all body tissues. This vascular aging may drive aging in other body parts, highlighting cardiovascular health's central role in the aging process.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cellular-changes-and-microbiome-shifts">Cellular changes and microbiome shifts</h2>



<p>The Stanford research revealed that these aging bursts affect our microbiome – the trillions of bacteria, viruses, and fungi living in and on our bodies. These microbial communities undergo substantial shifts during both aging periods, potentially affecting everything from digestion to immune function.</p>



<p>Additionally, researchers found that protein production and gene expression begin to fall out of sync as we age. This breakdown in cellular communication becomes especially pronounced during the two aging waves, contributing to the accumulation of damaged proteins associated with diseases such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-may-not-be-brain-disorder-important-data-was-fabricated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer's</a>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-implications-and-longevity-considerations">Health implications and longevity considerations</h2>



<p>Understanding these aging patterns has important implications for healthcare strategies. Research suggests that people should pay particular attention to their health during their 40s and 60s, when these dramatic molecular changes occur.</p>



<p>Snyder emphasized the importance of proactive health measures. "I'm a big believer that we should try to adjust our lifestyles while we're still healthy," he noted. This might include increasing exercise to protect heart health and maintain muscle mass, or reducing alcohol consumption in the 40s as the body's ability to metabolize it declines.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-approaches-to-anti-aging-treatment">New approaches to anti-aging treatment</h2>



<p>Aging research has seen notable advances in 2025. Harvard Medical School scientists developed chemical cocktails that reverse cellular aging without genetic modification. These six combinations restored aged cells to youthfulness in under a week, offering safer alternatives to gene therapy.</p>



<p>Researchers identified new biomarkers like "InflammAge," a saliva-based test measuring chronic inflammation associated with aging. This non-invasive approach could change how we monitor aging and intervention.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions-in-aging-research">Future directions in aging research</h2>



<p>Emerging technologies including artificial intelligence, cellular reprogramming, and senolytic therapies, are opening new possibilities for extending healthspan. Companies develop treatments targeting aging's fundamental mechanisms rather than just managing age-related diseases.</p>



<p>The Stanford findings provide a roadmap for implementing preventive measures. Rather than waiting for symptoms, people can prepare for and potentially mitigate these predictable aging waves.</p>



<p>As aging understanding evolves, one thing becomes clear: aging isn't inevitable decline, but specific biological events we may learn to prevent or reverse. The key is recognizing when these transitions occur and taking proactive health steps during vulnerable periods.</p>



<p>The study was published in the journal <em><a href="https://www.nature.com/nataging" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Aging</a></em>.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Scientists discover we age in bursts

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The hidden science behind tickling.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-discover-the-brain-s-tickling-command-center">Scientists discover the brain's 'tickling command center'</h2>



<p>Researchers have finally solved one of humanity's most enduring mysteries: why we can't <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/after-centuries-of-debate-we-still-dont-know-how-tickling-works/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tickle</a> ourselves and what makes some people incredibly ticklish while others barely react? Recent scientific discoveries are revolutionizing our understanding of this peculiar human behavior.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-discovery-in-the-brain">Breakthrough discovery in the brain</h2>



<p>In 2023, Dr. Michael Brecht's team at <a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humboldt University</a>-<a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Berlin</a> made a major discovery published in the <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(22)01991-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">journal <em>Neuron</em></a>. They identified the brain's actual "tickling command center" – specific neurons in a region called the periaqueductal gray that control both tickling responses and play behavior.</p>



<p>When researchers used cutting-edge optogenetic technology to shut down these neurons in laboratory rats, something remarkable happened. The animals completely lost their ability to be tickled or engage in playful behavior.</p>



<p>"We found that global blockade of the rat periaqueductal gray with either muscimol or lidocaine interfered with ticklishness and play," the research team reported in their study.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-types-of-tickling-revealed">Two types of tickling revealed</h2>



<p>What we call "tickling" is two completely different phenomena, according to the latest research. Light tickling – that feathery sensation that makes you want to scratch – is essentially your body's sophisticated bug detection system. This alerts you to potential insects or parasites on your skin.</p>



<p>Deep tickling – the kind that makes you laugh uncontrollably – involves complex brain circuits and is fundamentally social. You literally cannot tickle yourself with this type of stimulation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-self-tickling-is-impossible">Why self-tickling is impossible</h2>



<p>Your cerebellum acts like a prediction machine, recent findings show. When you move your own hand to touch yourself, your brain generates precise predictions about what you will feel and then cancels out the tickling sensation through neural inhibition.</p>



<p>When someone else tickles you, your brain can't predict their movements, so the full tickling response activates. It's like your brain's way of distinguishing between self and others.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-individual-differences-explained">Individual differences explained</h2>



<p>Individual differences in ticklishness depend on genetics, psychology, and even trust. Dr. Xinzhong Dong at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins University</a> notes that people with denser nerve endings tend to be more sensitive.</p>



<p>Psychological factors matter just as much. You respond more strongly when tickled by people you trust, and anxiety completely shuts down tickling responses. This explains why the same physical stimulus can produce completely different reactions depending on who's doing the tickling.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-your-ticklishness">Controlling your ticklishness</h2>



<p>Science offers answers for controlling your ticklishness. You can reduce tickling sensitivity through systematic desensitization – gradual exposure in controlled settings.</p>



<p>Dr. Konstantina Kilteni's 2025 research, published in <em><a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt0350" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a></em>, reveals another technique: place your hand on the tickler's hand. This allows your brain to partially predict the sensations, reducing the tickling response by up to 90 percent.</p>



<p>"Your brain is essentially learning to override its own reflexes," Kilteni explained in her review of tickling research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-purpose-discovered">Evolutionary purpose discovered</h2>



<p>From an evolutionary perspective, tickling serves vital functions according to <a href="https://www.umd.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maryland</a> researcher Dr. Robert Provine's extensive studies. It trains our defense reflexes for vulnerable body areas and facilitates social bonding between family members.</p>



<p>Tickling-induced laughter is actually one of the first forms of communication between infants and caregivers. "Tickle involves a neurological self/nonself discrimination, providing the most primitive social scenario," Provine noted in his research.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clinical-applications-emerge">Clinical applications emerge</h2>



<p>Research shows people with autism spectrum disorder perceive touches as more ticklish than people without the condition. Investigating this difference could provide insight into brain differences and help advance autism research.</p>



<p>People with schizophrenia tend to experience self-touches similarly to external tickles, allowing them to essentially tickle themselves. This suggests altered sensory prediction mechanisms in the condition.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-research-reveals-universal-nature">Animal research reveals universal nature</h2>



<p>Scientists have discovered that many species beyond humans are ticklish. Rats emit ultrasonic "laughs" when tickled, while chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans all respond to tickling stimulation.</p>



<p>This widespread occurrence across species suggests that tickling serves fundamental biological and social functions that evolved long before humans developed complex language and culture.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



<p>Dr. Kilteni argues that tickling research deserves more scientific attention. "It is a complex interplay of motor, social, neurological, developmental, and evolutionary aspects," she stated in her recent review.</p>



<p>New haptic technologies and advanced research methodologies now permit scientists to investigate tickle sensation with unprecedented precision. Standardized experimental methods using mechanical tickling devices ensure consistent results across studies.</p>



<p>Recent findings published in <em>Science Advances</em> show that tickling research is opening new doors in neuroscience, potentially leading to a better understanding of social behavior, sensory processing, and neurological conditions.</p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Scientists solve the mystery of tickling

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4 The hidden science behind tickling. Scientists discover the brain's...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals secret mission to create working time travel device.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-an-equation-truly-bend-time-a-physicist-s-decades-long-quest-to-rewrite-reality">Could an equation truly bend time? A physicist's decades-long quest to rewrite reality</h2>



<p>Imagine the impossible: stepping back through time in a time machine, not in fantasy, but through a scientific endeavor driven by profound personal loss. For <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astrophysicist-says-hes-cracked-the-equation-for-time-travel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Ronald Mallett</a>, a distinguished astrophysicist and professor emeritus at the <a href="https://uconn.edu/">University of Connecticut</a>, this deeply human longing has fueled a lifelong mission. He claims to have discovered the equation that could unlock temporal displacement, pushing boundaries once deemed purely science fiction.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-profound-grief-that-forged-a-vision">A profound grief that forged a vision</h2>



<p>Mallett's extraordinary pursuit began with devastating tragedy in 1955. At merely 10 years old, he endured his father Boyd's sudden death—a television repairman whose passion for science had ignited a similar spark in his young son. Boyd Mallett, only 33, succumbed to a heart attack, leaving behind a grief-stricken child searching for solace.</p>



<p>That solace came through H.G. Wells' <em>The Time Machine</em>. Within its pages, Mallett found a captivating concept: "Time is only a kind of Space." These words transformed from a literary phrase into a guiding principle, becoming the driving force behind his unwavering commitment to unraveling time's fundamental mysteries.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-humble-beginnings-to-academic-heights">From humble beginnings to academic heights</h2>



<p>Mallett's journey was far from straightforward. After serving in the Air Force during the Vietnam War era, he utilized the GI Bill for higher education, earning his Ph.D. in physics from Pennsylvania State University in 1973 at the age of 28.</p>



<p>In 1975, he made history as the first African American professor in the University of Connecticut's physics department, achieving full professorship in 1987 before retiring in 2024 as professor emeritus.</p>



<p>Throughout these successful academic years, Mallett harbored his radical ambition as a closely guarded secret. "I kept my time travel goal a secret," he confessed. "I worried people would think I was nuts." His public research centered on black holes, serving as a "cover story" while he quietly developed his revolutionary time travel theory.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-breakthrough-moment">The breakthrough moment</h2>



<p>His pivotal insight arrived while hospitalized for a heart condition—a profound irony given his father's heart attack started this journey. The breakthrough was elegantly simple yet revolutionary: "If gravity can bend time, and light can create gravity, then light can bend time."</p>



<p>"It turns out that black holes can create a gravitational field that could lead to the creation of time loops that could allow us to go back in time," he explained.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-blueprint-for-a-temporal-vortex">The blueprint for a temporal vortex</h2>



<p>Mallett's vision for a functioning time machine replicates spacetime-warping phenomena around black holes. He offers a compelling analogy: "Picture a cup of coffee. Stir it with a spoon, and the coffee swirls. A spinning black hole does the same to spacetime."</p>



<p>In Einstein's general relativity, the universe is a dynamic fabric woven from space and time. Massive objects like black holes warp this fabric—an effect we perceive as gravity. Mallett theorizes that an intense, continuous, circulating beam of light from a ring of powerful lasers could replicate this gravitational torsion, effectively twisting time into a loop.</p>



<p>This "time loop" would theoretically allow information—or perhaps matter—to travel backward in time. He detailed this mathematical concept in his 2006 autobiography, <em>Time Traveler: A Scientist's Personal Mission to Make Time Travel a Reality</em>.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-published-research-and-recognition">Published research and recognition</h2>



<p>His work, published in respected journals including <em><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/physics-letters-a" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physics Letters A</a></em> and <em><a href="https://link.springer.com/journal/10701" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Foundations of Physics</a></em>, suggests circulating laser light could generate gravitational fields potent enough to create closed timelike curves, enabling time travel for data.</p>



<p>Mallett's research has gained worldwide media attention, featured on <a href="https://www.thisamericanlife.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Public Radio's <em>This American Life</em></a>, the <a href="https://www.history.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">History Channel</a>, and <a href="https://www.today.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NBC's <em>Today Show</em></a>. The widespread interest reflects both his compelling personal story and rigorous scientific approach.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-galactic-hurdles-and-persistent-skepticism">The galactic hurdles and persistent skepticism</h2>



<p>While Mallett's equations captivate imagination, the path to reality faces immense obstacles. The energy requirement is staggering—Mallett acknowledges needing "galactic amounts of energy," far beyond current technological capabilities.</p>



<p>There's also a poignant limitation: even if realized, his machine could only send information back to when it was first activated, meaning it couldn't transport him to 1955 to prevent his father's death.</p>



<p>The scientific community remains skeptical. Physicists Ken Olum and Allen Everett argue that Mallett's proposed laser ring would need to be larger than the observable universe to achieve the necessary spacetime distortion. They invoke Stephen Hawking's chronology protection conjecture, suggesting physics may prevent macroscopic time travel.</p>



<p>Astrophysicist Paul Sutter has voiced doubts about Mallett's underlying mathematics, while science writer Brian Clegg finds the concept intriguing enough to warrant experimental investigation.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legacy-that-transcends-time">A legacy that transcends time</h2>



<p>Now approaching 80, Dr. Mallett remains steadfast. "I believe my work will show time travel is possible," he asserts. "Future generations will build on it in ways we can't yet imagine."</p>



<p>His equations, though yet to physically bend time, have bent our collective imagination. Ongoing public interest, evidenced by his continued media appearances and Spike Lee's film adaptation of his memoir, underscores his ideas' profound impact.</p>



<p>More than a scientific pursuit, Mallett's story testifies to human resilience, intellectual courage, and hope's enduring power. Whether his theoretical time machine ever materializes, his legacy is immeasurable—inspiring countless individuals to challenge conventional limits and perceive time not as an unyielding barrier, but as a boundless frontier awaiting exploration.</p>



<p></p>



<p>-----</p>



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<p>-----</p>

Retired professor claims he solved time travel

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



<p>Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?</p>



<p>The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What was acid rain?</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The science behind it</strong></h2>



<p>Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.</p>



<p>While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The crisis at its peak</strong></h2>



<p>During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Environmental devastation</strong></h2>



<p>The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.</p>



<p>By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.</p>



<p>Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Economic impact</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The solution: government action and technology</strong></h2>



<p>Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>The Clean Air Act of 1990</strong></h2>



<p>The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Cap-and-trade success</strong></h2>



<p>Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.</p>



<p>The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Technology advances</strong></h2>



<p>Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.</p>



<p>The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today"><strong>Why we don't hear about it today</strong></h2>



<p>Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Success doesn't make news</strong></h2>



<p>There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Mission accomplished</strong></h2>



<p>The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone"><strong>Is it really gone?</strong></h2>



<p>The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.</p>



<p>EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>What this teaches us</strong></h2>



<p>The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.</p>



<p>Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2>



<p>Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.</p>



<p>Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.</p>



<p>This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.</p>



<p>Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.</p>



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



<p><strong>Sources:</strong> <em>This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.</em></p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Frequently Asked Questions</strong></h2>



<p><strong>1. Is acid rain completely gone?</strong> No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.</p>



<p><strong>2. How long did solving take?</strong> Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.</p>



<p><strong>3. What made the solution successful?</strong> Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.</p>



<p><strong>4. Do other countries have acid rain problems?</strong> Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.</p>



<p><strong>5. Could acid rain return?</strong> Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.</p>



<p><strong>6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"?</strong> The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a></p>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

<p>Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. </p>



<p>The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.</p>



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<p>Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. </p>



<p>Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.</p>



<p>Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. </p>



<p>They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).</p>



<p>Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.</p>



<p>Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.</p>



<p>This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.</p>



<p>The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.</p>

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.</p>



<p>"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.</p>



<p>"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.</p>



<p>"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.</p>



<p>To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;</p>



<p>"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.</p>



<p>"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."</p>



<p>"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."</p>



<p><em>Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="http://csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Staff Writer</em></p>

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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<p>Today's <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.</p>



<p>In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. </p>



<p>Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.</p>



<p>Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. </p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.</p>



<p>“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. </p>



<p>The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.</p>



<p>“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;</p>



<p>“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”</p>



<p>The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;</p>



<p>The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?</p>



<p>One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;</p>



<p>While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;</p>



<p><em>Video Credit: ACS Reactions</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

How does salt makes things taste better?

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<p>Today’s <strong>Video of the Day</strong> from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;</p>



<p>'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."</p>



<p>"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.</p>



<p><em>Video/ Image Credit: ESA</em></p>



<p><em>-</em><em>--</em></p>



<p><em>By </em><a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com"><em>Chrissy Sexton</em></a><em>, </em><a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/"><em>Earth.com</em></a><em> Editor</em></p>



<p>Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.</p>

Santiago, Chile in South America

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