Look out over the desert east of Aswan in southern Egypt, and it might seem like there’s nothing but rocks and sand - no sign of the kings who once ruled here. But look closer, and the walls start talking.



Thousands of years ago, long before the famous pharaohs ruled from pyramids, kings carved their power into stone.



These carvings weren’t just decorations. They were public declarations of who was in charge. And they’ve finally gotten the attention they deserve.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lost-rulers-carved-into-stone">Lost rulers carved into stone</h2>



More than 5,000 years ago, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/solar-eclipse-may-have-changed-the-architecture-of-ancient-egypt-forever/">Egypt</a> was on the edge of something big. Small local rulers had started forming a more connected and controlled territory. 



The place we now call Egypt was becoming the world’s first territorial state. It stretched about 500 miles from north to south. That’s not small for a place that had no highways or phones - just boats, legs, and grit.



In the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/850-paleolithic-artifacts-discovered-with-the-naked-eye-in-a-desert/">desert</a> valleys like Wadi el Malik and Wadi Abu Subeira, rulers made their presence known with carvings. One of the most fascinating figures from this time was a ruler called Scorpion. 



His name appears in rock inscriptions along with a few other symbols, including one that marks it as a place name.



That particular place-name sign is believed to be the oldest one ever found. That discovery made international headlines a few years back. Now, there’s more.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-egypt-s-lineup-of-early-kings">Egypt's lineup of early kings</h2>



Scorpion wasn’t alone. The rocks tell the story of other rulers too. There’s King Bull, who came before him, and Horus-Falcon, who may have been the first in this royal line. 



Some of their names reference dangerous animals - <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/centipede/">centipedes</a>, falcons, bulls - creatures that symbolized strength and fear.



This lineup of names and animal symbols is what researchers call a "royal rock art tableau." It's not just a list - it’s a way to show power, legacy, and control over a tough, rugged landscape. These kings wanted people in Egypt to know: This land is ours. We rule here.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/ancient-egypt_rock-art_ruler-godlike-powers_credit-Johann-Thiele_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/ancient-egypt_rock-art_ruler-godlike-powers_credit-Johann-Thiele_1s.webp" alt="The ruler tramples a man (lying). The two round circular areas behind this are not balls, but rather decapitated heads. Credit: Johann Thiele" class="wp-image-1983776"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The ruler tramples a man (lying). The two round circular areas behind this are not balls, but rather decapitated heads. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Johann Thiele</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-violence-and-power-on-display">Violence and power on display</h2>



These carvings didn’t shy away from violence. One scene shows a ruler standing over a fallen enemy. In the background, two decapitated heads leave no doubt about the message. These weren’t peaceful monuments - they were warnings.



“The most extreme scene is the one showing the ruler trampling an enemy, with two decapitated heads visible in the background,” said Egyptologist Professor Dr. Ludwig Morenz from the <a href="https://www.uni-bonn.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bonn</a>, who has been studying these carvings with his colleague Mohamed Abdelhay Abu Bakr.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kings-carved-ties-to-egypt-s-gods">Kings carved ties to Egypt's gods</h2>



The kings from this period didn’t call themselves gods. But they made it clear they were close. 



They aligned themselves with two powerful deities from the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-human-highways-revealed-beneath-the-sea/">Nile Valley</a> - Bat, a celestial cow often shown with a star-covered face, and Min, a hunting god tied to the deserts and outer regions.



“They formed a divine couple, with Bat associated with the fertile land along the Nile and Min with the peripheral regions as a kind of hunting god,” Morenz said.



The connection to these gods helped build something called “pharaoh-fashioning.” This was how early rulers shaped their image - as chosen leaders backed by divine power. They didn’t inherit power quietly. They carved it in stone.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/ancient-egypt_rock-art_ruler-defeating-enemies_credit-Johann-Thiele_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/ancient-egypt_rock-art_ruler-defeating-enemies_credit-Johann-Thiele_1s.webp" alt="Combined with the motif of defeating enemies. Credit: Johann Thiele/ Matthias Lang edited with GigaMesh" class="wp-image-1983774"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Combined with the motif of defeating enemies. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Johann Thiele/ Matthias Lang edited with GigaMesh</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-trade-and-faith-carved-together">Trade and faith carved together</h2>



At the time, this region was more than desert. It had resources, water, and wildlife. People passed through on hunting trips or mineral expeditions. That made it valuable - and contested. It also made it the perfect spot to mark territory.



“It is actually all about a grandiose presentation of the claim to sovereignty,” Morenz said.



And part of that grand display included religion. One large carving shows a "boat of the gods" being hauled by 25 men. This likely represents a sacred procession that tied the desert valley to the better-known Nile Valley.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/ancient-egypt_rock-art_ruler-godlike-powers_credit-Ludwig-Morenz_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/ancient-egypt_rock-art_ruler-godlike-powers_credit-Ludwig-Morenz_1s.webp" alt="The inscription of King &quot;Bull&quot; is on the top, the one with the placename in front. Credit: Photo: Ludwig Morenz" class="wp-image-1983778"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The inscription of King "Bull" is on the top, the one with the placename in front. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Photo: Ludwig Morenz</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-desert-valleys-served-as-crossroads">Desert valleys served as crossroads</h2>



These carvings aren’t easy to see with the naked eye. Thousands of years of wind and sand have taken their toll. But new digital tools have made a difference. 



Researchers used high-powered photo analysis to reveal carvings that would otherwise go unnoticed.



“This is an important region when it comes to our understanding of the emergence of the state at the sociocultural periphery in the late fourth millennium,” Morenz said.



It’s clear there's more to learn here. Compared to central Egypt, this area has barely been studied. But it played a major role in shaping one of the most influential <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-calendar-discovery-could-rewrite-history-of-civilization/">civilizations</a> in history.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-scans-revived-ancient-history">Modern scans revived ancient history</h2>



Morenz hopes this area will get the attention it deserves. That means more research, bigger projects, and maybe even making the site accessible to visitors.



“I consider this so important that this hot spot should also be made accessible to interested parties with tours and a visitor center,” he said.



What was once forgotten desert might soon become one of Egypt’s most important historical windows. Not just because of what’s carved in stone - but because of what it shows about the earliest rulers who helped create a state that would shape human history.



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Early Egyptian king named "Scorpion" told his blood-thirsty tales in ancient rock art

Look out over the desert east of Aswan in southern Egypt, and it might seem like there’s nothing but rocks and sand - no sign of the kings who once ruled here. But look closer, and the walls start talking. Thousands of years ago, long before the famous pharaohs ruled from pyramids, kings carved their power into stone. These carvings weren’t just decorations. They were public declarations of who was in charge. And they’ve finally gotten the attention they deserve. Lost rulers carved into stone More than...

From glowing mushrooms on forest floors to plankton that light up the sea, nature has long revealed beauty through bioluminescence. These natural spectacles capture human imagination, inspiring ideas of glowing gardens and self-lit cities. 



Scientists are now moving closer to that vision, crafting houseplants that radiate their own soft <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amazon-trees-glow-more-under-stress-but-photosynthesize-less/">light</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-create-glowing-plants">Scientists create glowing plants</h2>



In a recent study published in the journal Matter, researchers described glowing succulents that recharge in sunlight and emit colorful afterglows. 



By injecting the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/all-living-things-emit-a-subtle-glow-that-ceases-at-death/">leaves</a> with special light-storing particles, the plants become capable of radiating light bright enough to rival small night lamps.



“Picture the world of Avatar, where glowing plants light up an entire ecosystem,” said first author Shuting Liu of <a href="https://www.scau.edu.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">South China Agricultural University</a>. “We wanted to make that vision possible using materials we already work with in the lab. Imagine glowing trees replacing streetlights.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moving-past-genetic-engineering">Moving past genetic engineering</h2>



Earlier attempts at creating luminescent plants relied on genetic engineering. These methods typically produced faint green light and came with challenges: high costs, complex techniques, and risks such as gene drift. 



The new approach sidesteps these issues by using inorganic afterglow particles, materials already known for their roles in glowing toys and safety signs. These particles are inexpensive, widely available, and capable of storing light energy efficiently, making them an ideal choice for transforming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-future-climate-conditions-will-transform-plant-growth/">plants</a> into living light sources. 



Unlike genetic methods, which require lengthy cultivation and complex engineering, this strategy allows for quick preparation, reproducibility, and scalability. It opens the door to practical applications in sustainable lighting and everyday decorative uses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-micron-particles-work">Why micron particles work</h2>



The team worked with micron-sized afterglow phosphors. While nanoparticles move more easily through leaves, the larger particles shine with greater brightness.



Traditionally, their size limited plant absorption, but the succulent Echeveria "Mebina" provided the right internal structure to carry them. Its dense but evenly spaced tissue channels enabled rapid diffusion, producing uniform and strong luminescence.



“Smaller, nano-sized particles move easily within the plant but are dimmer,” said Liu. “Larger particles glowed brighter but couldn’t travel far inside the plant.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-succulents-glow-better-than-leafy-plants">Succulents glow better than leafy plants</h2>



Unexpectedly, succulents outperformed non-succulents like golden pothos and bok choy. Despite having fewer air pockets than leafy plants, their compact, uniform tissue allowed particles to spread smoothly without clumping. 



This created evenly glowing leaves after just minutes of exposure to sunlight or LED light, with brightness lasting for nearly two hours.



“It was really unexpected,” said Liu. “The particles diffused in just seconds, and the entire succulent leaf glowed.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stable-and-safe-glow">Stable and safe glow</h2>



The particles used were specially coated with phosphate to improve water resistance and ensure biocompatibility inside plant tissues. 



Tests showed that plants maintained normal chlorophyll, sugar, and protein levels even after several days, suggesting they can handle the modification without losing vitality.



This stability highlights the protective role of the phosphate layer, ensuring that luminescence persists without harmful side effects. 



The results also show that material-engineered plants can retain their natural functions and growth patterns under experimental conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-glow-in-many-colors">Plants glow in many colors</h2>



By mixing different phosphors, researchers created plants that glowed not just green, but also red, blue, and even warm white. The team demonstrated a wall of 56 succulents glowing brightly enough to illuminate books and nearby objects. 



Patterns, such as letters or images, could be temporarily written on plant leaves with UV light, hinting at potential uses in decoration and information storage.



“Each plant takes about 10 minutes to prepare and costs a little over 10 yuan (about $1.4), not including labor,” said Liu.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eco-friendly-lighting-and-architecture">Eco-friendly lighting and architecture </h2>



The glow fades over time, but repeated exposure to light recharges it. This low-cost, reproducible method could pave the way for eco-friendly lighting in gardens, pathways, or interior design. 



Expanding beyond succulents remains a challenge, but the study shows a path forward. The research offers possibilities for future urban planning, sustainable architecture, and even artistic applications where living plants provide both decoration and functional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bioluminescent-plants-gene-discovery-now-available-for-any-home/">illumination</a>.



“I just find it incredible that an entirely human-made, micro-scale material can come together so seamlessly with the natural structure of a plant,” said Liu. “The way they integrate is almost magical. It creates a special kind of functionality.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/matter/fulltext/S2590-2385(25)00413-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Matter</a>.



Image Credit: Liu et al., Matter



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Glowing plants could replace street lamps in future cities

From glowing mushrooms on forest floors to plankton that light...

Wind turbines spark strong reactions, especially when people worry about how the swishing sound might affect their minds and bodies. 



A new peer reviewed article took that question into the lab and measured what changed in the brain and in performance when people listened to recorded turbine sound that matched real conditions.



The researchers ran a simple test. Volunteers heard either wind turbine sounds, road traffic, or silence while their brain activity and task performance were tracked. The listeners did not know which sound was which.



Lead author <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Agnieszka-Rosciszewska" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Agnieszka Rosciszewska</a> of Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznan (<a href="https://amu.edu.pl/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">AMU</a>), guided the work with colleagues in the fields of cognitive neuroscience and acoustics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-wind-turbines-and-humans">Studying wind turbines and humans</h2>



The team used a short laboratory exposure that mirrors everyday listening, at about 65 decibels sound pressure level, which is similar to normal conversation at about 3 feet (0.9 meters). 



The playback levels corresponded to what you would measure near a modern turbine sited roughly 1,640 feet (500 meters) away in steady wind.



They recorded electroencephalography to track changes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-brain-map-shows-how-rhythms-instantly-reconfigure-your-mind-freq-ness/">brain</a> rhythms during a reading task and then ran two well known cognitive tests on attention and reasoning. Listeners also rated how stressful or annoying the sound felt compared with traffic or silence.



Across measures, short exposure to turbine sound did not dent attention or reasoning compared with the other conditions. Brain wave patterns that index focus and control did not shift in a way that would signal cognitive strain.



In addition, participants did not rate turbine sound as more stressful or bothersome than city traffic. Most listeners described the sound as steady broadband noise and showed low annoyance scores.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-turbine-noise-is-not-the-problem">Turbine noise is not the problem</h2>



“Although these results cannot be generalized, they support the concept that the interlinkage between exposure to wind turbine noise and human cognitive functioning is not a cause-and-effect relationship,” wrote Rosciszewska.&nbsp;



If the sound itself is not doing the damage, what explains reports of headaches, fogginess, and unease near wind farms. An open access study reviews the evidence for an expectation driven pathway.



“Health complaints are more likely to be explained by the nocebo response,” wrote <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Fiona-Crichton-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fiona Crichton</a> from the University of Auckland. 



The <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3167012/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">nocebo effect</a> is the flip side of placebo, where learning to expect harm increases perception of symptoms and stress.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-beliefs-matter-more-than-decibels">Why beliefs matter more than decibels</h2>



Visibility and prior beliefs change how people judge the same sound. Surveys show that annoyance from wind turbine sound arises at lower sound levels than many other everyday sources, and that attitudes and context explain a lot of the spread in responses.&nbsp;



That pattern has been documented in exposure response modeling that compared wind turbines with aircraft, road, and rail noise, where turbine annoyance tended to be higher at the same level.



Those findings fit what this lab work saw when people did not know what they were hearing. Without labels or priming, the turbine sound was just another steady hum.



Large field studies help answer the health question outside the lab. A national Canadian <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27036283/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a> of 1,238 adults living as close as a quarter mile to turbines found that sleep quality, headaches, dizziness, tinnitus, and perceived stress were not related to calculated outdoor turbine sound up to 46 A-weighted decibels.



“Beyond annoyance, results do not support an association between exposure to WTN up to 46 dBA and the evaluated health related endpoints,” reported <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/profile/David-Michaud" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">David S. Michaud</a>, <a href="https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Health Canada</a>. That matches the pilot lab result in direction, even though the methods differ.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-labs-help-assess-turbine-impacts">Labs help assess turbine impacts</h2>



Blind listening removes expectation from the equation. When people cannot tell what the sound is or whether it matters, the brain and behavior readouts provide a baseline for the raw acoustic effect.



Here, that raw effect did not show up as reduced attention, slower reasoning, or a brain rhythm pattern that signals mental fatigue. Ratings of stress and annoyance also stayed low.



Noise policy weighs both evidence and public concern. The World Health Organization’s European guidelines include wind turbine noise among sources that planners should <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wind-turbines-are-displacing-bats-from-their-forest-habitats/">manage</a>, and they note the broader health burden of environmental sounds from traffic and other sources.



This study points to a practical lesson for communication. If belief and context amplify symptoms, then accurate, calm information and good project design can help reduce worry and reduce annoyance.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limits-you-should-note">Limits you should note</h2>



A short listening session cannot stand in for months of living near turbines. The authors acknowledge that the work does not speak to very long exposure, and lab playback cannot capture every weather and terrain pattern outside.



The volunteer group here was small and young. Future studies should look at broader age ranges and people with different noise sensitivities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wind-turbine-noise-and-the-future">Wind turbine noise and the future</h2>



Expectation is testable. Experiments can induce belief in a safe way and compare it with blind listening to estimate how suggestion alters symptom reports and attention.



Longer sessions matter too. Researchers can repeat the same cognitive battery after hours of continuous sound to see whether attention wobbles when fatigue sets in.



Some claims focus on frequencies below what we hear. The best available evidence suggests that infrasound near turbines is usually at or below common environmental levels, and that expectation and visibility drive complaints more than sub-audible energy.



This lab work did not isolate infrasound, which calls for careful follow ups with controlled filtering and matched levels.



The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/physicists-confirm-the-fascinating-existence-of-second-sound/">sound</a> near a well-sited turbine can be noticeable. In blind, realistic listening with careful brain and behavior measures, it did not produce measurable mental harm.



Context, belief, and visibility appear to do more to shape the body’s response than the steady whoosh itself.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41599-025-04645-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a>.



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Comprehensive study settles the debate about the impact of wind turbine noise on humans

Wind turbines spark strong reactions, especially when people worry about...

At Tepe Chalow in northeastern Iran, archaeologists have documented an ornate Bronze Age tomb belonging to a teenage girl. The grave includes jewelry, carved stone containers, and multiple seals that suggest authority and exchange.



Known as Grave 12, the tomb dates to the early second millennium BCE and is the richest burial yet found at the site, with 34 distinct objects recovered.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-grave-holds">What the grave holds</h2>



The study was led by Ali A. Vahdati of the <a href="https://irangov.ir/MinistryofCulturalHeritageTourismAndHandicrafts">Iranian Ministry of Cultural Heritage, Tourism and Handicrafts</a> in Bojnord, with colleagues. Their collaboration brings together Iranian and European scholarship to a site that has quietly reshaped how scholars map Bronze Age Iran.



Objects from the grave span <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/supergiant-gold-deposit-discovery-wangu-field-might-be-largest-ever-found-on-earth/">gold</a> rings and earrings, two ivory pins, bronze ornaments, and an array of stone pieces. The group also includes finely made pottery typical of the region’s Bronze Age styles.



One chlorite cosmetic container bears snakes and scorpions carved in low relief, a motif seen across eastern Iran. A small seal near the neck depicts two feet with a circle and semicircle inside a circular frame.



The body lay in a crouched position on the right side, hands near the face, facing southeast. Pottery vessels were set behind the back, above the head, and below the feet, creating a clear, repeated pattern in this cemetery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-seals-as-bronze-age-signatures">Seals as Bronze Age signatures</h2>



“Seals in this context symbolize ownership and participation in trade networks,” said Vahdati. A stamp seal is a small engraved object pressed into wet clay to leave a mark that stands for a person, office, or institution. 



In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/millet-farming-marked-a-turning-point-in-life-during-the-bronze-age/">Bronze Age</a> societies, seals often functioned like signatures on containers, storerooms, and shipments.



Several seals buried in one grave suggest more than family wealth. They point to participation in the handling of goods, the management of property, or access to administrative spaces.



This is not a loose guess. In many ancient settings, seals cluster around people who supervised storage, measured rations, or warranted the movement of items across checkpoints.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-chalow-in-the-bronze-age-world">Chalow in the Bronze Age world</h2>



Archaeologists situate Tepe Chalow within the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (<a href="https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/329073" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">BMAC</a>), a broad cultural horizon that reached from the Murghab delta of Turkmenistan into northeastern Iran.



A joint Iranian Italian campaign first reported the cemetery and its BMAC, or Greater Khorasan Civilization, materials after the 2011 season.



The Greater Khorasan Civilization emerged at the end of the third millennium BCE. It spread across oases and valleys stretching into northern Afghanistan and Uzbekistan. Its settlements tended to expand horizontally along water, not vertically.



Trade moved prized stones and metals along these corridors. Mesopotamian records and archaeological finds document imports such as lapis lazuli from Afghanistan and chlorite vessels from eastern Iran during the third and second millennia BCE. These finds place the Iranian Plateau squarely at a crossroads.



Centuries later, parts of these east west routes would be woven into what historians call the Silk Roads, the long networks linking Central Asia, Inner Asia, and South Asia.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-teenager-among-elites">A teenager among elites</h2>



The person in Grave 12 died before adulthood, yet the goods suggest elite standing. That combination raises questions about how status moved through families, households, and local communities.



Grave clustering at Chalow suggests family plots, with specific sites and objects reserved for select members. 



In several Chalow graves, a large vessel at the feet held special items, from seals to metal containers, reinforcing distinctions within the group.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-silver-and-gold-discovery-morena-confirmed-to-be-extraordinarily-high-grade-deposits/">Gold</a>, carved stone, and elaborate pins do more than shine. They signal access to materials and makers tied into regional exchange, showing that even a smaller settlement could command resources beyond its immediate fields.



The imagery on the chlorite container and the seal with human feet may encode identity or office. Without texts, meaning remains debated, but consistent placement and choice of motifs show clear social cues at the time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-probing-metals-ceramics-and-seals">Probing metals, ceramics, and seals</h2>



Radiocarbon dates from a nearby grave at Chalow, in the range 2310 to 2130 BCE, align with the authors’ proposed window for Grave 12 and help anchor the cemetery in the early second millennium BCE&nbsp;



Further work will focus on the grave seals themselves. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-discover-previously-unknown-properties-of-a-very-unusual-metal-gallium/">Metal</a> studies can track alloy recipes and workshop habits, while ceramic and stone analyses can connect raw materials to source regions.



Isotopic sampling of human and animal remains, when available, can test diet and mobility. Combined with seal typologies and pottery comparisons, that evidence can tighten the picture of who moved goods, who stored them, and who signed off on their flow.



Tepe Chalow’s cemetery, with its careful arrangements and rich clusters, now provides one of the clearest windows onto northeastern Iran’s Bronze Age. 



That window is sharp enough to show a young person tied to power, wealth, and the practical tools of exchange.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/05786967.2025.2488251" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Iran</a>.



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Archaeologists find a luxurious 4,000-year-old tomb for a teenager with gold jewelry and mysterious seals

At Tepe Chalow in northeastern Iran, archaeologists have documented an...

Wildfire headlines can feel all over the place. One summer brings walls of flames putting millions of people in danger. The next brings lots of fires, but very few near humans. This is called the "wildfire paradox." 



Here’s the twist: the planet has actually seen less land burned in recent years, yet more people are ending up in the path of flames.



From 2002 to 2021, the total area that burned worldwide went down by about a quarter. 



Over the same years, the number of people directly exposed to wildfires - meaning flames reached the places where they live - went up by roughly 40%. Those two facts sit side by side. They also change how we think about risk.



The "wildfire paradox" term fits. The land is burning less, but exposure is rising because more homes and towns now sit where fires naturally occur. That shift is not random. It grows out of how and where people build.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-africa-carries-the-weight">Africa carries the weight</h2>



Across that same period from 2002 to 2021, the authors estimate that about 440 million people experienced a wildfire reaching their community. 



Year to year, exposure climbed by several hundred thousand people annually on average, even as total burned acreage fell. Fewer acres does not automatically mean fewer people in danger.



Most news stories highlight wildfires in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dry-lightning-sparks-the-most-destructive-california-wildfires/">California</a>, Greece, or Australia. Yet wildfires in these places account for less than 2.5 percent of all exposures. Africa, often missing from headlines, saw 85 percent of them.



Just five countries - Congo, South Sudan, Mozambique, Zambia, and Angola - accounted for about half of the global total. 



The United States, Europe, and Australia combined made up less than 2.5%. That contrast says more about population patterns and fire frequency than media attention.



“We are surprised by the disproportionate impacts of wildfires on humans in Africa," said Dr. Mojtaba Sadegh, Climate and Wildfire Analytics Lead at <a href="https://unu.edu/inweh" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNU-INWEH</a>.



"We knew that around 65 percent of global burned area occurs there, but their 85 percent share of human exposure shows a pronounced impact that deserves more attention.”



Farming plays a big role. Fields break up grasslands and stop large fires from spreading. But they also bring villages and farms closer to the flames.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildfire-paradox-and-climate-change">Wildfire paradox and climate change</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-making-wildfire-smoke-more-deadly/">Climate change</a> is amplifying fire danger. Since 1979, extreme fire weather jumped by more than 54 percent. Fire seasons now stretch longer. Nights, once safer, often stay hot and dry enough for fires to keep burning.



Still, the story changes depending on where you look. Africa shows smaller fires but far more people exposed. 



In North and South America, invasive plants help fires grow larger. Europe tries to suppress fires, yet expanding settlements keep raising the risks.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/human-wildlife-exposure_growing-globally_map_ScienceJ_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/human-wildlife-exposure_growing-globally_map_ScienceJ_1s.webp" alt="Human exposure to wildland fires from 2002 to 2021. (A and C) Cumulative human exposure to wildland fires (A) and cumulative burned area (C) from 2002 to 2021 at the country level. (B and D) Share of continents in wildland fire exposure (B) and burned areas (D). (E and F) Percentage of population exposed to wildland fire from 2002 to 2021 in each country (E) and continent (F). K, one thousand; M, one million. Credit: Science Advisor" class="wp-image-1983464"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Human exposure to wildland fires from 2002 to 2021. (A and C) Cumulative human exposure to wildland fires (A) and cumulative burned area (C) from 2002 to 2021 at the country level. (B and D) Share of continents in wildland fire exposure (B) and burned areas (D). (E and F) Percentage of population exposed to wildland fire from 2002 to 2021 in each country (E) and continent (F). K, one thousand; M, one million. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Science Advisor</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-actions-reshape-fire-risks">Human actions reshape fire risks</h2>



Study co-author Professor Amir AghaKouchak noted that while the human exposure to fires is rising, the team saw that burned land is shrinking by 26 percent.



“In Africa, farming has broken up large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grasslands-are-racing-to-adapt-to-climate-shifts/">grasslands</a> into smaller fields, which stops fires from spreading as widely but also puts more villages and farms closer to fire-prone land."



"In the Americas, invasive plants have fueled bigger and more frequent wildfires, showing how human actions can change fire risks in very different ways.”



The numbers back this up. Nearly half of the world’s people now live in the wildland–urban interface, an area covering less than 5 percent of Earth’s surface.



The study shows that population growth and migration explain about a quarter of all exposures. Without these changes, exposure levels would have fallen alongside shrinking burned area.



Instead, exposure density nearly doubled. In plain terms, more people are living inside or right next to land that burns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-burned-land">Beyond burned land</h2>



Focusing only on how much land burns hides the real danger. Intense fires make up just 0.01 percent of all events, but they exposed 2.7 million people and burned 5 percent of the total land in the study. 



Regions like Western North America, Southern Europe, and Southern Australia faced far more human loss than their share of exposures suggested.



“Wildfires are no longer seasonal or regional anomalies; they have become a global crisis, intensified by rising <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-made-heatwaves-more-deadly/">heatwaves</a>, worsening droughts, and drastic land use changes,” said Professor Kaveh Madani, Director of UNU-INWEH.



“But instead of stepping up to confront this threat, some of the world’s biggest economies are rolling back protections, leaving vulnerable regions and communities to shoulder the heaviest burden."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-wildfire-paradox-needs-solutions">The wildfire paradox needs solutions</h2>



The study warns that measuring only burned land misses the true danger of wildfires. What matters most is how close people live to fire-prone areas. As populations expand into these zones, exposure to wildfires rises even if less land burns.



The authors stress the need for stronger<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fire-suppression-methods-increase-the-severity-of-wildfires/"> fire management</a> and strategies tailored to local conditions. Communities require infrastructure designed to withstand fire, along with better preparedness. 



At the same time, global climate action is essential to slow the worsening of extreme fire weather. Without these combined efforts, more lives will remain directly in the path of devastating wildfires.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adu6408" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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"Wildfire paradox" tries to explain why fires are raging across the entire planet

Wildfire headlines can feel all over the place. One summer...

A slender green snake remained mislabeled in a Brazilian collection for years before scientists realized they had discovered a new species. 



Researchers formally described the species in January 2025 after a reassessment of its features and genetics, and they placed it within the parrot snake genus, Leptophis.



What first grabbed attention was a bold black stripe across the snout that resembled a mustache. That facial marker, paired with other traits, separated the animal from look-alikes that roam the same Cerrado, a vast tropical savanna in central Brazil.



This work was led by Diego Santana at the Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul (<a href="https://www.ufms.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UFMS</a>), together with colleagues who analyzed museum material and recent vouchers.



The experts report a long, dark postocular stripe trailing behind the eye and a specific pattern of green side stripes split by a pale vertebral line. The scale and tooth counts, in combination, do not match other parrot snakes in the region.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-brazil-s-savanna-under-pressure">Brazil's savanna under pressure</h2>



Biogeographers have called the Cerrado the most biodiverse savanna on Earth. It earned this status through its extraordinary mix of plants and animals and its size, roughly 720,000 square miles.



Decades of conversion to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forgotten-indigenous-crops-could-help-solve-modern-climate-issues/">soy fields</a> and cattle pasture have already stripped away about half of its native vegetation. Projections warn of more losses without stronger safeguards.



The trend has not reversed lately either, with Brazil’s National Institute for Space Research reporting a 45 percent jump in Cerrado deforestation in 2023 compared with 2022.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-leptophis-snakes-deserve-attention">Why Leptophis snakes deserve attention</h2>



The authors used taxonomy, an approach that tests a hypothesis of species status using multiple lines of evidence, including morphology, measurements, and DNA.



They sequenced DNA from the 16S gene, a common marker in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/twenty-new-species-of-frogs-identified-in-madagascar/">herpetology</a> when reference data for other genes are limited. The team then compared the sequences with related snakes to assess genetic divergence and relationships.



“We initially thought this was a known species, but when we examined its DNA and morphology, we realized it was something new,” said Santana.



Discoveries like this highlight why snakes are worth close attention. Sitting in the middle of food webs, they help regulate small vertebrates and other prey. This service can stabilize ecosystems and, in farming regions, reduce pressure from pest species.



When <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/lessons-from-the-past-predators-are-doomed-when-their-prey-vanishes/">predators decline</a>, the effects ripple, and recovering those balances is harder than keeping them intact in the first place.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-local-knowledge-and-connections">Local knowledge and connections</h2>



Beyond ecological roles, snakes in the Cerrado also intersect with local culture and rural traditions. 



Communities often carry folklore about snakes, sometimes leading to fear and persecution. In other areas, people respect them as protectors of crops because they keep rodent populations down.



The researchers note that involving local residents in monitoring programs and conservation projects can be crucial.



Knowledge from farmers, Indigenous groups, and community members helps scientists locate hard-to-find species and builds public support for keeping habitats intact.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/snake_new-species_Leptophis-genus_brazil_family-tree_PeerJ_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/snake_new-species_Leptophis-genus_brazil_family-tree_PeerJ_1s.webp" alt="Gene tree for the genus Leptophis inferred from Bayesian analysis of the 16S mitochondrial gene fragment. Values adjacent to nodes indicate posterior probabilities. Scale bar represents number of substitutions per site. Grey bars represent each evolutionary entity delimited by the GMYC (Generalized Mixed Yule Coalescent). Photo credit: L. A. Silva" class="wp-image-1983602"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Gene tree for the genus Leptophis inferred from Bayesian analysis of the 16S mitochondrial gene fragment. Values adjacent to nodes indicate posterior probabilities. Scale bar represents number of substitutions per site. Grey bars represent each evolutionary entity delimited by the GMYC (Generalized Mixed Yule Coalescent). Click image to enlarge. Photo credit: L. A. Silva</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-protecting-leptophis-snakes">Protecting Leptophis snakes</h2>



Brazil’s legal framework protects a higher share of private land in the Amazon than in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/savanna-tree-cover-may-not-be-a-reliable-climate-strategy/">savanna</a> regions. As a result, large areas of the Cerrado remain legally open to conversion on private properties under current rules.



That policy gap matters for species that depend on forested enclaves within the savanna mosaic. These habitats are scattered and, once cleared, take time to return.



In this context, naming and classifying new species becomes more than an academic exercise - it is central to protecting biodiversity under pressure. 



Leptophis is a widespread Neotropical genus of slender, bright green snakes, but its taxonomy remains in flux as researchers continue to parse cryptic diversity with museum work and new sequencing. 



Naming a species does more than provide a label - it lays the foundation for evaluating conservation status, tracking range limits, and ensuring that protections target the right populations.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-snake-species-discovery-fuels-protection">Snake species discovery fuels protection</h2>



Each vetted species from the Cerrado adds resolution to a picture that has long been blurry. Sampling efforts have historically focused on the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tree-rings-show-amazon-rainfall-is-getting-more-extreme/">Amazon</a> and the Atlantic Forest.



As herpetologists revisit old collections and fill gaps with targeted surveys, the list of unique snakes, lizards, and frogs from this savanna keeps growing. These discoveries continue to surprise even seasoned field biologists.



The researchers need more fieldwork to estimate populations, map distributions in Tocantins and Minas Gerais, and test habitat connectivity.



Those data inform practical choices, like where to place conservation easements, how to steer soy expansion toward already cleared lands, and how to align private incentives with biodiversity goals.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://peerj.com/articles/18528/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PeerJ</a>.



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34-inch-long creature with a 'mustache' turns out to be a new species

A slender green snake remained mislabeled in a Brazilian collection...

In crowded cities, leafy streets can lift a neighborhood’s appeal - and its home values. But a new analysis finds the boost depends on where those trees are. Nearby canopy that cools sidewalks and frames streetscapes tends to raise prices. 



Trees planted on the lot itself can sometimes do the opposite once maintenance, root damage, and storm risks are factored in.



The study was led by researchers from the <a href="https://pamplin.vt.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pamplin College of Business</a>, working with the <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Forest Service</a>.



The team stitched together multiple data sets - including Environmental Protection Agency records - across nine U.S. metropolitan areas to map how tree cover at different distances relates to sale prices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-trees-grow-values-follow">Where trees grow, values follow</h2>



The team broke urban greenery into rings around each property: within 330 feet (about a city block), from 330 feet to one-third of a mile, and from one-third to two-thirds of a mile. 



The researchers then estimated how much added canopy in each ring correlated with a change in value, controlling for local market conditions.



“While tree cover supports owners' property values, their tree cover benefits the greater community property values,” said co-author Kevin Boyle, a professor in the <a href="https://realestate.vt.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Blackwood Department of Real Estate</a>.



That distinction - private trees versus neighborhood trees - runs through the results. Shade you can walk under and scenery you drive past appear to deliver broad benefits that the market recognizes. 



On-site trees, by contrast, carry highly localized costs and risks that can dampen the net effect for the individual owner.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tale-of-two-cities"><a></a>A tale of two cities</h2>



The effect differs widely by location, with Fresno, California, at the lowest end and Milwaukee, Wisconsin, at the highest.



In Fresno, tree cover adds about $9 to a home’s value - essentially a rounding error. Adding 10 percent more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/laser-technology-measures-forest-canopy-height-from-space/">canopy</a> on or near the lot, and Fresno values dip by roughly $114 (around 0.1%). This reflects perceived costs such as upkeep, insurance, or interference with structures and utilities.



Shift that same extra canopy outward - between one-third and two-thirds of a mile - and the home’s value rises by about $6,751 (roughly 3.2%).



Milwaukee tells the opposite story. There, the same baseline tree cover near a property adds roughly $3,500. A 10 percent increase in canopy within 330 feet is associated with a jump of about $39,701 (around 24 percent).



Even at a distance - one-third to two-thirds of a mile - extra canopy correlates with another $27,194 (about 16 percent) in value. The Milwaukee case underscores how neighborhood-level trees can powerfully shape perceived livability in some markets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neighborhood-trees-pay-off">Neighborhood trees pay off</h2>



The researchers argue the market is pricing two different bundles of attributes. Neighborhood canopy offers shared goods: cooler microclimates during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-made-heatwaves-more-deadly/">heat waves</a> and calmer streetscapes. It also provides a cohesive look that signals care and stability.



Homebuyers will pay for those amenities even if they’re not responsible for pruning the branches that provide them. 



On-lot trees can still be assets, especially when well sited and maintained. But buyers often discount for future costs - leaf litter, gutter clogs, sidewalk heaves, power-line conflicts, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-soil-moisture-can-predict-severe-storms/">storm</a> damage, or insurance implications.



The analysis also acknowledges weather realities. Trees can fall in severe winds or ice storms and increase damage risk. They also cut urban heat, manage stormwater, and improve air quality at block and district scales.



The net economic signal depends on which set of experiences dominates in a given city and how residents value shared versus private benefits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-private-yards-public-benefits">Private yards, public benefits</h2>



Most urban land is privately owned, which complicates efforts to grow and maintain the “green infrastructure” that benefits entire neighborhoods. 



The authors suggest local leaders consider incentives - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-trees-is-important-but-reforestation-can-help-too/">planting programs</a>, maintenance support, or right-of-way investments - that nudge canopy growth into the rings where it delivers the biggest bang for the buck.



“Our analysis can be used by community leaders to understand the benefits of tree coverage,” Boyle said. “It can also educate community members that their actions in support of tree coverage can help not only the greater community, but themselves through enhanced property values.”



That strategy could include prioritizing street trees and park expansions within walking distance of homes, where the study finds the strongest and most consistent price effects.



It could also mean offering technical help to homeowners for site-appropriate species selection and root-friendly planting plans that minimize future conflicts with foundations, sidewalks, and utilities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-action-steps-for-greener-cities">Action steps for greener cities</h2>



For owners, the takeaway is practical: trees can add value, but placement, species, and care matter. A well-chosen street-facing canopy that shades façades and sidewalks can enhance curb appeal and comfort. 



In backyards, opt for species with less <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diverse-forests-can-shut-down-non-native-tree-invasions/">invasive</a> roots and maintain clearances around roofs and lines.



For cities, the findings argue for shifting some canopy growth off private lots and into shared corridors - streets, medians, easements, and pocket parks. They also highlight the need for maintenance budgets that keep those trees healthy and safe.



Doing so aligns who pays with who benefits, reducing the friction that can arise when the public asks private owners to shoulder the costs of a public good.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greener-neighborhoods-higher-values">Greener neighborhoods, higher values</h2>



The headline is simple: trees can lift home values in cities. The fine print is where the policy levers lie. Market signals in Fresno differ from Milwaukee, and the effects of canopy on the lot differ from canopy down the block.



By parsing those patterns across thousands of blocks in nine metropolitan areas, the study gives planners, assessors, and residents a clearer map. 



Plant where the benefits compound, support owners where responsibilities fall, and grow the shared canopy that keeps neighborhoods cooler, calmer, and more valuable.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0921800925001922?via%3Dihub">Ecological Economics</a>.



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How neighborhood trees can raise - or sink - your property value

In crowded cities, leafy streets can lift a neighborhood’s appeal...

Brewers have long considered beer foam as a quick readout of a fermentation that’s gone right, yet the physics and chemistry that keep those bubbles from collapsing have remained oddly elusive.



Now, a seven-year investigation led by <a href="https://www.tue.nl/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ETH Zurich</a>, with collaborators at <a href="https://www.tue.nl/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eindhoven University of Technology</a> and several European observatories of beer variety, has pinned down why some foams vanish in a blink while others linger. 



The answer blends cutting-edge microscopy with old-world brewing styles - and it has implications far beyond the tap.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-beer-foam-resists-collapse">How beer foam resists collapse</h2>



Foam is a jam-packed city of air bubbles, each one walled off from its neighbors by nanometer-thin liquid films. Those films must resist rupture; if they thin too fast or lose strength, the foam drains and collapses.



In the journal <a href="https://pubs.aip.org/aip/pof/article/37/8/082139/3360405/The-hidden-subtlety-of-beer-foam-stability-A" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physics of Fluids</a>, the team reported how they used high-resolution imaging and rheometry to watch, in real time, what happens where it matters most: the narrow “neck” where two neighboring bubbles press together.



“We can directly visualize what’s happening when two bubbles come into close proximity,” said ETH researcher Emmanouil Chatzigiannakis. “We can directly see the bubble’s protein aggregates, their interface, and their structure.”



Beer, it turned out, was the perfect model foam: endlessly reproducible, richly variable across styles, and naturally loaded with the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-modified-plant-proteins-to-create-delicious-meat-alternatives/">proteins</a> and surface-active molecules that tune thin-film behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beer-foam-stability-depends-on-style">Beer foam stability depends on style</h2>



The group put a spectrum of beers under the microscope, from single-fermented lagers to double- and triple-fermented Belgian ales. That stylistic ladder became a physics ladder.



In single-fermentation lagers, foam stability depended chiefly on surface viscosity - the “stickiness” at the bubble interface imparted by malt-derived proteins. The more robust that interfacial viscosity, the longer the walls resisted thinning and popping.



Double-fermented ales, by contrast, told a different story. Here, proteins at the interface didn’t just thicken the surface; they knit together into two-dimensional, net-like structures - elastic skins that endowed the film with tensile strength. Elasticity worked like a trampoline, holding films together against <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-can-map-subtle-shifts-in-earths-gravity-using-atoms/">gravity’s</a> pull and drainage.



Triple-fermented Trappist-style beers went a step further. In these, the team found that surface viscosity was minimal. The foam’s staying power came from Marangoni stresses.



When surface tension varies, fluid flows and circulating currents replenish thinning spots. Sprinkle tea leaves on water and add soap - the fragments rush outward as invisible surface currents form. In these richly fermented ales, persistent Marangoni flows stabilized the bubble walls for the long haul.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-one-protein-three-roles"><a></a>One protein, three roles</h2>



Threading through all three regimes was a single malt protein with many aliases in the literature - LTP1 (lipid transfer protein 1). Its state of “denaturation,” or unfolding, shifted with each fermentation step and rewrote its interfacial job description.



In single-fermented lagers, LTP1 largely retains its native, compact shape. At the bubble surface, these near-spherical particles pack into a dense, two-dimensional suspension, boosting surface viscosity and slowing film drainage.



A second fermentation nudges LTP1 out of that tidy conformation. Yeast activity and the evolving beer chemistry partially denature the protein so it links into mesh-like networks - true interfacial membranes that lend elasticity to the film, the key to the double-fermented foam’s resilience.



A third fermentation pushes the transformation further. LTP1 fragments now present both water-loving and water-repelling ends, behaving like bona fide surfactants. These pieces actively lower interfacial and surface tensions, seeding the gradients that drive Marangoni flows.



“These protein fragments function like surfactants, which stabilize foams in many everyday applications, such as detergents,” noted ETH professor of soft materials Jan Vermant, who led the study.



The net result tracks what beer lovers observe in the glass: triple-fermented Belgian ales show the most persistent heads, followed by double-fermented styles. Single-fermented lagers, including a major Swiss brand the team examined, tend to lose their foam fastest.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-viscosity-elasticity-and-flows">Viscosity, elasticity, and flows</h2>



If you’re tempted to “just add more surfactant” or “just crank up viscosity,” the data examined suggests not to do so. Foam stability doesn’t respond linearly to single tweaks, and the mechanisms can work at cross-purposes.



In <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elusive-ancestor-of-lager-yeast-found-in-ireland/">lagers</a>, for instance, boosting viscosity can help, but doing so in a system that relies on Marangoni flows may backfire by damping the very surface currents that keep the film alive. 



“The key is to work on one mechanism at a time - and not on several at once. Beer obviously does this well by nature,” Vermant said.



That mechanistic clarity emerged only because the team could watch films evolve in situ. By pairing optical and interfacial measurements, they identified when viscosity dominated. 



The researchers saw when flows driven by elasticity and surface-tension ruled. They also confirmed LTP1’s starring role by analyzing protein content and state across styles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-the-brewhouse-to-broader-tech"><a></a>From the brewhouse to broader tech</h2>



The work began, fittingly, with a brewer’s rule of thumb. Asked how he controlled <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brewing-beer-in-space-the-future-of-fermentation/">fermentation</a>, a Belgian brewer said: 'By watching the foam.”



The scientists’ answer, years later, explains why that intuition works and how to engineer it. ETH’s group has already partnered with one of the world’s largest breweries to translate the physics into process tweaks that enhance head retention without compromising flavor or stability.



But foam is a universal material, not just a beverage flourish. The lessons from beer apply to firefighting foams, oil–water separations, and even medical sclerosing agents used to treat varicose veins.



In electric vehicles, for example, gearbox lubricants can entrain bubbles and foam - an efficiency and durability risk. 



Vermant’s team is working with industry partners, including Shell, to learn how to suppress unwanted foams by selectively targeting viscosity, elasticity, or Marangoni flows.



The researchers are also pursuing sustainable, fluorine- and silicon-free surfactants inspired by LTP1 fragments, and adapting protein-based strategies to stabilize other food foams such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-study-shows-that-dairy-milk-cheese-consumption-improves-gut-biodiversity-health/">milk</a>. In an EU project, they’re exploring foam scaffolds as carriers for bacterial systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-recipe-for-lasting-foam">The recipe for lasting foam</h2>



For brewers, the take-home is both empowering and nuanced. Foam longevity comes from different routes in different styles: a viscous interface in lagers, an elastic protein membrane in double-fermented ales, and self-renewing surface flows in triple-fermented Trappist beers. 



You don’t need to - and shouldn’t - force all three at once. Tune the route that fits your beer and your brand.



For drinkers, the science adds appreciation to the spectacle. That persistent cap on a golden pour isn’t just pretty; it’s a living laboratory of thin films, proteins, and surface physics. 



Thanks to advanced imaging and monastic brewing traditions, we now know why some heads last while others fade. This knowledge could soon make perfect pours more common.



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Scientists uncover the mechanics behind the perfect beer foam

Brewers have long considered beer foam as a quick readout...

A randomized twin trial found that a daily mix of protein and prebiotics improved performance on a sensitive memory test after 12 weeks.



Scientists have been mapping how the gut microbiome communicates with the brain through immune, neural, and hormonal routes, an interconnected axis that shapes cognition across the lifespan. 



That big picture matters when we ask whether feeding gut bacteria can sharpen memory in later life.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-fructooligosaccharides">Studying fructooligosaccharides</h2>



Lead researcher <a href="https://www.kcl.ac.uk/people/mary-ni-lochlainn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mary Ni Lochlainn</a>, King’s College London (<a href="https://www.kcl.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">KCL</a>), and colleagues asked whether adding a daily prebiotic to a modest protein supplement and light resistance exercise could affect cognition in older twins. 



The team enrolled 36 pairs, each aged 60 or older, and assigned one twin to inulin plus fructooligosaccharides while the co-twin received a placebo, all under double blind conditions.



Everyone received the same branched chain amino acid protein powder and simple at home strength moves. 



The 12 week protocol ran remotely using video visits, online questionnaires, and posted kits for cognitive testing and stool samples.



The twin design reduced genetic and early environmental noise. That choice made any between twin differences more likely to reflect the supplement rather than family background or shared habits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-changed-in-the-gut">What changed in the gut</h2>



Prebiotics are food components that our enzymes do not digest, so bacteria ferment them. 



In this study, relative levels of specific microbes shifted, including an increase in Bifidobacterium, a genus that often responds to inulin and fructooligosaccharides in <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9413759/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">controlled trials.</a>



Participants tolerated the supplement well, with only mild, expected gastrointestinal complaints reported. Adherence stayed high throughout the 3 month window.



Shifts in the gut community did not upend overall diversity. Instead, a few taxa moved in meaningful ways that are biologically plausible for fiber fermenters.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fructooligosaccharides-and-memory">Fructooligosaccharides and memory</h2>



The prebiotic group scored higher on a combined cognition factor and made fewer errors on the <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-international-neuropsychological-society/article/paired-associate-performance-in-the-early-detection-of-dat/1AFD16E84A939D43AD0A5BF100CDF8AD" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PAL test,</a> a visual paired associated task sensitive to early Alzheimer’s related change. 



That pattern fits with decades of work showing PAL detects subtle episodic memory problems before many standard clinic scales do.



“We are excited to see these changes in just 12 weeks. This holds huge promise for enhancing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-brain-map-shows-how-rhythms-instantly-reconfigure-your-mind-freq-ness/">brain</a> health and memory in our ageing population,” said Dr. Lochlainn.



The specific test improvement matters because paired associates learning taps the ability to form new connections between locations and patterns. 



That is a core function that erodes early in Alzheimer’s, so even small gains on this task are notable in people over 60.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-did-not-change">What did not change</h2>



The supplement did not improve chair rise time or other muscle strength measures over 12 weeks. That result held even though everyone received protein and was encouraged to perform simple resistance exercises.



Short interventions often struggle to move physical outcomes in older adults. The authors acknowledge the window may have been too brief to remodel muscle while still being long enough to nudge <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/recreational-cannabis-use-protects-against-cognitive-decline/">cognition</a>.



“These plant fibres, which are cheap and available over the counter, could benefit a wide group of people in these cash strapped times. They are safe and acceptable too,” said Professor Claire Steves, senior author at King’s College London. She added that larger and longer trials are the next step.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gut-brain-link-fits-the-data">Gut-brain link fits the data</h2>



Gut microbes create short chain fatty acids, neurotransmitter precursors, and other metabolites that signal along nerves and through the immune system. Reviews outline how this axis shapes learning and memory, especially as we age.



Aging itself alters microbial communities and the barriers that keep inflammation in check. Those shifts ripple into brain circuits involved in attention, processing speed, and memory consolidation.



Fiber fermenters like <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4908950/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Bifidobacterium</a> thrive on inulin and fructooligosaccharides, producing metabolites tied to synaptic plasticity. 



That biochemical context helps explain why cognition moved while muscle metrics did not in a 3 month trial.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-to-read-these-results">How to read these results</h2>



This RCT used a strong within family control, a clear intervention, and validated cognitive outcomes. It also kept participants engaged through a fully remote setup that reduces travel barriers for older volunteers.



Even so, the cohort was modest and mostly female, and the findings apply to healthy older adults rather than people with diagnosed dementia. 



The statistics say cognition moved, but the study was not designed to tell us whether daily functioning changed in a measurable way.



Diet, medications, and baseline microbiomes differ from person to person. That reality suggests responses to the same fiber dose may vary, a point future work should tackle with larger samples and longer follow up.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-this-could-go-next">Where this could go next</h2>



A practical next step is to compare different fiber types, doses, and durations head to head in older adults. 



Researchers also need to test whether early cognitive gains persist at 6 or 12 months and whether they translate into fewer <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brain-molecules-unexpectedly-store-their-own-memory/">memory</a> slips in daily life.



Mechanistic work can help map which metabolites rise with supplementation and which brain networks respond. Remote designs, as shown here, make those studies more feasible and inclusive.



The safe profile and accessibility of these fibers lower the barrier to rigorous testing in community settings. 



The unanswered question is not whether the gut talks to the brain, it is how best to tune that conversation for lasting cognitive benefit.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-46116-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Common and inexpensive supplement quickly improves memory and prevents dementia

A randomized twin trial found that a daily mix of...

A new approach to weight control has shown promise in animals: edible microbeads that soak up fat in the gut, escort it out of the body, and help shed pounds.



In rats fed a high-fat diet, the beads led to significant weight loss without obvious gastrointestinal side effects. If the strategy translates to people, researchers could stir the beads into everyday foods and drinks to prevent or treat obesity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-food-meets-fat-blocking-science">Food meets fat-blocking science</h2>



The concept comes as obesity rates keep rising despite decades of prevention campaigns and the advent of potent, but costly, injectable drugs.



Researchers designed the microbeads by combining familiar, food-grade ingredients. Each bead is built from vitamin E and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/drinking-tea-delays-biological-aging/">green tea</a> compounds, then sealed in a thin coat of alginate, a fiber derived from seaweed. All three components are approved for food use by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.



Once swallowed, the alginate shell swells in the acidic stomach. That expansion creates pores that allow partially digested fats to flow into the bead’s core. 



Inside, fats bind to the tea-derived molecules and vitamin E matrix. The bead - and its cargo - then travel down the intestine and exit in stool, rather than entering the bloodstream.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microbeads-help-rats-loose-weight">Microbeads help rats loose weight</h2>



To test the idea, the team fed eight <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rats-on-cocaine-investigating-the-cues-that-lead-to-drug-addiction/">rats</a> a diet in which 60 percent of calories came from fat, plus the microbeads. Another eight rats ate the same high-fat diet without beads. A third group ate a 10 percent fat diet without beads. 



After 30 days, the microbead-treated rats had lost about 17 percent of their starting body weight on average. The two control groups did not lose weight.



Dissections and lab tests showed the treated animals carried less body fat and had fewer signs of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/traffic-related-air-pollution-causes-liver-damage/">liver injury</a> than the controls.



The researchers also analyzed fecal pellets. Rats receiving beads excreted about as much fat as a fourth group treated with orlistat, an established weight-loss medicine that blocks fat absorption.



That similarity is important. It means the beads likely deter fat uptake in the gut much like orlistat does - yet without the messy drawbacks that often limit the drug’s use.



“One of the reasons why [orlistat] still isn’t very popular is because it makes it much more difficult to control bowel movements,” said Sander Kersten of <a href="https://www.cornell.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cornell University</a>. In the rat experiments, the bead-treated animals did not show those gastrointestinal side effects.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-new-weight-loss-option">A new weight-loss option</h2>



Newer anti-<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/obesity-is-much-more-complicated-than-we-thought-manifesting-in-11-different-forms/">obesity</a> drugs such as semaglutide (Wegovy) and tirzepatide (Zepbound) can deliver significant weight losses. But they are expensive, require ongoing injections, and carry notable risks and side effects.



A food-based product that passively lowers fat intake could fill a different niche: an add-in for people who cannot tolerate or afford medications, or a preventive option for those who are gaining weight but do not yet have obesity-related disease.



Because the beads are flavorless and can be shaped into small spheres - think tapioca pearls or boba - the team imagines adding them to desserts or bubble teas. 



“We want to develop something that works with how people normally eat and live,” said lead author Yue Wu, a scientist at Sichuan University.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-human-trial-launched">First human trial launched</h2>



A first clinical study is underway, with 26 adult participants enrolled to assess safety, tolerability, and early signals of efficacy. “We anticipate that preliminary data may become available within the next year,” Wu said.



Even if the early results look good, several issues will need careful study. One concern is nutrient balance. By binding dietary fats, the beads might also hinder absorption of fat-soluble <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/vitamin-c-promotes-skin-renewal-and-anti-aging-at-the-genetic-level-dna-demethylation/">vitamins</a> such as A, D, E, and K.



Dosing will matter too: the beads must capture enough fat to be useful without causing cramps, bloating, or oily stools at higher intakes.



There is also the question of consumer acceptance. Kersten cites the cautionary tale of olestra, a synthetic, non-absorbable fat briefly used in U.S. snack foods in the late 1990s. The drug delivered fewer calories but fell out of favor, in part due to side effects and in part because shoppers simply didn’t warm to it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-another-route-to-weight-loss">Another route to weight loss</h2>



Mechanistically, the approach is straightforward: reduce the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/americas-addiction-to-ultra-processed-foods-is-getting-worse/">calories</a> that reach the body by filtering fats at the source. In theory, that could pair with lifestyle changes or with drugs that curb appetite or improve glucose control.



Because the components are already widely used in foods, the regulatory path might be simpler than for a new chemical entity - though formal approval would still require rigorous trials demonstrating safety and benefit in humans.



For now, the animal data offer a clear signal: rats on a fatty diet lost weight and excreted more fat when researchers add microbeads to their food.



If a similar effect appears in people - without the bathroom headaches associated with orlistat - the beads could become a practical, low-friction tool. They would not replace other treatments, but they might help tip the daily energy balance in the right direction, one meal at a time.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/cell-biomaterials/fulltext/S3050-5623(25)00010-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cell Biomaterials</a>.



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Fat-soaking microbeads could be the next weight-loss breakthrough

A new approach to weight control has shown promise in...

NASA’s Imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer (IXPE) measured X-ray polarization during an outburst from the magnetar <a href="https://gcn.nasa.gov/circulars/14098" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">1E 1841-045</a>, marking the first such measurement in the midst of an active flare.



The source sits near the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shockingly-bright-carbon-monoxide-detected-in-supernova-remnant/">supernova remnant</a> Kes 73, and the data arrived during a rare window when the star was dramatically brighter than usual.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-who-and-what-are-we-looking-at">Who and what are we looking at</h2>



Rachael Stewart of George Washington University (<a href="https://www.gwu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">GWU</a>) and Michela Rigoselli of the Italian National Institute for Astrophysics (<a href="http://www.inaf.it/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">INIF</a>) led companion studies that report the <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2412.16036" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">result</a>. 



Their teams analyzed <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission/imaging-x-ray-polarimetry-explorer-ixpe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">IXPE</a> data on x-ray polarization taken roughly six weeks after the activity surged.



A <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/slow-spinning-neutron-star-completely-defies-our-expectations/">neutron star</a> is the compact core left after a massive star collapses. A magnetar is a neutron star with a magnetic field hundreds to thousands of times stronger than typical neutron star fields, often above 1014 gauss. This type of star is prone to long-lived outbursts.



The object sits inside the shell of Kes 73, and early kinematic work placed it about 8.5 to 9.8 kiloparsecs from Earth, which is roughly equivalent to 28,000 light-years in distance. 



Later hydrogen-line studies revised the distance to about 5.8 ± 0.3 kiloparsecs, showing why numbers differ across sources.



For context, the measurements span standard X-ray bands described in keV, which is a unit of photon energy. Values near 2 to 8 keV cover the IXPE range, while higher energies fall to other instruments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-polarization-matters">Why polarization matters</h2>



Polarization encodes the orientation of light’s electric field and its coherence. 



In ultra-strong fields, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/quantum-phase-superradiant-phase-transition-srpt-observed-in-lab/">quantum electrodynamics</a> predicts vacuum birefringence, which can imprint distinct energy and phase trends on polarization from magnetized stars.



Tracking both the degree and angle across energy bands helps separate thermal surface emission from high-altitude processes. The angle can diagnose field geometry, and the degree can tag the radiation mechanism.



When combined with timing and spectra, polarimetry breaks model degeneracies that spectroscopy alone cannot. It can show whether the emission region is close to the surface or higher in the magnetosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-telescopes-recorded-x-ray-polarization">Telescopes recorded X-ray polarization</h2>



Swift, Fermi, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/star-debris-can-be-used-to-measure-the-spin-of-black-holes/">NICER</a> flagged burst activity on August 21, 2024, and IXPE and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/flares-shed-light-on-the-milky-ways-supermassive-black-hole/">NuSTAR</a> followed with coordinated observations beginning about 40 days later, the first-ever IXPE observation of a magnetar in an enhanced state.



At energies above about 5 keV, a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/truth-behind-ultraluminous-x-ray-source-of-cygnus-x3-revealed/">hard X-ray tail</a> dominated the flux, consistent with earlier studies of this source outside of outburst phases.



Energy-resolved polarimetry showed roughly 20 percent polarization at 2 to 3 keV and up to about 55 to 70 percent in the 6 to 8 keV band, while the polarization angle stayed close to celestial north.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-x-ray-polarization-means">What the X-ray polarization means </h2>



The spectra and polarization fit either a blackbody plus two power laws or two blackbodies plus one power law, with the highest-energy component carrying the strongest polarization signal.



Two leading <a href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1712.09643" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ideas</a> explain the high-energy photons: resonant inverse Compton scattering, where ultra-fast charges boost soft X-rays to higher energies, and synchrotron radiation from electron-positron pairs created higher up.



Both mechanisms can reproduce the data under realistic geometries and particle energies, though models often favor a synchrotron origin when polarization grows with energy and the angle remains steady.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-this-first-measurement-matters">Why this first measurement matters</h2>



Catching polarization during an outburst ties the emission to specific zones and tests how the magnetic geometry behaves during a bright, stressed state. It also provides a benchmark for comparing quiescent and active phases in the same star.



“This unique observation will help advance the existing models aiming to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/unusual-activity-detected-from-earths-closest-magnetar/">explain</a> magnetar hard X-ray emission by requiring them to account for this very high level of synchronization we see among these hard X-ray photons,” said Stewart.



Phase-resolved polarimetry becomes possible when the signal is strong, which opens a path to mapping changes through a rotation. That test is central to separating surface effects from magnetospheric processes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-comes-next">What comes next</h2>



“It will be interesting to observe 1E 1841-045 once it has returned to its quiescent, baseline state to follow the evolution of its polarimetric properties,” said Rigoselli.



A follow-up in quiet times can show whether the hard tail aligns with the softer component or originates at different heights, and whether the polarization angle tracks a stable field configuration. 



A consistent angle across energies would point to a simple topology, while shifts would argue for multiple zones.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-x-ray-polarization-added-to-mission">X-ray polarization added to mission </h2>



IXPE launched on a <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission/imaging-x-ray-polarimetry-explorer-ixpe/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Falcon 9</a> in December 2021 and is a joint mission of NASA and the Italian Space Agency, with operations led from NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center.



By adding polarization to the usual timing and spectral tools, the mission turns long-standing debates about neutron star emission into testable questions. 



This event shows the pay-off, with a clear, energy-linked polarization pattern that models must now match.



The study is published in <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/2041-8213/adbffa" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Astrophysical Journal Letters</a>.



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NASA measures X-ray polarization for the first time in a magnetar 28,000 light-years away

NASA’s Imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer (IXPE) measured X-ray polarization during...

The ocean is full of enigmas, guarding species that appear once and vanish for decades. One such case is the sailback houndshark, a rare shark distinguished by its unusually tall dorsal fin. 



The shark was first described in 1973 after a pregnant female was caught near the Gogol River in Papua New Guinea’s Astrolabe Bay. For 50 years, this single specimen was the only evidence of its <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shark-awareness-day-protecting-the-balance-of-the-ocean/">existence</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sailback-houndshark-rediscovered">Sailback houndshark rediscovered </h2>



In March 2020, researchers collaborating with local fishing communities came across a remarkable discovery. Fishers near the mouth of the Gogol River shared photographs of several unusual sharks, each with a strikingly tall dorsal fin. 



Upon closer examination, the images revealed five female sharks, all belonging to the long-lost sailback houndshark.



For decades, this species had only been known from a single specimen collected in the early 1970s. The 2020 sighting marked the first confirmed evidence that the species still survived in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dead-cow-placed-on-the-deep-ocean-floor-filmed-sleeper-shark-unexpected/">wild</a>. 



Two years later, the discovery of a male in the same area further strengthened the finding, proving that this rare shark was not extinct but quietly persisting in the waters of Papua New Guinea.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fishers-spot-sailback-houndshark">Fishers spot sailback houndshark</h2>



While science had no records for decades, fishers in Astrolabe Bay occasionally encountered the species. 



Reports suggest the sharks are caught incidentally while targeting jewfish for the lucrative fish maw trade.



Most captures occur between March and July, and again in the dry season from August to November. Unlike other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-sharks-body-grows-with-geometric-precision/">sharks</a>, their meat is not valued locally and is often given away, while their fins are of poor quality for the fin trade.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-species-with-limits">A species with limits</h2>



Surveys confirm that all modern records come from near the Gogol River mouth. The shark appears to prefer deeper waters close to the continental shelf, which is narrow in this part of Papua New Guinea. 



These deeper trenches bring the species into contact with small-scale fishers. Its apparent restriction to Astrolabe Bay suggests it may be microendemic, existing only in this limited area.



Some researchers believe its distribution may once have stretched further, across Papua New Guinea and perhaps even Indonesia. As David Ebert notes, it might now be reduced to “this last little remnant population.” 



Such contractions have parallels with other local shark <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/guitar-shaped-ray-species-discovered-for-the-first-time-lives-in-the-deep-ocean/">species</a>, including bamboo and epaulette sharks, that are also confined to small habitats.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sailback-houndshark-under-threat">Sailback houndshark under threat</h2>



Overfishing and habitat pressures are among the biggest threats to sharks and rays worldwide. For the sailback houndshark, rising demand for fish maw presents a serious risk. 



Even if not directly targeted, regular bycatch could jeopardize its survival. Rare species with such limited ranges face heightened vulnerability when human activity intensifies.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-significance-of-the-shark">Significance of the shark</h2>



The sailback houndshark represents a unique evolutionary lineage within the triakid sharks, making it of high scientific interest. 



Two preserved specimens are now held at the University of Papua New Guinea, where researchers are preparing DNA analyses with colleagues in Australia and Florida.



“These efforts will help create a genetic baseline for future monitoring and guide protection strategies,” said Jack Sagumai, first author of a study describing the discovery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-saving-the-sailback-houndshark">Saving the sailback houndshark</h2>



The rediscovery of the sailback houndshark after fifty years is both inspiring and concerning. On one hand, it shows that this rare species has managed to survive despite decades without a scientific record, offering hope that other elusive marine animals might still be found. 



On the other hand, its rarity and restricted range reveal how vulnerable it is to threats such as overfishing and habitat pressures. A species can vanish quietly when its population is small and localized, making urgent action essential. 



By combining scientific research, conservation strategies, and the knowledge of local communities, this shark has the potential to be more than just a rediscovered curiosity. 



It could become a powerful emblem of Papua New Guinea’s unique marine biodiversity and the importance of protecting fragile ecosystems before they are lost forever.



The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jfb.70196" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Fish Biology</a>. 



Image Credit: Jack Sagumai et al. (2025)



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Rare shark rediscovered after 50 years

The ocean is full of enigmas, guarding species that appear...

Outdoor,,Couple,And,Thumbs,Up,For,Support,,Fist,Bump,And

New research shows that primates with longer thumbs also tend to have larger brains. The finding suggests that brains and hands evolved together, not on separate tracks.



The study covered 94 primate <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/brains-learn-new-skills-much-faster-than-expected/">species</a>, living and extinct. From lemurs to humans, the same trend appeared: longer thumbs, bigger brains. That pattern stayed strong even when humans were left out of the data.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-longer-thumb-means-bigger-brains">Longer thumb means bigger brains</h2>



Long thumbs allow a precise grip. Picking up a nut, holding a stick, or shaping a stone requires control. The study shows that as this skill sharpened, brain size followed. 



Dexterity and intelligence were not two unrelated steps. They moved forward side by side.



“We’ve always known that our big <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-brain-learns-study-reveals-an-unexpected-twist/">brains</a> and nimble fingers set us apart, but now we can see they didn’t evolve separately," said Dr. Joanna Baker, lead author from the <a href="https://www.reading.ac.uk" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Reading</a>.



"As our ancestors got better at picking up and manipulating objects, their brains had to grow to handle these new skills. These abilities have been fine-tuned through millions of years of brain evolution."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-surprising-connection-in-the-brain">Surprising connection in the brain</h2>



The researchers first assumed that thumb length would be tied to the cerebellum, since that region directs movement and coordination. 



To their surprise, the connection was with the neocortex, the part of the brain responsible for thought, awareness, and sensory <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-prepares-the-brain-for-the-future-while-protecting-memories-of-the-past/">processing</a>.



This shows that the thumb’s evolution was not limited to better movement but was also linked to higher cognitive demands. 



Controlling fine hand actions requires more than quick reflexes. It involves planning each step, adjusting based on feedback, and maintaining focus.



These are exactly the kinds of tasks managed by the neocortex, explaining why its growth paralleled the rise of dexterous hands.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dexterity-beyond-thumb-length">Dexterity beyond thumb length</h2>



The researchers also tested whether other hand features mattered. They found that dexterity comes from many factors including finger proportions, joint structure, and even the role of the fifth digit. 



Still, thumb length proved a reliable indicator of how well a primate could manipulate objects.



The team measured “manipulation workspace” - the range where the thumb and finger can move an object. Species with longer thumbs had larger workspaces. 



Those workspaces also lined up with brain size. Both hands and brains paid the cost of better <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/your-brain-literally-changes-based-on-daily-activities-and-lifestyle/">skills</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hominins-in-focus">Hominins in focus</h2>



Most hominins fit the general pattern, but there were exceptions. Australopithecus sediba had an unusually long thumb compared to its brain size. That didn’t make it more skilled. 



In fact, biomechanical models suggest the species wasn’t great at thumb opposition. A long thumb without extra brain power did not guarantee complex manipulation.



Homo naledi also had long thumbs and smaller brains, yet it followed the general rule across primates. The difference between species shows that hands cannot be studied alone. The brain always enters the picture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-grew-inside">What grew inside</h2>



When researchers examined specific brain regions, the neocortex emerged as the key player. Thumb length showed a strong connection to this region, but not to the cerebellum, which mainly handles coordination. 



This finding means that fine hand control relied more on higher-level processing than simple movement control. 



Areas in the motor and parietal cortices likely expanded to support the growing demands of precise manipulation.



Some scientists suggest this expansion had wider effects, linking hand use with the evolution of language. 



Both tool use and speech require planning, sequencing, and complex control, so shared brain networks may have supported the rise of these defining human skills.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-strongest-thumb-and-brain-link">Strongest thumb and brain link</h2>



Humans sit at the far edge of this evolutionary story. Our species combines the longest thumbs with the largest brains among primates, a pairing that gave us the capacity to make tools, form cultures, and build societies. 



But this link between dexterity and intelligence did not appear suddenly with us. It runs deep across the primate family tree, shaping species long before humans emerged.



The evidence shows that smarter brains and skilled hands advanced together over millions of years. Our ability to think was never separate from our ability to grasp and shape objects. 



Intelligence, in this sense, is tied to action. The human mind grew stronger because our hands demanded it.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-025-08686-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Communications Biology</a>.



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How thumbs played a key role in shaping human brains and intelligence

New research shows that primates with longer thumbs also tend...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-natural-solution-to-disease-through-crop-modification">A natural solution to disease through crop modification.</h2>



The agricultural industry stands at a crossroads between productivity and environmental responsibility, and crop modification often carries a negative connotation. While chemical pesticides have long been the go-to solution for crop protection, their harmful effects on ecosystems and human health have prompted scientists to seek alternatives. The recent breakthrough by <a href="https://www.southampton.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Southampton</a> researchers offers a promising path forward through the precise manipulation of plant-associated microbial communities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-science-behind-microbial-partnerships">The science behind microbial partnerships</h2>



Plants naturally harbor diverse ecosystems of bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms that function as biological allies. These microscopic partners contribute to disease resistance, nutrient absorption, and stress tolerance. However, until now, scientists lacked the tools to deliberately reshape these communities to enhance crop protection.



The Southampton team's approach centered on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-plant-microbiomes-the-future-of-crop-protection/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">modifying lignin biosynthesis genes in rice plants</a>. This strategic intervention altered the plant's metabolic output, creating conditions that favored beneficial bacterial populations while suppressing harmful ones. The result was a living defense system embedded within the plant itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-implications-for-global-food-security">Implications for global food security</h2>



The successful demonstration against Xanthomonas oryzae, the pathogen responsible for bacterial blight in rice, represents more than a laboratory achievement. Rice feeds nearly half the world's population, and bacterial blight causes devastating crop losses annually. Traditional control methods rely heavily on pesticides that contaminate soil and water systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-looking-beyond-disease-resistance">Looking Beyond Disease Resistance</h2>



While disease protection represents the immediate application, the research framework opens doors to broader agricultural improvements. Future developments could engineer microbiomes to enhance nutrient uptake, reducing dependence on synthetic fertilizers. This dual benefit addresses both crop productivity and environmental sustainability.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-path-forward">The path forward</h2>



As this technology advances from laboratory to field applications, it promises to reshape sustainable agriculture. The ability to program plants with their own biological defense systems could herald a new era where crops protect themselves naturally, reducing chemical inputs while maintaining yields necessary for global food security.



The study is published in the journal&nbsp;<a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44335-3" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Revolutionizing agriculture through microbiome engineering

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0HDXqTGEmi4 Scientists give plants superpowers against bacterial disease A natural...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Some children read facial expressions when making food choices.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-other-people-s-reactions-influence-children-s-eating-habits">Other people's reactions influence children's eating habits</h2>



Many children are finicky eaters, but research explains how <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-have-learned-why-so-many-kids-dislike-vegetables/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">watching others eat and social modeling</a> influence the eating habits of children.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Study Methodology Demonstrates Social Learning Impact</h2>



Researchers at <a href="https://www.aston.ac.uk/hls/school-of-psychology" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aston University School of Psychology</a> have published findings in Frontiers in Psychology that illuminate the neurobiological foundations of food preference development through observational learning. The investigation employed controlled video stimuli featuring adults consuming raw broccoli while displaying systematically varied facial expressions to measure participant responses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Asymmetrical Response Patterns Identified</h2>



The research, conducted with 204 female participants, revealed a pronounced asymmetry in social modeling effects. Negative facial expressions during vegetable consumption significantly diminished observer food preference ratings, while positive expressions failed to produce corresponding increases in vegetable appeal. This finding challenges conventional assumptions about the bidirectional nature of social influence in dietary behavior formation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Evolutionary Psychology Framework Applied</h2>



Dr. Katie Edwards and her research team propose that these results reflect adaptive mechanisms developed through evolutionary processes. The heightened sensitivity to disgust expressions likely functions as a protective system, enabling individuals to identify potentially harmful foods through social cues without direct risk exposure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Clinical and Educational Implications</h2>



These findings carry substantial implications for pediatric nutrition interventions and family meal dynamics. The research suggests that parental expressions of distaste during vegetable consumption may inadvertently reinforce children's existing food aversions through unconscious social transmission pathways.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Future Research Directions</h2>



The study establishes a foundation for expanded investigation into real-time social modeling effects and cross-demographic applicability. Researchers emphasize the necessity for longitudinal studies examining actual consumption behaviors rather than preference ratings alone, particularly within family contexts where social learning occurs most frequently.



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Social modeling affects our food choices

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kVywlgRJXsc Some children read facial expressions when making food choices....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cancer-causing-protein-bound-and-blocked">Cancer-causing protein bound and blocked</h2>



In a discovery that can one day revolutionize cancer treatment, researchers at the <a href="https://www.ucr.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Riverside</a> have successfully developed a means of controlling MYC, a notoriously slippery protein that causes approximately <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/chaotic-protein-that-fuels-75-of-cancers-can-be-controlled/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">75% of all cancers in humans</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-myc-different">What makes MYC different</h2>



MYC presents a unique challenge when studying cancer. Normally, this protein plays a vital role in healthy cells. It carefully controls transcription - the process that converts genetic information from DNA and RNA into proteins.



However, cancer changes everything. In cancer cells, MYC becomes a destructive force. It operates in overdrive mode with no regulation whatsoever.



Professor Min Xue, who led the research team, explains it simply: "MYC is less like food for cancer cells and more like a steroid. It drives cancer's aggressive growth." This superactive behavior makes MYC involved in three out of every four cancer cases.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-myc-is-hard-to-target">Why MYC is hard to target</h2>



Despite its clear role in cancer, targeting MYC has been one of medicine's biggest challenges. The main problem lies in MYC's unusual structure - or rather, its complete lack of structure.



Professor Xue describes the protein as "basically a glob of randomness." This means conventional drug discovery methods don't work. These traditional approaches rely on sharply defined protein structures. MYC simply doesn't have one.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">A New Approach to Fighting MYC</h2>



The UCR research team developed a clever solution. They designed a special peptide molecule that could selectively bind to MYC. More importantly, this peptide could block MYC's destructive activity.



The key was fine-tuning two specific features: the peptide's stiffness and its shape. Through careful adjustments, researchers achieved something remarkable. They reached "sub-micro-molar affinity" - meaning their peptide binds as strongly as antibodies do.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-results">Breakthrough results</h2>



This accomplishment represents a major leap beyond previous attempts. The researchers enhanced their peptide's binding strength by two orders of magnitude. This dramatic improvement brings the work significantly closer to practical drug development goals.



The research opens new possibilities for treating the vast majority of cancers where MYC plays a destructive role.



The researchers are presently optimizing peptide-delivery systems based on lipid nanoparticles that deliver the peptide effectively into cancer cells. The<a href="https://www.nih.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener"> National Institutes of Health</a> and the <a href="https://www.defense.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Department of Defense</a> funded the study, which appeared in the Journal of the <a href="https://www.acs.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Chemical Society</a>. This research offers renewed hope against cancer, and it can potentially open a door to more effective cancer therapies for most cancer patients worldwide.



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The protein that fuels 3 out of 4 cancers has been controlled

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JynHpMaNO8A Chaotic cancer protein finally controlled after decades of mystery...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-map-exact-ages-when-your-body-rapidly-ages">Scientists Map Exact Ages When Your Body Rapidly Ages</h2>



Scientists have <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/human-bodies-begin-breaking-down-two-very-precise-ages/#google_vignette">discovered that aging</a> isn't the gradual, steady process many assume it to be. Instead, researchers from Stanford Medicine have found that our bodies undergo dramatic molecular changes at two specific ages: 44 and 60. This research, published in Nature Aging, reveals that aging happens in sudden bursts rather than smooth transitions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-waves-of-rapid-aging">Two waves of rapid aging</h2>



The Stanford study tracked over 135,000 different molecules and microbes in 108 participants aged 25 to 75 over several years. Results showed that 81% of all molecules studied exhibited non-linear changes, meaning they shifted dramatically at certain ages rather than changing gradually over time.



Michael Snyder, chair of genetics at Stanford School of Medicine and the study's senior author, noted significant findings. "We're not just changing gradually over time; there are some really dramatic changes. It turns out the mid-40s is a time of dramatic change, as is the early 60s. And that's true no matter what class of molecules you look at."



The first wave of changes occurs around age 44, affecting molecules related to alcohol metabolism, caffeine processing, lipid <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/age-related-changes-in-metabolism-dont-match-our-expectations/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">metabolism</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-disease-remains-the-leading-cause-of-death-worldwide/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">cardiovascular disease</a>, and skin and muscle function. The second wave hits around age 60, involving changes in carbohydrate metabolism, immune regulation, kidney function, and again cardiovascular and muscle health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-happens-during-these-aging-bursts">What happens during these aging bursts</h2>



During the mid-40s transformation, researchers observed significant changes in how the body processes alcohol and fats. This period often coincides with increased stress levels in many people's lives, potentially contributing to lifestyle factors that accelerate these molecular shifts.



"It's possible some of these changes could be tied to lifestyle or behavioral factors that cluster at these age groups, rather than being driven by biological factors," Snyder explained. For instance, alcohol metabolism dysfunction might result from increased consumption during the typically stressful mid-40s period.



The changes at age 60 are perhaps less surprising, as this is when many age-related diseases begin to manifest more prominently. The molecular shifts affect immune function and kidney health, both critical for maintaining overall wellness as we enter our senior years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-latest-research-confirms-aging-patterns">Latest research confirms aging patterns</h2>



Recent 2025 studies have validated these findings. Research examining tissue samples from 76 people found similar aging patterns, noting an "inflection point" between ages 45 and 55.



Scientists discovered that blood vessels, particularly the aorta, age fastest among all body tissues. This vascular aging may drive aging in other body parts, highlighting cardiovascular health's central role in the aging process.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cellular-changes-and-microbiome-shifts">Cellular changes and microbiome shifts</h2>



The Stanford research revealed that these aging bursts affect our microbiome – the trillions of bacteria, viruses, and fungi living in and on our bodies. These microbial communities undergo substantial shifts during both aging periods, potentially affecting everything from digestion to immune function.



Additionally, researchers found that protein production and gene expression begin to fall out of sync as we age. This breakdown in cellular communication becomes especially pronounced during the two aging waves, contributing to the accumulation of damaged proteins associated with diseases such as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-may-not-be-brain-disorder-important-data-was-fabricated/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Alzheimer's</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-health-implications-and-longevity-considerations">Health implications and longevity considerations</h2>



Understanding these aging patterns has important implications for healthcare strategies. Research suggests that people should pay particular attention to their health during their 40s and 60s, when these dramatic molecular changes occur.



Snyder emphasized the importance of proactive health measures. "I'm a big believer that we should try to adjust our lifestyles while we're still healthy," he noted. This might include increasing exercise to protect heart health and maintain muscle mass, or reducing alcohol consumption in the 40s as the body's ability to metabolize it declines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-new-approaches-to-anti-aging-treatment">New approaches to anti-aging treatment</h2>



Aging research has seen notable advances in 2025. Harvard Medical School scientists developed chemical cocktails that reverse cellular aging without genetic modification. These six combinations restored aged cells to youthfulness in under a week, offering safer alternatives to gene therapy.



Researchers identified new biomarkers like "InflammAge," a saliva-based test measuring chronic inflammation associated with aging. This non-invasive approach could change how we monitor aging and intervention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-directions-in-aging-research">Future directions in aging research</h2>



Emerging technologies including artificial intelligence, cellular reprogramming, and senolytic therapies, are opening new possibilities for extending healthspan. Companies develop treatments targeting aging's fundamental mechanisms rather than just managing age-related diseases.



The Stanford findings provide a roadmap for implementing preventive measures. Rather than waiting for symptoms, people can prepare for and potentially mitigate these predictable aging waves.



As aging understanding evolves, one thing becomes clear: aging isn't inevitable decline, but specific biological events we may learn to prevent or reverse. The key is recognizing when these transitions occur and taking proactive health steps during vulnerable periods.



The study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/nataging" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Aging</a>.



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-----

Scientists discover we age in bursts

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Veg4HmmRVZY Our bodies hits two 'aging cliffs' at these ages....

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The hidden science behind tickling.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-discover-the-brain-s-tickling-command-center">Scientists discover the brain's 'tickling command center'</h2>



Researchers have finally solved one of humanity's most enduring mysteries: why we can't <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/after-centuries-of-debate-we-still-dont-know-how-tickling-works/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tickle</a> ourselves and what makes some people incredibly ticklish while others barely react? Recent scientific discoveries are revolutionizing our understanding of this peculiar human behavior.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-breakthrough-discovery-in-the-brain">Breakthrough discovery in the brain</h2>



In 2023, Dr. Michael Brecht's team at <a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Humboldt University</a>-<a href="https://www.hu-berlin.de/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Berlin</a> made a major discovery published in the <a href="https://www.cell.com/iscience/fulltext/S2589-0042(22)01991-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">journal Neuron</a>. They identified the brain's actual "tickling command center" – specific neurons in a region called the periaqueductal gray that control both tickling responses and play behavior.



When researchers used cutting-edge optogenetic technology to shut down these neurons in laboratory rats, something remarkable happened. The animals completely lost their ability to be tickled or engage in playful behavior.



"We found that global blockade of the rat periaqueductal gray with either muscimol or lidocaine interfered with ticklishness and play," the research team reported in their study.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-types-of-tickling-revealed">Two types of tickling revealed</h2>



What we call "tickling" is two completely different phenomena, according to the latest research. Light tickling – that feathery sensation that makes you want to scratch – is essentially your body's sophisticated bug detection system. This alerts you to potential insects or parasites on your skin.



Deep tickling – the kind that makes you laugh uncontrollably – involves complex brain circuits and is fundamentally social. You literally cannot tickle yourself with this type of stimulation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-self-tickling-is-impossible">Why self-tickling is impossible</h2>



Your cerebellum acts like a prediction machine, recent findings show. When you move your own hand to touch yourself, your brain generates precise predictions about what you will feel and then cancels out the tickling sensation through neural inhibition.



When someone else tickles you, your brain can't predict their movements, so the full tickling response activates. It's like your brain's way of distinguishing between self and others.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-individual-differences-explained">Individual differences explained</h2>



Individual differences in ticklishness depend on genetics, psychology, and even trust. Dr. Xinzhong Dong at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Johns Hopkins University</a> notes that people with denser nerve endings tend to be more sensitive.



Psychological factors matter just as much. You respond more strongly when tickled by people you trust, and anxiety completely shuts down tickling responses. This explains why the same physical stimulus can produce completely different reactions depending on who's doing the tickling.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controlling-your-ticklishness">Controlling your ticklishness</h2>



Science offers answers for controlling your ticklishness. You can reduce tickling sensitivity through systematic desensitization – gradual exposure in controlled settings.



Dr. Konstantina Kilteni's 2025 research, published in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adt0350" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science Advances</a>, reveals another technique: place your hand on the tickler's hand. This allows your brain to partially predict the sensations, reducing the tickling response by up to 90 percent.



"Your brain is essentially learning to override its own reflexes," Kilteni explained in her review of tickling research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-evolutionary-purpose-discovered">Evolutionary purpose discovered</h2>



From an evolutionary perspective, tickling serves vital functions according to <a href="https://www.umd.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Maryland</a> researcher Dr. Robert Provine's extensive studies. It trains our defense reflexes for vulnerable body areas and facilitates social bonding between family members.



Tickling-induced laughter is actually one of the first forms of communication between infants and caregivers. "Tickle involves a neurological self/nonself discrimination, providing the most primitive social scenario," Provine noted in his research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-clinical-applications-emerge">Clinical applications emerge</h2>



Research shows people with autism spectrum disorder perceive touches as more ticklish than people without the condition. Investigating this difference could provide insight into brain differences and help advance autism research.



People with schizophrenia tend to experience self-touches similarly to external tickles, allowing them to essentially tickle themselves. This suggests altered sensory prediction mechanisms in the condition.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-animal-research-reveals-universal-nature">Animal research reveals universal nature</h2>



Scientists have discovered that many species beyond humans are ticklish. Rats emit ultrasonic "laughs" when tickled, while chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans all respond to tickling stimulation.



This widespread occurrence across species suggests that tickling serves fundamental biological and social functions that evolved long before humans developed complex language and culture.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



Dr. Kilteni argues that tickling research deserves more scientific attention. "It is a complex interplay of motor, social, neurological, developmental, and evolutionary aspects," she stated in her recent review.



New haptic technologies and advanced research methodologies now permit scientists to investigate tickle sensation with unprecedented precision. Standardized experimental methods using mechanical tickling devices ensure consistent results across studies.



Recent findings published in Science Advances show that tickling research is opening new doors in neuroscience, potentially leading to a better understanding of social behavior, sensory processing, and neurological conditions.



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Scientists solve the mystery of tickling

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PqlF0XKzHY4 The hidden science behind tickling. Scientists discover the brain's...

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals secret mission to create working time travel device.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-could-an-equation-truly-bend-time-a-physicist-s-decades-long-quest-to-rewrite-reality">Could an equation truly bend time? A physicist's decades-long quest to rewrite reality</h2>



Imagine the impossible: stepping back through time in a time machine, not in fantasy, but through a scientific endeavor driven by profound personal loss. For <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astrophysicist-says-hes-cracked-the-equation-for-time-travel/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Ronald Mallett</a>, a distinguished astrophysicist and professor emeritus at the <a href="https://uconn.edu/">University of Connecticut</a>, this deeply human longing has fueled a lifelong mission. He claims to have discovered the equation that could unlock temporal displacement, pushing boundaries once deemed purely science fiction.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-profound-grief-that-forged-a-vision">A profound grief that forged a vision</h2>



Mallett's extraordinary pursuit began with devastating tragedy in 1955. At merely 10 years old, he endured his father Boyd's sudden death—a television repairman whose passion for science had ignited a similar spark in his young son. Boyd Mallett, only 33, succumbed to a heart attack, leaving behind a grief-stricken child searching for solace.



That solace came through H.G. Wells' The Time Machine. Within its pages, Mallett found a captivating concept: "Time is only a kind of Space." These words transformed from a literary phrase into a guiding principle, becoming the driving force behind his unwavering commitment to unraveling time's fundamental mysteries.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-humble-beginnings-to-academic-heights">From humble beginnings to academic heights</h2>



Mallett's journey was far from straightforward. After serving in the Air Force during the Vietnam War era, he utilized the GI Bill for higher education, earning his Ph.D. in physics from Pennsylvania State University in 1973 at the age of 28.



In 1975, he made history as the first African American professor in the University of Connecticut's physics department, achieving full professorship in 1987 before retiring in 2024 as professor emeritus.



Throughout these successful academic years, Mallett harbored his radical ambition as a closely guarded secret. "I kept my time travel goal a secret," he confessed. "I worried people would think I was nuts." His public research centered on black holes, serving as a "cover story" while he quietly developed his revolutionary time travel theory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-breakthrough-moment">The breakthrough moment</h2>



His pivotal insight arrived while hospitalized for a heart condition—a profound irony given his father's heart attack started this journey. The breakthrough was elegantly simple yet revolutionary: "If gravity can bend time, and light can create gravity, then light can bend time."



"It turns out that black holes can create a gravitational field that could lead to the creation of time loops that could allow us to go back in time," he explained.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-blueprint-for-a-temporal-vortex">The blueprint for a temporal vortex</h2>



Mallett's vision for a functioning time machine replicates spacetime-warping phenomena around black holes. He offers a compelling analogy: "Picture a cup of coffee. Stir it with a spoon, and the coffee swirls. A spinning black hole does the same to spacetime."



In Einstein's general relativity, the universe is a dynamic fabric woven from space and time. Massive objects like black holes warp this fabric—an effect we perceive as gravity. Mallett theorizes that an intense, continuous, circulating beam of light from a ring of powerful lasers could replicate this gravitational torsion, effectively twisting time into a loop.



This "time loop" would theoretically allow information—or perhaps matter—to travel backward in time. He detailed this mathematical concept in his 2006 autobiography, Time Traveler: A Scientist's Personal Mission to Make Time Travel a Reality.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-published-research-and-recognition">Published research and recognition</h2>



His work, published in respected journals including <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/physics-letters-a" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Physics Letters A</a> and <a href="https://link.springer.com/journal/10701" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Foundations of Physics</a>, suggests circulating laser light could generate gravitational fields potent enough to create closed timelike curves, enabling time travel for data.



Mallett's research has gained worldwide media attention, featured on <a href="https://www.thisamericanlife.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Public Radio's This American Life</a>, the <a href="https://www.history.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">History Channel</a>, and <a href="https://www.today.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NBC's Today Show</a>. The widespread interest reflects both his compelling personal story and rigorous scientific approach.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-galactic-hurdles-and-persistent-skepticism">The galactic hurdles and persistent skepticism</h2>



While Mallett's equations captivate imagination, the path to reality faces immense obstacles. The energy requirement is staggering—Mallett acknowledges needing "galactic amounts of energy," far beyond current technological capabilities.



There's also a poignant limitation: even if realized, his machine could only send information back to when it was first activated, meaning it couldn't transport him to 1955 to prevent his father's death.



The scientific community remains skeptical. Physicists Ken Olum and Allen Everett argue that Mallett's proposed laser ring would need to be larger than the observable universe to achieve the necessary spacetime distortion. They invoke Stephen Hawking's chronology protection conjecture, suggesting physics may prevent macroscopic time travel.



Astrophysicist Paul Sutter has voiced doubts about Mallett's underlying mathematics, while science writer Brian Clegg finds the concept intriguing enough to warrant experimental investigation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-legacy-that-transcends-time">A legacy that transcends time</h2>



Now approaching 80, Dr. Mallett remains steadfast. "I believe my work will show time travel is possible," he asserts. "Future generations will build on it in ways we can't yet imagine."



His equations, though yet to physically bend time, have bent our collective imagination. Ongoing public interest, evidenced by his continued media appearances and Spike Lee's film adaptation of his memoir, underscores his ideas' profound impact.



More than a scientific pursuit, Mallett's story testifies to human resilience, intellectual courage, and hope's enduring power. Whether his theoretical time machine ever materializes, his legacy is immeasurable—inspiring countless individuals to challenge conventional limits and perceive time not as an unyielding barrier, but as a boundless frontier awaiting exploration.







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Retired professor claims he solved time travel

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=elr4948_uOU Dr. Ronald Mallett from the University of Connecticut reveals...

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</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

[sendtonews key="3upvlAaHgO-2256633-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Kainji Lake, a reservoir on the Niger River.



In 1968, Kainji Lake was created by the construction of the Kainji Dam. The Niger River, the third longest in Africa, enters the lake in the north.&nbsp;



According to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rivers-in-the-american-west-are-a-lifesaving-resource-for-birds/">ESA</a>, the creation of the lake submerged Foge Island and the town of Bussa and permanently flooded other riverine settlements, leaving around 50,000 people displaced.&nbsp;



Large parts of Foge Island are temporarily exposed during low water tides, and the land is often used by migrating fishermen. Kainji Dam is a dam across the Niger River in Niger State of Central Nigeria. 



Wild mammals occur at relatively low densities due to illegal hunting. Lake Kainji has suffered a dramatic decline as a fishery due to the high numbers of artisanal and subsistence fisherfolk using the lake. It has been suggested that a period of closure, together with controlled fishing rights may help improve fish stocks.



Kainji Lake National Park is the oldest of its kind in Nigeria. The park contains three distinct areas: a part of the Kainji Lake, the Borgu Game Reserve to the west of the lake, and the Zugurma Game Reserve to the southeast. The park is home to around 65 mammal species, 350 bird species, and 30 species of reptiles and amphibians. 



Video/ Image Credit: European Space Agency&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Kainji Lake in north central Nigeria

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.igb.illinois.edu/">Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology</a> reveals how scientists can modify common crops like soybean, rice, and wheat to protect them from heat stress.



“We need to double crop production by 2050 to feed a growing global population, and not only are we not on track to do that, but climate change is further complicating things,” said Amanda Cavanagh, a lecturer at the University of Essex. 



The study is part of Realizing Increased Photosynthetic Efficiency (RIPE), an international research project that aims to develop food crops that turn the sun’s energy into food more efficiently.



“Using an engineering approach we designed multiple alternative metabolic pathways to photorespiration. Testing them in the field showed increases in productivity which led Amanda to significantly move the project forward by showing our engineered plants can withstand pretty extreme temperature stress,” said study co-author and RIPE researcher Paul South.&nbsp;



“As the climate changes and temperature stresses increase the pressure on our global food supply, farmers will need every tool available including engineering approaches like the synthetic biology used here to maintain safe and productive harvests.”



The experts tested plants modified to have more efficient photorespiration to see if they were better adapted to warmer temperatures.&nbsp;



The team found that the engineered plants produced 26 percent more biomass than the wild-type plants exposed to the same temperatures, and had 15 percent less yield loss under the higher temperatures.



Video Credit: Amanda Nguyen/University of Illinois



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Designing crops that can beat the heat

[sendtonews key="QGPzYnXEtN-1712599-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from Carl...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes the first comprehensive estimate of carbon density in the Saharan, Sahel, and Sudanian zones of Africa. In an effort to measure the amount of carbon stored across these drylands, a team of scientists used high-resolution satellite images and artificial intelligence to map nearly 10 billion individual trees. 



"The high spatial resolution (50 cm) combined with AI and field measurements used in this study is key to improving tree inventories in drylands," said Pierre Hiernaux, a French researcher working for NASA. "The ever-increasing availability of very high-resolution satellite imagery will make it possible to assess carbon pools and their dynamics at the individual tree level on a global scale."



"This study is exceptional because it is pioneering a type of approach that will revolutionize the monitoring of trees and forests on a global scale: in the short term, it will be possible to map the world's trees from the centre of the Amazon to our schoolyards," said <a href="https://www.inrae.fr/en">INRAE</a> researcher Jean-Pierre Wigneron.



"Many fields of application will become much more efficient and accurate, such as tracking carbon stocks, biodiversity, monitoring logging and protection against illegal forest degradation, in near real time.”



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Remote sensing will revolutionize the way we monitor trees

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