The sight of a whale shark, the largest fish alive today, leaves most people humbled. Its slow, graceful movements and gentle nature often make them symbols of the ocean’s mystery. Yet behind this serene image lies a struggle for survival.



Populations have fallen sharply, and their biology makes recovery slow. The findings of a new study from Indonesian waters not only reveal the scale of human impacts but also highlight why protecting whale sharks is vital for ocean health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whale-shark-decline-accelerates">Whale shark decline accelerates</h2>



Over the last 75 years, global whale shark numbers have dropped by more than half. In the Indo-Pacific, declines are even steeper. 



Hunting, habitat disruption, and entanglements push whale sharks closer to extinction. Because they take up to 30 years to mature, populations rebound very slowly. 



Large-bodied species like whale sharks face unique risks in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/silent-invasion-how-microplastics-are-disrupting-land-ecosystems/">ecosystems</a> since they grow slowly, reproduce late, and invest heavily in fewer offspring. 



The researchers noted that the disappearance of such giants can ripple through marine systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-injuries-trace-back-to-people">Injuries trace back to people</h2>



In the Bird’s Head Seascape of West Papua, the research team found 62 percent of whale sharks bore scars or wounds, mostly from human actions.



“We found that scars and injuries were mainly from anthropogenic causes, such as collisions with ‘bagans’ - traditional fishing platforms with lift nets - and whale shark-watching tour boats,” said Dr. Edy Setyawan of the <a href="https://www.elasmobranchinstitute.id" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Elasmobranch Institute Indonesia</a>.



“Relatively harmless minor abrasions were the most common. Serious injuries from natural causes such as predator attacks, or from boat propellers were much less common."



Patterns in ecology show that when human activities concentrate near feeding or breeding grounds, injury rates increase significantly. 



According to the study, direct human pressures such as vessel strikes and fishing gear interactions remain among the greatest global threats to megafauna. Whale sharks are no exception.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-following-the-gentle-giants">Following the gentle giants</h2>



Between 2010 and 2023, the scientists tracked whale sharks across Cenderawasih Bay, Kaimana, Raja Ampat, and Fakfak. This biodiversity hotspot hosts 26 marine protected areas. Using the distinctive spot patterns of each shark, the researchers identified 268 individuals.



Nearly all sightings occurred near bagans, where whale sharks fed on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-warming-threatens-the-global-fish-supply/">baitfish</a> like anchovies and sprats. Most were juvenile males, four to five meters long. More than half were resighted, including one young male recorded 34 times over three years.



From an ecological lens, these observations support a classic theory: young individuals often use coastal waters rich in food, while adults migrate offshore into deeper, less accessible habitats.



Such ontogenetic shifts are common across marine megafauna and are essential for population survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-injuries-reshape-populations">Injuries reshape populations</h2>



Of 206 sharks with scars, over 80 percent carried human-caused injuries. Serious wounds, including lacerations and blunt trauma, were rare but concerning. More often, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-sharks-move-into-dangerous-territory-as-the-climate-warms/">sharks</a> bore superficial abrasions from rubbing against fishing gear and boats.



Studies across marine ecology emphasize that while minor wounds may not kill, cumulative injuries reduce overall fitness.



Injured animals often change behavior, avoid key feeding zones, or expend more energy healing. Over time, this shapes population dynamics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-female-whale-sharks-live-in-deep-seas">Female whale sharks live in deep seas</h2>



A lingering question is the absence of females and older individuals, since previous studies show that adult whale sharks - especially females - prefer the deep ocean where they feed on prey like krill and schooling fish.



By contrast, younger males remain near shore in shallow, plankton-rich waters that help them grow quickly.



“Our own satellite tracking data also show that females and adults frequently use deep sea features such as canyons and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seamounts-are-gathering-hubs-for-ocean-predators/">seamounts</a>,” said study co-author Mochamad Iqbal Herwata Putra.



Ecological theory explains this pattern: sexual segregation often arises in large marine vertebrates, with males and females exploiting different ecological niches to reduce competition and improve survival chances. This strategy is a driver of population resilience across species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tourism-brings-dangers-to-whale-sharks">Tourism brings dangers to whale sharks</h2>



Staying near coasts, whale sharks offer strong potential for ecotourism. 



“Whale sharks in Cenderawasih Bay and Triton Bay (Kaimana) had high rates of residency and resighting, indicating that they should be viewed as valuable tourism assets for local communities and governments,” said Dr. Mark Erdmann of Rewild.



However, unmanaged <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-change-their-daily-schedules-when-tourists-are-watching/">wildlife tourism</a> can create a risky cycle: attraction leads to proximity, which heightens disturbance and injury risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-changes-big-impact">Small changes, big impact</h2>



The researchers recommend small but effective changes, such as modifying fishing platforms to remove sharp edges.



“We aim to work with the management authorities of the marine protected areas to develop regulations to require slight modifications to the bagans, including the removal of any sharp edges from boat outriggers and net frames," said Erdmann. "We believe those changes will greatly reduce scarring of whale sharks in the region."



Ecological models highlight that even minor adjustments in human practices can dramatically reduce stress on threatened populations. 



Protecting whale sharks is more than conserving one species. It safeguards a keystone component of marine food webs, maintains ecosystem balance, and secures benefits for communities who depend on healthy seas.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2025.1607027/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.



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Whale sharks are literally scarred by human activity

The sight of a whale shark, the largest fish alive today, leaves most people humbled. Its slow, graceful movements and gentle nature often make them symbols of the ocean’s mystery. Yet behind this serene image lies a struggle for survival. Populations have fallen sharply, and their biology makes recovery slow. The findings of a new study from Indonesian waters not only reveal the scale of human impacts but also highlight why protecting whale sharks is vital for ocean health. Whale shark decline accelerates Over the last 75...

Ask yourself this: when was the last time you felt truly at peace, not just amused or entertained, but deeply rooted in who you are? A new study suggests that spending more time in nature may play a bigger role in that feeling than we assume.



That deeper layer has a name in psychology - <a href="https://link.springer.com/rwe/10.1007/978-94-007-0753-5_929" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eudaimonic well-being</a>. It is about purpose, self-acceptance, growth, and relationships. It sticks.



Does nature help with that? The short answer is a resounding "yes." Not only can nature boost your mood for an hour; it can also give you a clearer sense of self that lasts. 



This study examined that question and returned with an answer that feels both refreshing and practical.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-time-and-eudaimonic-well-being">Nature time and eudaimonic well-being</h2>



Researchers invited people in Turku, Finland, to share how the outdoors shows up in their real lives. 



First, 158 residents answered questions about time in nature and how their lives felt in terms of purpose, self-acceptance, growth, relationships, autonomy, and life management. 



Then, 20 people joined creative writing workshops to describe, in their own words, how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-forest-bathing-fresh-breath-for-teen-mental-health/">natural world shapes them</a>. The team paired numbers with stories to capture both patterns and personal depth.



“We wanted to explore how nature supports people's self-acceptance, purpose of life, positive relationships, autonomy, personal growth and agency, as well as life management," explains Joha Järekari, Doctoral Researcher at the <a href="https://www.utu.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Turku</a>.



"This is called eudaimonic well-being and it can be considered in contrast to <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hedonism/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hedonism</a>: whereas hedonism focuses on short-term pleasures, eudaimonia delves into longer and deeper well-being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-time-evokes-deep-feelings">Nature time evokes deep feelings</h2>



The study focused on two groups: ages 15 to 24 and adults over 60. Different life stages bring different needs. 



Yet a clear theme showed up in both: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/virtual-forest-bathing-can-reduce-stress-and-improve-mood/">nature felt nonjudgmental</a>. Trees do not judge. Water does not grade them. That sense of relief made room for honesty.



“Although there were some differences between the different age groups in how they spent time in nature and in what kinds of places, they also had many shared experiences," Järekari noted.



"What both age groups had in common was, among other things, a feeling that nature does not judge or criticize, which had a positive effect on the participants' self-acceptance."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-choices-and-belonging">Choices and belonging</h2>



Participants described two kinds of connection. One was inward. Time outside - on a trail, beside water, in a garden - made it easier to hear their own values and act on them. 



The other was outward. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-scents-linked-to-improved-health-and-well-being/">Being outdoors</a> helped people feel closer to friends and family, and also widened their sense of community to include birds, trees, and other living things. 



That broader bond pointed toward meaning, not just good moods.



“Spending time and being active in nature brought to the surface what was really important to the participants in their lives," Järekari describes.



"This increased people's agency and autonomy and had a positive impact on personal growth. The participants reported that it was easier to get in touch with oneself, with other people, and with other species."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-factoring-in-age-and-experience">Factoring in age and experience</h2>



Older adults often talked about shared moments with grandchildren and unhurried walks, the kind that leave room for quiet. 



Some mentioned <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/religious-leaders-tried-psilocybin-and-it-changed-their-lives/">moments of spirituality</a>, a quiet awareness of being part of something larger than themselves. 



Younger people leaned on the outdoors for healthy solitude. They could be alone without feeling lonely, or with friends without filling every second with conversation. Different routes, same endpoint: a more authentic self.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-worry-creeps-in">When worry creeps in</h2>



The picture was not perfect. Many participants, especially younger ones, felt the weight of environmental damage. 



Worry about climate change often chipped away at that comfort. Shame showed up too, a feeling of being part of the problem just by being human.



“However, this feeling grew stronger when participants noticed the visible effects of the ecological crisis on their surroundings," Järekari continued.



"Many young people also described a sense of shame about being part of the problem, so to speak, by being part of humanity, which challenged their self-acceptance."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-time-goes-deep">Nature time goes deep</h2>



Plenty of research shows that green space can lower stress and help attention bounce back. This work points to something deeper: <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0329411" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">identity-level effects</a> that unfold over time. 



It suggests that nature is not just a reset button. It is a steady setting where people practice being who they want to be.



“Our research unlocks the impact of nature on people's well-being on a deeper level than stress relief or positive emotions," Järekari emphasizes.



"Connection to nature is important to us on an identity level and often shapes our lives in ways that aren’t immediately obvious, but become clearer over time."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eudaimonic-well-being-in-society">Eudaimonic well-being in society</h2>



Design choices of public spaces matter. If we judge parks only by how many joggers they attract, we miss a big part of their value. 



People need quiet corners, meandering paths, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-environment-day-the-critical-role-of-nature-in-human-well-being/">benches under trees</a>. Those places support reflection, relationships, and responsibility - features, not extras.



“It is important to encourage a deeper public discussion about the meaning of nature in people’s lives," adds Salla Eilola, Postdoctoral Researcher at the University of Turku. 



"Consequently, these issues could also be taken into account in decision-making and, for example, in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adn3028" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban planning</a>, where nature still often unfortunately has to give way to built environment," 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-steps-lasting-benefits">Small steps, lasting benefits</h2>



You do not need a dramatic plan to make this real. Pick a nearby spot and go there on a regular day, not just on the best day. Let your mind settle and see what values bubble up. 



If you spend time with kids or elders, choose slow routes that welcome pauses. Put phones aside. Short, steady moments count.



None of this turns a park into a productivity tool. It simply gives you space to notice what matters and act on it. 



That's the heart of eudaimonic well-being, and nature offers a simple doorway - whether it is a patch of grass, a line of trees, or a stretch of water.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pan3.70104" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">People and Nature</a>.



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Walking through a forest can reshape who you are and bring inner peace, according to science

Ask yourself this: when was the last time you felt...

Seventy million years ago, Patagonia was a land of rivers and floodplains. Dinosaurs wandered among turtles, frogs, and early mammals. 



In these wetlands lurked a powerful predator with crushing jaws. Its remains stayed buried until scientists uncovered them in Argentina’s Chorrillo Formation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kostensuchus-atrox-in-stone">Kostensuchus atrox in stone</h2>



The skeleton came from a large concretion and was perfectly preserved. The find includes a skull, jaws, ribs, and parts of the body. 



Measuring 3.5 meters (11.5 feet) in length and weighing around 250 kilograms (551 pounds), the animal stood as <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/Kostensuchus-atrox_crocodile-relative_Gabriel-Diaz-Yanten_1m.jpg">one of the largest hunters of its time</a>.



The massive animal had wide jaws and sharp, serrated teeth. Few <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-extinction-theories-are-challenged-by-new-research/">creatures</a> could escape its grasp.



Scientists named it Kostensuchus atrox. Kosten is the fierce Patagonian wind, Souchos is the Egyptian crocodile god, and atrox means harsh. The name captures both place and power.



“Kostensuchus atrox gives us an incredible window into a vanished ecosystem,” said Fernando Novas of the Bernardino Rivadavia Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crocodile-relative-not-a-dinosaur">Crocodile relative, not a dinosaur</h2>



Despite its size, K. atrox was not a dinosaur. It belonged to the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/joa.14182" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">peirosaurids</a>, close <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-on-earth-before-during-and-after-the-dinosaur-killing-asteroid-strike-mosasaurs/">relatives</a> of modern crocodiles.



This is the first crocodyliform from the <a href="https://dinodata.de/bibliothek/pdf_p/2019/002_655-2958-1-PB_dd.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chorrillo Formation</a> and one of the best preserved ever found. Its short, broad snout and strong jaw muscles reveal how it hunted. It was not a scavenger. It was a killer.



The teeth tell the story. Large, blade-like, and edged with fine serrations, they could slice flesh clean. Its jaws and muscles gave it a crushing bite. 



Earlier peirosaurids were smaller, many weighing only tens of kilograms. Kostensuchus was different. Evolution pushed it toward hypercarnivory, specializing in large prey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharing-the-top">Sharing the top</h2>



In its world, only the massive megaraptorid Maip was larger. Together, they ruled the Chorrillo ecosystem. Farther north, predator groups looked different.



Abelisaurid dinosaurs dominated there, but southern Patagonia had a split rule: theropods and crocodile relatives side by side. This mix highlights how predator guilds varied even within the same continent.



The study compares Kostensuchus with baurusuchids, another predator <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-dinosaur-skulls-reveal-unique-hunting-strategies/">lineage</a>. Both groups evolved slicing teeth and powerful skulls. But they didn’t look the same.



Baurusuchids had long, narrow heads. Kostensuchus had a wide, short snout. Its forelimbs were also stronger, with signs of flexibility in the humerus. That difference may point to different ways of bringing prey down.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-anatomy-of-kostensuchus-atrox">Anatomy of Kostensuchus atrox</h2>



Other bones offer more clues. Its shoulder girdle and pelvis suggest a posture not fully upright. It may have walked with limbs spread slightly wider, hinting at a lifestyle both on land and in water. Unlike modern crocodiles, it wasn’t limited to ambush in rivers. 



It may have chased prey across floodplains too. Strong forelimbs support this idea. They could have pinned prey while the jaws delivered fatal bites.



The skull shows clear adaptations for muscle attachment. Deep pits and ridges allowed large muscles to anchor, boosting bite force. 



The lower jaw bones were robust, and resisted stress from struggling prey and powerful thrashing movements.



Serrated teeth reveal repeated replacement, showing that it stayed well-armed throughout its life. These constant replacements meant damaged teeth never left the predator defenseless. 



Together, these features confirm a predator that was suited for active hunting, not passive feeding, and was fully adapted to dominate its environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaurs-and-kostensuchus-atrox">Dinosaurs and Kostensuchus atrox</h2>



Kostensuchus lived at the edge of extinction. It thrived in southern Patagonia’s warm, humid landscapes before the great asteroid ended the Cretaceous.



Its discovery proves that crocodile relatives were not background hunters. They were apex predators that, alongside dinosaurs, shaped ecosystems.



The find expands our view of crocodyliform evolution. It shows how these reptiles adapted to fill predator roles that were often thought exclusive to dinosaurs. 



It also reveals differences between ecosystems in South America, where predator communities could change drastically over distance.



Without fossils like this, we might still think crocodile relatives were secondary players. Instead, Kostensuchus atrox reminds us that they were central to the story of life at the end of the age of dinosaurs.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0328561" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



Image credit: Gabriel Diaz Yanten, CC-BY 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)



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Ancient crocodile relative was fierce predator alongside dinosaurs

Seventy million years ago, Patagonia was a land of rivers...

A pile of garden stones on Australia’s Central Coast held more than landscaping material. Inside one slab lay an ancient Arenaerpeton fossil, also known as a Chinese Giant Salamander, that dates back 240 million years.



This amphibian fossil, very well-preserved with skin outlines and an almost complete skeleton, was tucked away for decades before anyone realized what it was.



Researchers have now given it a name: Arenaerpeton supinatus, Latin for supine sand creeper. The fossil captures a moment from the Early Triassic, only a few million years after Earth’s worst mass extinction.



<a href="https://australian.museum/get-involved/staff-profiles/lachlan-hart/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lachlan J. Hart</a>, a PhD candidate in the School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences at <a href="https://www.unsw.edu.au/">UNSW</a> Sydney and the <a href="https://australian.museum/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Australian Museum</a> led the research that brought this animal out of obscurity and into the scientific record.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-from-garden-stones-to-science">From garden stones to science</h2>



In 2023, the formal description of the specimen appeared in a peer reviewed journal, establishing Arenaerpeton supinatus as a new member of a Gondwanan amphibian family. 



The paper documents an articulated skeleton preserved on its back with traces of soft tissue around the body.



“This <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-find-a-47-million-year-old-cicada-fossil-with-preserved-wing-details/">fossil</a> is a unique example of a group of extinct animals known as temnospondyls, which lived before and during the time of the dinosaurs," Hart explained. 



"We do not often find skeletons with the head and body still attached, and the soft tissue preservation is an even rarer occurrence."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-the-arenaerpeton-fossil">Decoding the Arenaerpeton fossil</h2>



Arenaerpeton had a broad, low skull and a sturdy frame. The rock holds impressions of the body outline that suggest a heavy build, plus long ribs and stout limb bones.



The teeth tell another story. Along the jaws run many small marginal teeth, and on the roof of the mouth sit a pair of tusk like fangs. Those features point to a predator that seized slippery prey and did not let go.



Estimates put the total length around 4 feet. The UNSW team adds a precise figure from the fossil evidence, noting it was “estimated to be about 1.2m from head to tail,” said Hart. 



The comparison highlights head shape, not close kinship, since the fossil lineage followed its own path long before modern salamanders appeared.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-and-when-arenaerpeton-lived">Where and when Arenaerpeton lived</h2>



The animal came from the Sydney Basin, a stack of sandstones and shales that record rivers, swamps, and lakes in what is now New South Wales. Its host rock belongs to the Terrigal Formation, a unit laid down during the Early to Middle Triassic.



High precision U Pb zircon ages from nearby volcanic ash layers in the Garie Formation cluster near 248 million years. 



Those tuffs bracket the time when these river sands accumulated and help anchor Arenaerpeton in Earth’s timeline.



Waters in this basin carried <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/500-million-year-old-fish-armor-may-be-the-reason-your-teeth-hurt/">fish</a>, including species such as Cleithrolepis, and the skull and teeth of Arenaerpeton fit a life spent ambushing prey in slow channels. 



Fine sands and plant fragments surrounding the skeleton point to burial in a quiet setting, not a raging flood.



The preservation includes a broad halo of soft tissue around the ribs. That band shows the body outline without mineralized skin armor and hints at how the carcass settled before final burial.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-family-with-staying-power">Family with staying power</h2>



Arenaerpeton belongs to chigutisaurids, a branch of temnospondyls, the diverse early amphibian grade tetrapods that flourished before and during the age of dinosaurs. These animals radiated across southern continents when they were joined in Gondwana.



Their history in Australia stretches across much of the Mesozoic. 



An annotated <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03115518.2023.2228367" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">checklist</a> of Australian Mesozoic tetrapods notes that chigutisaurids persisted into the Early Cretaceous, with Koolasuchus from Victoria representing the youngest known temnospondyl anywhere.



Arenaerpeton sits earlier in that story, close to the recovery interval after the end Permian crisis. 



The size of this animal, coupled with features shared with later giants, hints at a long lived strategy that worked in varied climates and ecosystems.



“The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/living-fossil-reveals-clues-about-how-animals-learned-to-breathe/">fossil</a> record of temnospondyls spans across two mass extinction events, so perhaps this evolution of increased size aided in their longevity,” said Hart. He points to body size as a possible advantage over deep time.&nbsp;



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-placing-arenaerpeton-on-the-tree">Placing Arenaerpeton on the tree</h2>



The team assessed traits across the skull, palate, lower jaw, shoulder girdle, and forelimb, then compared them with other Triassic and Jurassic relatives. 



Those comparisons place Arenaerpeton within Chigutisauridae alongside taxa from India and South America.



The analysis used a matrix of skeletal characters tested with parsimony methods. Results group Arenaerpeton with derived chigutisaurids, not with brachyopids that shared the basin at times.



Several features support that placement. The animal has many small marginal teeth, a narrow flat cultriform process on the palate, and adjacent intercentra in the vertebral column, a suite consistent with chigutisaurid identity.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-arenaerpeton-matters-now">Why Arenaerpeton matters now</h2>



Beyond taxonomic placement, this fossil fills a geographic and temporal gap in Australia’s record. It is the first chigutisaurid named from New South Wales and shows that large bodied forms were already present early in the Triassic.



It also shows how science advances through community care as much as field campaigns. A homeowner saved a strange slab, museum staff preserved it, and researchers returned to it with new questions.



“This is one of the most important fossils found in New South Wales in the past 30 years, so it is exciting to formally describe it,” said <a href="https://australian.museum/get-involved/staff-profiles/matthew-mccurry/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Matthew McCurry</a>, Senior Lecturer at UNSW and Curator of Palaeontology at the Australian Museum. The fossil is now part of the public story of the basin that buried it.



Arenaerpeton brings texture to a time often sketched in broad strokes. It offers a body outline, not just a list of bones, and it anchors a local river system to the global narrative of recovery after catastrophe.



The study is published in the <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02724634.2023.2232829" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology</a>.



Photo credit: UNSW Sydney/Richard Freeman.



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What looked like a normal wall hid a secret from 240 million years ago

A pile of garden stones on Australia’s Central Coast held...

A new study traces how our hips changed so our ancestors could walk on two legs. It identifies two precise changes during early development that reshaped the pelvis and set the stage for stable, efficient bipedal movement.



The work follows what happens inside a forming hip, from early cartilage to bone. It clarifies when a key growth zone turns and when bone hardening is delayed, producing a short, wide, bowl-like pelvis suited for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/upright-walking-may-have-sparked-human-creativity-and-music/">upright walking</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rotation-of-hip-growth-plate">Rotation of hip growth plate</h2>



The research was led by Professor Terence D. Capellini, Chair of Human Evolutionary Biology at Harvard University.



The first discovery centers on the growth plate, a thin zone where cartilage cells multiply and stack as a bone lengthens. In humans, the iliac growth plate starts out like other primates, then by day 53 of development it swings 90 degrees, so growth runs across the pelvis instead of head to tail.



That single rotation turns the ilium from tall and narrow into short and wide. “What we’ve done here is demonstrate that in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earliest-known-evidence-of-humans-and-neanderthals-interbreeding-skhul-child/">human</a> evolution there was a complete mechanistic shift,” said Capellini.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-delayed-bone-hardening">Delayed bone hardening</h2>



The second change is all about timing. In a process called ossification, most bones start hardening from a center point in the shaft, then spread inward and outward.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-early-homo-species-discovered-lived-with-australopithecus-challenges-human-evolution-theory/">Human</a> ilia break that pattern. Bone begins near the back, next to the sacrum, and spreads radially along the outer rim while the inside stays cartilaginous for roughly 16 weeks. This allows the pelvis to keep its shape as it enlarges.



That delay keeps the “basin” geometry intact while muscles and ligaments find their anchors. “But the histology really revealed that it actually flipped 90 degrees,” said Capellini.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pelvis-rotation-and-timing">Pelvis rotation and timing</h2>



Behind those shifts are cells called chondrocytes that build cartilage and a ring of tissue called the perichondrium that helps initiate bone. The team mapped more than 300 active genes and highlighted three with outsized roles in these steps.



Mutations in the SOX9 gene can cause <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK1760/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">campomelic dysplasia</a>, which includes unusually narrow hip bones with reduced lateral flare. That clinical pattern matches what you would expect if iliac growth plate widening fails.



Activating variants in the PTH1R gene cause Jansen metaphyseal chondrodysplasia, a disorder tied to abnormal growth plate signaling. Changes in that same pathway appear to help reorient the human iliac growth plate.



Homozygous PTH1R (a genetic state where an individual inherits two non-functional copies of the PTH1R gene) mutations are linked to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/medgen/325097" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eiken syndrome</a> with delayed bone ossification. That mirrors the second developmental shift documented in the iliac growth plate’s development.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-hip-changes-began-early">Human hip changes began early</h2>



The research team scanned and sectioned 128 embryonic and fetal samples, covering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meat-consumption-drove-an-evolutionary-leap-in-early-humans/">humans</a> and nearly two dozen primates. The human pattern was different, and it was different early.



According to the researchers, the growth plate reorientation began after our branch split from African apes. Later, as selection balanced walking efficiency with childbirth, the ossification delay likely emerged to preserve shape while the pelvis grew.



“All fossil hominids from that point on were growing the pelvis differently from any other primate that came before,” said Capellini. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pelvis-shaped-walking-and-birth">Pelvis shaped walking and birth</h2>



A short, wide ilium changes how key muscles work. The flaring blades reposition gluteus medius and gluteus minimus muscles so they stabilize the pelvis when one leg is on the ground during a step.



Comparative work shows that flaring ilia reorient hip muscles and influence birth canal shape, as outlined in a <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4305164/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">review</a>. That broader context helps explain why the pelvis must serve walking, load transfer, and childbirth together.



The study also notes early attachments for the rectus femoris and the iliofemoral ligament near the front of the <a href="https://radiopaedia.org/articles/ilium" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ilium</a>. Those connections fit the demands of upright gait and help resist pelvic drop during single-leg support.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-changes-in-hips">Tracking changes in hips</h2>



The investigators combined micro CT with histology to see shape changes over time. They then layered single-cell multiomics and spatial transcriptomics to match gene activity with exact locations in the tissue.



That blend linked a rotated growth plate to SOX9, PTH1R, and related signals. It also tied the unusual rim-first, inside-late ossification to the RUNX2 gene and factors that govern when and where bone cells appear.



The combined picture shows a coordinated pathway that first widens the pelvic blades, then slows internal mineralization to hold geometry while size increases. That two-step sequence explains the basin-like hips required for stable <a href="https://www.ashdin.com/articles/bipedalism-the-evolutionary-leap-that-shaped-humanity-110447.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bipedalism</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-questions-remain">Many questions remain</h2>



Open questions remain about how mechanical forces from early muscle contractions might reinforce the new growth directions. It is also unclear how much variation these developmental programs show across modern human populations.



Future work can probe how regulatory DNA near these genes changed through time. That could reveal whether selection acted in bursts or nudged many switches at once.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09399-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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How human hips evolved for walking on two legs

A new study traces how our hips changed so our...

Sharks are built to catch moving prey with speed and precision. Their teeth do the heavy work, and new lab work suggests those teeth may not hold up as seawater becomes more acidic, according to a recent study.



Researchers tested naturally shed teeth from blacktip reef <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-detailed-map-ever-created-of-white-sharks-covers-6287-sightings/">sharks</a> under present day and projected future acidity. Teeth in more acidic water developed more surface damage after eight weeks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-shark-teeth-are-important">Why shark teeth are important</h2>



The project was led by Maximilian Baum at Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf (<a href="https://www.hhu.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HHU</a>). His team worked with discarded shark teeth collected from an aquarium in Germany to test how acidity affects their structure.



Sharks are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/elasmobranch" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elasmobranch</a> fishes, a group that includes skates and rays, and they grow new teeth throughout life. Blacktip reef sharks even swim with mouths partially open to breathe, so their teeth are bathed in seawater all the time.



A shark tooth has a tough outer enameloid layer made of biological fluorapatite, with a softer dentin inside. This composition helps the crown stay sharp for cutting, while the root anchors the tooth to jaw tissue, and has porous osteodentin that is more exposed to chemical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-shark-rediscovered-after-50-years/">change</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shark-teeth-in-different-water-acidity">Shark teeth in different water acidity</h2>



The team set up two tanks at pH 8.1 and pH 7.3 and incubated teeth for eight weeks. The lower value mirrors a long-term scenario used by climate assessments for the year 2300, as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shark-awareness-day-protecting-the-balance-of-the-ocean/">ocean</a> absorbs more carbon dioxide and pH declines.



Sixteen intact teeth were analyzed for corrosion patterns and surface changes. A larger set was imaged to track changes in measured circumference caused by roughening of serrations, not actual growth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-ocean-acidity">Impact of ocean acidity</h2>



Teeth at pH 7.3 showed more cracks and pits on the crown surface. They also showed more damage at the root where porous tissue is vulnerable.



Root corrosion covered about 8.2 percent of the root surface at pH 7.3, compared with 5.3 percent at pH 8.2, and those differences were statistically significant in the paper’s tests. 



Surface roughening increased the measured circumference more in the low pH group, a sign of irregular edges that could weaken <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-sharks-body-grows-with-geometric-precision/">teeth</a> under force.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-with-earlier-studies">Comparing with earlier studies</h2>



Previous research has found that certain sharks can keep tooth durability steady under moderate acidification. A 2022 study on Port Jackson sharks reported that teeth remained as durable under a pH drop of 0.3 units, linked to more fluoride in the tooth mineral.



The new test used a more extreme acidity and isolated, non living tissue, so it highlights chemistry alone. That design leaves out in body processes like remineralization or faster tooth replacement that living animals might use.



Physiology studies on young blacktip reef sharks show mixed effects when temperature and carbon dioxide rise together. One <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-76966-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experiment</a> found changes in blood measures and metabolism after short term exposure, with high individual variability that suggests energy costs could add up under stressful conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-acidity-threatens-shark-teeth">Ocean acidity threatens shark teeth</h2>



Ocean acidification is driven by seawater uptake of carbon dioxide that forms carbonic acid and lowers pH. Foundational <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/425365a" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a> shows that continued emissions can push pH declines over the next centuries, far beyond the small changes since preindustrial times.



The 7.3 scenario used in the tooth test is a worst case end member, but it helps reveal sensitivity in highly mineralized tissues. 



If future acidity trends toward lower pH in coastal nurseries where young sharks live, cumulative exposure could matter over many tooth replacement cycles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-weaker-teeth-and-shark-hunting">Weaker teeth and shark hunting</h2>



Sharper serrations can increase cutting efficiency in the short term. Roughened edges, however, can also create stress points where cracks start and spread, making a tooth more likely to chip during prey handling.



More frequent tooth replacement is a possible buffer, but that costs energy that sharks also need for growth, swimming, and reproduction. If tooth integrity drops while energy demands rise, hunting success could slip in ways that are hard to see at first.



“I think there will be effects on the teeth of ocean predators in general when they are highly mineralized structures like we have in sharks,” said Baum.



That view lines up with the lab images of cracks and holes across the transition from root to crown. Even small flaws in that zone can weaken the whole tooth under bite forces.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



Live animal work can test whether sharks speed up tooth replacement or boost fluoride transport to harden new crowns under stress. 



Those tests should measure mechanics directly, including toughness and fracture resistance, not just surface texture.



Field studies in reefs with natural carbon dioxide seeps could reveal whether wild teeth show similar microscale wear patterns. Coupling chemistry, mechanics, and behavior would show if damaged teeth actually reduce capture rates on real prey.



"Investigating adaptation mechanisms such as enhanced fluoride transport or ion regulation may reveal whether species like&nbsp;C. melanopterus&nbsp;can compensate for acidification effects, as suggested for other elasmobranchs," wrote the researchers.



"Understanding these capacities is critical to assess future resilience and potential impacts on predator-prey dynamics and ecosystem stability."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2025.1597592/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.



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Shark teeth may weaken as oceans become more acidic

Sharks are built to catch moving prey with speed and...

Orangutans don’t count calories or track macros, yet they still maintain their fitness naturally. These great apes, who swing through the peat swamps of Borneo, have figured out how to stay healthy in a world that constantly changes what’s available to eat.



Orangutans don’t get fat, develop diabetes, or suffer from the kinds of metabolic diseases that now affect millions of people around the world.



And no, it’s not magic. It’s biology - mixed with smart behavior and a deep connection to the natural rhythms of their environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orangutans-strike-a-healthy-balance">Orangutans strike a healthy balance</h2>



For 15 years, researchers followed wild orangutans through the humid forests of Central Kalimantan in Indonesia, keeping track of their diets, movements, and how their bodies reacted when fruit was scarce.



Turns out, orangutans have a built-in system for balance. When food is plentiful, they eat more. When it’s not, they adjust - both what they eat and how they use energy.



Unlike most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-link-autism-to-neanderthal-dna-genetic-variants-found-in-modern-humans/">modern humans</a>, orangutans remain metabolically flexible. That is, their bodies shift between using carbs, fats, and proteins depending on what’s available. 



They also understand when to conserve energy. When fruit is hard to find, orangutans reduce activity to conserve energy. They rest more, sleep earlier, travel less, and spend less time socializing.



Compare that to modern human habits: easy access to high-calorie, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breaking-free-from-ultra-processed-foods-the-surprising-health-benefits/">processed foods</a> and little <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-bursts-of-intense-exercise-can-slow-brain-aging/">movement</a>. We don’t adjust our activity to match what we eat. Orangutans do. That’s a big reason why they avoid the health problems humans often face.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orangutans-keep-protein-on-the-menu">Orangutans keep protein on the menu</h2>



Fruit is a favorite for orangutans. It’s rich in carbs and energy. But when the forest stops producing enough fruit - which happens often - orangutans shift gears. They eat more leaves, bark, and seeds. These foods are lower in sugar but higher in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meat-protein-boosts-survival-but-plants-boost-longevity/">protein</a>.



Even in times of plenty, orangutans don’t overdo it. They still get protein in, no matter what. This consistent protein intake keeps them lean and with muscle mass: something that many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/western-diet-identified-as-major-cause-of-colon-cancer/">Western diets</a> lack, particularly when meals are high in sugar and fat but low on nutrients.



The orangutans' capacity for switching fuel sources also maintains their health. During times of low-fruit availability, they burn stored body fat and muscle protein as a fuel source.



The strategy is akin to when humans fast intermittently. These periods of rest from perpetual eating might actually lower oxidative stress - a process associated with aging and illness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-natural-dietary-patterns">Understanding natural dietary patterns </h2>



The lead scientist on this research is Erin Vogel, who collaborated with an international team through <a href="https://www.rutgers.edu/">Rutgers University</a>. Fieldwork took place at the Tuanan Orangutan Research Station in a conservation area of about the same size as Rhode Island.



“These findings show how wild Bornean orangutans adapt to changes in their environment by adjusting their nutrient intake, behavior and energy use,” said Vogel. “The work highlights the importance of understanding natural dietary patterns and their impact on health, both for orangutans and humans.”



Vogel added that human beings and orangutans share a common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pierolapithecus-catalaunicus-recreating-face-of-an-ancient-human-ancestor/">ancestor</a>, and therefore we share very fundamental biological systems. 



Both share the capability of adapting metabolism based on what is consumned. But human diets high levels of ultra-processed foods can interfere with this adaptability, which results in metabolic conditions such as diabetes.



“Understanding these adaptations can help us learn more about how humans can manage their diets and health,” Vogel said. “It also highlights the importance of conserving orangutan habitats to ensure their survival.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-plants">The power of plants</h2>



Earlier this year, another study led by doctoral student Will Aguado found that orangutans at the Tuanan site get most of their protein from just one plant — Bowringia callicarpa, a vine among nearly 200 species in their diet. 



Its leaves and seeds help fuel them through fruit shortages and may be one reason the population at Tuanan is thriving.



That’s a sharp contrast to the protein options humans usually rely on. Many diets today lean heavily on animal products or processed supplements. Orangutans, on the other hand, pull what they need straight from the forest.



“In essence, the research on orangutans underscores the importance of dietary balance and metabolic flexibility, which are crucial for maintaining health in both orangutans and humans,” said Vogel. 



“It suggests that modern dietary habits, characterized by high consumption of processed foods rich in sugars and fats, can lead to metabolic imbalances and health issues.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-orangutan-fitness">Lessons from orangutan fitness</h2>



The big takeaway? Balance and flexibility matter. Orangutans don’t eat the same thing every day. They don’t force their bodies to process more energy than they need. 



They eat what the environment provides, adjust their activity levels, and stay metabolically adaptable.



Paying attention to quality of food, staying active, and recognizing when to rest - those are lessons worth learning.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adv7613">Science Advances</a>.



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What orangutans can teach humans about food and fitness

Orangutans don’t count calories or track macros, yet they still...

Dinosaurs have long fascinated us for their size, diversity, and survival stories. Yet, their bones still reveal mysteries about their struggles. Recently, fossils discovered in Brazil added a surprising chapter. 



A set of sauropod remains from the Cretaceous period showed evidence of a fatal disease. These findings suggest that even giants of the past were not safe from infection.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-discovery-in-brazil">Discovery in Brazil</h2>



The bones were found in Ibirá, São Paulo. Researchers supported by&nbsp;<a href="https://fapesp.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FAPESP</a>&nbsp;identified signs of osteomyelitis, an inflammatory bone disease caused by pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or protozoa. 



Six individuals dating back about 80 million years displayed clear evidence of the illness. None of the bones showed healing, meaning the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/large-and-ornate-sail-on-istiorachis-dinosaurs-head-may-have-been-used-for-mating/">animals</a> likely died while still infected. The findings appear in&nbsp;The Anatomical Record.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-dinosaurs-carried-disease">Many dinosaurs carried disease</h2>



“There have been few findings of infectious diseases in sauropods, the first having been published recently," said Tito Aureliano, first author of the study and a researcher at the&nbsp;Regional University of Cariri (<a href="https://www.urca.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">URCA</a>).



"The bones we analyzed are very close to each other in time and from the same paleontological site, which suggests that the region provided conditions for pathogens to infect many individuals during that period."



One fossil had infection limited to the marrow, while others showed damage spreading outward. These lesions had a porous, spongy texture, marking them distinct from cancers such as osteosarcoma. 



The pattern suggested vascularization, meaning blood vessels fed the infected regions. Unlike bite marks from predators, which sometimes show signs of bone regeneration, these did not heal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bone-remodeling-patterns">Bone remodeling patterns</h2>



The study emphasized how osteomyelitis can alter bone tissue through reactive bone growth. This process, called periosteal reaction, occurs when inflammation stimulates new bone to form on the outer surface. 



In the Ibirá fossils, three different patterns appeared: small circular protrusions, fingerprint-like ellipsoid marks, and enlarged protrusions with greater height and area. These variations revealed a mosaic of infection-driven remodeling, showing how the disease progressed differently within each <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-extinction-theories-are-challenged-by-new-research/">individual</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaurs-died-with-active-disease">Dinosaurs died with active disease</h2>



Despite varied manifestations, none of the fossils displayed healing tissues. The absence of repair, combined with a lack of structures usually seen in chronic cases such as sequestra or cloacae, suggests that the disease advanced quickly. 



Infections were still active when the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-on-earth-before-during-and-after-the-dinosaur-killing-asteroid-strike-mosasaurs/">animals</a> died, hinting that their health had been severely compromised.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/dinosaur-bone-disease_osteomyelitis_credit-Anatomical-Record_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/dinosaur-bone-disease_osteomyelitis_credit-Anatomical-Record_1s.webp" alt="In the approximately 80-million-year-old fossilized bone, the arrows indicated by BL point to the lesion caused by osteomyelitis. HB is the unlesioned part, and MB is the bone marrow. Credit: Tito Aureliano et al./The Anatomical Record" class="wp-image-1983771"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">In the approximately 80-million-year-old fossilized bone, the arrows indicated by BL point to the lesion caused by osteomyelitis. HB is the unlesioned part, and MB is the bone marrow. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Tito Aureliano et al./The Anatomical Record</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-microscopes-confirm-patterns">Microscopes confirm patterns</h2>



Researchers at the&nbsp;Federal University of São Carlos (<a href="https://www2.ufscar.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UFSCar</a>)&nbsp;examined the fossils with electron and stereomicroscopes, uncovering three unique patterns of osteomyelitis.



Some bones carried small circular bumps, others bore fingerprint-like protrusions, while a third type displayed wide circular marks. 



“These lesions could connect with muscles and skin and become exposed, oozing blood or pus,” explained Aureliano.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cause-of-illness-unknown">Cause of illness unknown</h2>



The exact bones studied were hard to identify, though at least one rib and several limb bones were recognized. Both large and small sauropods were affected. 



The cause of the infections remains unknown. A 2021 study at the same site documented another case of osteomyelitis, linked to blood parasites in Ibirania parva.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-environment-spread-disease-in-dinosaurs">Environment spread disease in dinosaurs</h2>



The site, called the São José do Rio Preto Formation, had an arid climate with shallow rivers and stagnant pools. Dinosaurs and other animals often became trapped and perished, leaving fossils behind. 



“This environment probably favored pathogens, which may have been transmitted by mosquitoes or by the water itself that was ingested by the fauna, which included dinosaurs, turtles, and animals similar to today’s crocodiles,” said Aureliano.



These results expand our view of prehistoric disease. They also show how infection interacted with bone remodeling, helping paleontologists distinguish osteomyelitis from other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-dinosaur-skulls-reveal-unique-hunting-strategies/">conditions</a>. 



Studying such ancient illnesses offers a window into dinosaur biology and survival. It highlights that even dominant creatures of their time lived under the constant threat of diseases that left their mark in bone, shaping their history and ultimate fate forever.



The&nbsp;research was supported by the National Institute of Science and Technology of Parasitic Hymenoptera (<a href="http://www.hympar.ufscar.br/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">INCT Hympar</a>)&nbsp;in the Brazilian Southeast Region.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://anatomypubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ar.70003" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Anatomical Record</a>.



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Giant, long-necked dinosaurs struggled with fatal bone disease

Dinosaurs have long fascinated us for their size, diversity, and...

Parasitic wasps aren’t winning beauty contests anytime soon. They’re not colorful like butterflies or flashy like fireflies. They’re about the size of a grain of rice - or smaller - and they spend much of their lives inside plant lumps called galls. But these tiny insects just gave scientists a big surprise.



Two previously unknown species of parasitic wasps were discovered living in North America. They didn’t evolve here. They hitched a ride - and no one really noticed until now.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-secret-lives-of-gall-wasps">The secret lives of gall wasps</h2>



Across North America, oak trees host a strange cast of insect tenants. One of the oddest is the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/invasive-wasps-are-expanding-northward-on-the-west-coast/">oak gall wasp</a>. These wasps lay their eggs in oak trees, which causes the trees to form protective structures called galls. 



These galls come in wild shapes and sizes - some look like fuzzy balls, others like spiky marbles or tiny apples. Inside the galls, young oak gall wasps grow. But they're not alone. 



Parasitic wasps come along and lay their own eggs inside the galls. Their larvae then feed on the oak gall wasp larvae, killing them in the process. It’s not pretty, but it’s part of how nature works. And it turns out, this hidden world is far more complicated than anyone thought.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-genetics-uncover-hidden-invaders">Genetics uncover hidden invaders</h2>



Recently, scientists found something strange. On both the East and West Coasts of North America, they were collecting parasitic wasps from oak galls. 



But some of the wasps didn’t look quite right. To get answers, researchers turned to genetics. They looked at a gene often used to identify <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/modern-farming-is-causing-many-insect-species-to-collapse/">insect species</a> - kind of like scanning a barcode at the grocery store.



The results were unexpected. The wasps matched a European species called Bootanomyia dorsalis. But not just one version. The West Coast wasps were genetically similar to those from Spain, Hungary, and Iran. The East Coast wasps were closer to those from Portugal, Italy, and Iran.



The two groups were different enough that scientists now believe they’re actually two separate species. And both of them somehow made it to North America.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wasps-hitch-rides-across-seas">Wasps hitch rides across seas</h2>



On the West Coast, these wasps were found from Oregon to British Columbia. All the samples were genetically identical, which means the introduction was small - probably just a few insects. But they managed to spread.



On the East Coast, the wasps had a little more genetic variety. That could mean they arrived more than once or came from a larger group.



How did they get here in the first place? One theory is that they came along with <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/should-we-cut-down-all-oak-trees-isoprene-emissions-air-pollution-climate-change/">oak trees</a> brought over from Europe. 



English oak has been planted in North America since the 1600s, and Turkey oak is a popular ornamental tree. Both are found in areas where the wasps were discovered. Or maybe they simply flew in. 



“Adult parasitic wasps can live for 27 days, so they could have hitchhiked on a plane,” said Kirsten Prior, an associate professor of biological sciences at <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tiny-wasps-big-ecological-risks">Tiny wasps, big ecological risks</h2>



These tiny newcomers might not seem like a big deal, but they could have real effects on native insects. 



“We did find that they can parasitize multiple oak gall wasp species and that they can spread,” Prior said. “They could be affecting populations of native oak gall wasp species or other native parasites of oak gall wasps.”



Parasitic wasps are important for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-ecosystems-constantly-share-energy-to-achieve-balance/">ecosystems</a>. They help control insect populations - including pests that damage crops and forests. 



But when new species show up, they can disrupt delicate ecological balances. The discovery of these two wasps shows just how much there is still to learn. 



“Parasitic wasps are likely the most diverse group of animals on the planet and are extremely important in ecological systems, acting as biological control agents to keep insects in check,” Prior said.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/Bootanomyia-dorsalis-wasps_credit-Hymenoptera-Research_1big.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/Bootanomyia-dorsalis-wasps_credit-Hymenoptera-Research_1s.webp" alt="Two species of Bootanomyia dorsalis wasps introduced to North America from Europe A, B variation in the extent of wing infumation from a single collection of B. dorsalis sp. 2 from Neuroterus washingtonensis in Metchosin, BC C a male B. dorsalis sp. 1 collected from New York D a female B. dorsalis sp. 2 from the Pacific coast of North America. Body coloration of both C and D wasps are representative of their respective species regardless of sex. Credit: Journal of Hymenoptera Research" class="wp-image-1983766"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Two species of Bootanomyia dorsalis wasps introduced to North America from Europe A, B variation in the extent of wing infumation from a single collection of B. dorsalis sp. 2 from Neuroterus washingtonensis in Metchosin, BC C a male B. dorsalis sp. 1 collected from New York D a female B. dorsalis sp. 2 from the Pacific coast of North America. Body coloration of both C and D wasps are representative of their respective species regardless of sex. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Journal of Hymenoptera Research</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ambitious-project-uncovers-invaders">Ambitious project uncovers invaders</h2>



Graduate students have been traveling across North America, collecting oak galls and sequencing the DNA of the insects inside. It’s the most ambitious study of its kind.



“We are interested in how oak gall characteristics act as defenses against parasites and affect the evolutionary trajectories of both oak gall wasps and the parasites they host," said Prior. "The scale of this study will make it the most extensive cophylogenetic study of its kind."



And the discoveries keep coming. Over the past few years, her lab has collected about 25 oak gall wasp species and reared tens of thousands of parasitic wasps. That work uncovered over 100 species - and two of them had never been recorded in North America before.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-backyard-science-fuels-discovery">Backyard science fuels discovery</h2>



You don’t need a PhD to help. Many discoveries come from everyday people exploring their own backyards. 



Projects like Gall Week on iNaturalist encourage people to collect galls and share their findings. Even students at Binghamton University have gotten involved through events like Ecoblitz.



“Only when we have a large, concerted effort to search for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-biodiversity-crisis-is-actually-worse-than-we-thought/">biodiversity</a> can we uncover surprises - like new or introduced species,” Prior said.



In a time when biodiversity is under pressure from global change, every small discovery helps paint a bigger picture. And sometimes the most important stories come from the smallest creatures.



This finding came out of a larger project funded by a grant from the National Science Foundation. Researchers from Binghamton University, the University of Iowa, Wayne State University, and Gallformers.org are working together to better understand oak gall wasps and the parasites that live with them.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://jhr.pensoft.net/article/152867/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of Hymenoptera Research</a>.



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Invasive parasitic wasps quietly crossed oceans, now thriving in U.S. oak trees

Parasitic wasps aren’t winning beauty contests anytime soon. They’re not...

A new analysis of tag detections maps the clearest picture yet of white shark presence along the Maine coast. The team compiled a decade of signals from tagged animals to show when and where these predators cruise local waters.



The results point to a reliable seasonal <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/great-white-sharks-separated-into-three-distinct-groups-that-dont-intermingle/">presence</a> in nearshore areas, not just a few chance appearances. The dataset is large enough to change how managers, beach staff, and boaters think about Maine’s summer seas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-more-than-100-white-sharks-are-regulars">More than 100 white sharks are regulars</h2>



The study tallied 6,287 confirmed detections grouped into 728 events from 107 unique white sharks. The receiver coverage was expanded after 2019, and this added sharper detail to the map. 



Most detections came from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/juvenile-great-white-sharks-prefer-shallow-coastal-waters/">shallow water</a>, with many events being recorded within about 0.6 miles (0.97 kilometers) of shore.



The team pooled data from multiple <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tracking-endangered-rays-a-new-chapter-in-marine-conservation/">acoustic telemetry arrays</a> deployed between 2012 and 2023.



Sharks showed up between May and December, with activity peaking from July through September. Many events occurred in water less than 65 feet (19.8 meters) deep, and the average nearshore event lasted about 14 minutes.



Several locations stood out. Head Beach on Hermit Island logged the highest count of unique sharks, while nearby Ragged Island recorded the most events per unit of receiver effort, suggesting concentrated use of parts of eastern Casco Bay.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-this-changes-the-map">How this changes the map</h2>



The tracks tighten the connection between Maine and known summer hotspots to the south. They show how sharks move along the shelf and use local pockets of habitat. 



In the Western North Atlantic, these animals typically <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/warming-oceans-are-changing-shark-migration-patterns/">migrate seasonally</a> from New England and Atlantic Canada to the Southeast and Gulf of Mexico as waters cool. A similar pattern has been documented by other researchers using satellite and acoustic tags.



Young-of-the-year white sharks center their first summer and fall in the New York Bight nursery before shifting range with age. This helps explain Maine’s mix of white sharks. 



The Maine detections included mostly juveniles and subadults, along with some adults. This is consistent with a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-29180-5" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">report</a> that tracked the early movements of young-of-the-year white sharks in the Western North Atlantic.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-data-suggest-a-white-shark-corridor">Data suggest a white shark corridor</h2>



Warming matters as well. The sea surface temperature in the Gulf of Maine is <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aac9819" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reportedly</a> rising faster than 99 percent of the global ocean, a backdrop that can alter seasonal timing and habitat use.



The new map suggests a corridor effect along western Maine, with some sharks pinging at four or more sites within a single day. 



A subset returned to the same spots across years, suggesting that individuals are familiar with these sites.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-summer-brings-white-sharks">Why summer brings white sharks </h2>



Food is a strong driver of white sharks to Maine. Gray seal colonies on the Northeast Shelf provide dense, energy-rich prey that attract foraging subadults and adults in late summer and early fall. 



The pattern mirrors what researchers have tracked at Cape Cod and in Atlantic Canada. White sharks off Cape Cod spent almost half of their monitored time at depths shallower than 15 feet (4.6 meters). 



This emphasizes just how coastal these animals can be during the summer foraging season.



“White sharks are regularly spotted off our coastline during the summer and fall, the peak of Cape Cod’s tourist season, but until now we didn’t know just how much time they spent in shallow water close to shore,” said Megan Winton, research scientist at the Atlantic White Shark Conservancy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-white-shark-movements">White shark movements </h2>



Maine’s detections followed similar water temperatures, with many events occurring when nearshore conditions hovered in the mid 50 to upper 60 degrees Fahrenheit (13 to 20 degrees Celsius). 



That lines up with the thermal window reported for Northeast white sharks, as seen in a study on white shark movements in the Western North Atlantic.



Sharks did not linger long at most Maine receivers. The short event durations point to patrolling and brief passes rather than sustained residency at any beaches.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-this-means-for-people">What this means for people</h2>



Risk remains low, even with a regular shark presence. The dataset indicates that nearshore detections cluster in summer and early fall, and that most events near beaches were brief.



Public interest in safety rose after Maine’s first recorded fatality attributed to a white shark, which occurred off Bailey Island on July 27, 2020. The <a href="https://www.floridamuseum.ufl.edu/shark-attacks/blog/maines-first-recorded-fatality/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">report</a> from the Florida Museum of Natural History documented the incident, the first confirmed fatality for the state.



White sharks are a prohibited species in all U.S. fisheries, which means they cannot be retained and must be released if caught. NOAA’s overview emphasizes their ecological role as an <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shark-awareness-day-protecting-the-balance-of-the-ocean/">apex predator</a> and notes increasing abundance trends in the Northwest Atlantic since the 1990s protections.



Local decisions, such as signage, drone patrols, or temporary swimming advisories during seal surges, can be informed by these timelines and hotspots. The point is not alarm, but awareness that patterns now exist and can be watched.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-scientists-will-watch-next">What scientists will watch next</h2>



Coverage gaps remain along Downeast Maine and offshore ledges. More receivers, plus tag types that log depth and temperature at fine scales, would tighten estimates of residency and movement.



Climate will keep nudging the puzzle. NOAA <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/feature-story/sharks-rays-and-climate-change-impacts-habitat-prey-distribution-and-health" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">reports</a> that warming seas and stronger storms shift prey distribution and alter habitat quality for sharks and rays, which can reshape where and when species show up on our coasts.



Understanding these shifts matters for fisheries, wildlife viewing, and emergency response planning. It can also inform habitat mapping and future revisions to management boundaries if consistent use emerges in places north of historic limits.



The Maine dataset gives managers a baseline. It also offers a practical way to brief lifeguards, harbor officials, and charter operators on what to expect in late summer along popular beaches and island outcrops.



The work was led by Matthew M. Davis of the <a href="https://www.maine.gov/dmr/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Maine Department of Marine Resources</a>, with collaborators from the <a href="https://www.atlanticwhiteshark.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Atlantic White Shark Conservancy</a>, the <a href="https://www.une.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of New England</a> (UNE), and <a href="https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">NOAA Fisheries</a>.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2025.1535123/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.



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Most detailed map ever created of white sharks covers 6,287 sightings

A new analysis of tag detections maps the clearest picture...

Known,For,Their,Remarkable,Memory,And,Emotional,Depth,,Elephants,Display

Elephants don’t swing their trunks around for no reason. They use them to send signals with a goal in mind. When the stakes are simple - say, a tray of apples - elephant gestures become easy to spot and interpret. 



They point their trunks toward the target, angle their bodies, and look at the person who can help. If that person looks away, the show stops. If the person pays attention, the message flows.



Though silent, these gestures speak volumes about <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephants-take-more-risks-when-they-live-around-people/">how elephants plan</a>, how they use feedback, and how they manage social life. Purposeful gestures tell you there’s intent behind the movement - there’s a why, not just a what.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decoding-elephant-gestures">Decoding elephant gestures</h2>



Researchers set out to test a straightforward idea: when elephants gesture, do they do it with a specific goal, direct those gestures at someone who can respond, and adjust if the first try falls short? 



A human stood by a tray that sometimes had apples and sometimes didn’t. The elephants wanted apples. The team created three outcomes: full success, partial success, and no success.



Semi-captive African savanna elephants took part. They’re used to people, so working around a <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/elephants-remember-the-scent-of-their-keepers-for-decades/">human experimenter</a> didn’t throw them off. 



The setup let the researchers watch how the animals signaled before and after each outcome, and whether those signals depended on the human paying attention.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-elephants-did">What the elephants did</h2>



Most elephants gestured only when the person was actually watching. If trunk movements were random, they would appear regardless of who was in the room or where that person was looking. 



Instead, the animals tracked attention, a key sign that they were trying to influence someone who could act.



Their follow-through told another story. When they got only some of what they wanted, they kept going. When they got everything, they eased off. 



That pattern - pushing when the job isn’t done and relaxing when it is - fits the way intentional communication works.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-persistence-then-move-to-plan-b">Persistence, then move to plan b</h2>



When repeating the same move didn’t help, elephants tried new gestures. That shift from <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2352154622000547" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">persistence to elaboration</a> shows they aren’t locked into one signal. 



If pointing didn’t pan out, they switched tactics, demonstrating purposeful signaling, not reflex.



One result may feel counterintuitive. They didn’t ramp up persistence more in the “no apples” outcome than in the “all apples” outcome. 



An empty tray can mean the session is over, so the payoff for pushing drops. No point in hammering away if the game has ended.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-multilayered-elephant-communication">Multilayered elephant communication</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-elephant-day-2025-fighting-for-survival/">Elephants communicate</a> through touch, smell, and sound - especially low-frequency rumbles that can travel over a mile through air and ground. Family groups are led by experienced females. 



Calves learn by watching and practicing. Within those tight circles, signals need to be clear, whether they’re coordinating movement, keeping track of calves, or handling tense moments at a waterhole.



The trunk is a communication powerhouse with fine control to pick up a blade of grass or tug down a branch. With that range, elephants can point, nudge, block, or beckon with precision. 



The new results fold into that picture: gestures aren’t random flourishes; they’re tools for getting things done.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-intentionality-behind-elephant-gestures">Intentionality behind elephant gestures</h2>



Scientists use the phrase “first-order intentionality” to describe signals meant to change someone’s behavior - hand me that, come here, keep going. 



By tracking attention, persisting after partial success, and shifting strategies when needed, elephants hit those marks across many gestures, not just a single trick.



That broad pattern matters. In social animals with long lives and strong family ties, the ability to tailor signals to the situation pays off. You see similar logic in species that rely on cooperation and memory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-study-was-done">How the study was done</h2>



The study team watched 17 elephants and documented 38 distinct gesture types aimed either at the person or at the apples. They also noted what didn’t happen: elephants didn’t waste time signaling toward an empty tray. 



That detail backs the idea that the goal steers the gesture. The researchers are careful about limits and call for follow-up work in wild settings and in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asian-elephants-perform-a-special-burial-ritual-for-their-calves/">elephant-to-elephant</a> interactions.



They make clear that this is about first-order intent, not changing what someone knows or believes. 



They also point out that routines around food and timing could shape how often an animal chooses to keep trying when the tray is empty. Those caveats sharpen the main pattern.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-elephant-gestures-matter">Why elephant gestures matter</h2>



Understanding intentional communication changes how people handle <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abe7389" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">real-world situations</a> with elephants. In protected areas and reserves, clear signals can reduce stress during veterinary checks or transport. 



In community settings where elephants and people cross paths, knowing that attention and feedback shape behavior can guide calmer responses. Treat gestures not as noise but as messages that can be interpreted and answered.



It also supports better enrichment and training. If an elephant is actively monitoring your attention and adjusting tactics, then consistent cues and meaningful rewards aren’t optional. They’re part of a two-way conversation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-humans-and-elephants-talking">Humans and elephants "talking"</h2>



<a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3986168/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tests with wild elephants</a> will show how these patterns play out away from feeding stations and daily routines. 



Fieldwork can track how gestures function during travel, greeting, or conflict, and tease apart which signals are universal and which are learned within a family.



As the catalog grows, so will our ability to read <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-era-in-wildlife-conservation-how-ai-will-help-protect-elephants/">what elephants are saying</a> with more accuracy and respect.



Elephants aim their gestures at someone who can act, keep at it when they get only part of what they want, and switch to new signals when repeating the old ones doesn’t work. 



It’s purposeful communication - and once you notice it, you don’t see elephants the same way again.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.242203" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Royal Society Open Science</a>.



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Elephants communicate in a way that scientists thought was unique to humans

Elephants don’t swing their trunks around for no reason. They...

Species don’t all carve out territory the same way. A sweeping analysis across the tree of life shows that, on average, older lineages occupy larger geographical ranges than younger ones.



The relationship isn’t uniform - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-mammals-in-the-us-are-highly-vulnerable-to-climate-change/">marine mammals</a> buck the trend, and islands add their own twists - but evolutionary time consistently emerges as a powerful predictor of how far a species spreads.



An international team led by scientists at the German Center for Integrative Biodiversity Research (<a href="https://www.idiv.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iDiv</a>), Leipzig University, and the Naturalis Biodiversity Center compared evolutionary age and present-day range size for more than 26,000 species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-panoramic-look-across-26-000-species"><a></a>A panoramic look across 26,000 species</h2>



The dataset spanned seven major groups - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-are-struggling-to-keep-pace-with-a-warming-climate/">birds</a>, reptiles, amphibians, reef fishes, palms, and both terrestrial and marine mammals - providing one of the broadest tests yet of how age shapes distribution.



The headline result is straightforward: older species tend to have larger ranges. That pattern appeared across every group except marine mammals. The logic is intuitive but has not been demonstrated at this scale.



“Older species are expected to have larger distributions because they have had more time, sometimes several millions of years, to expand their ranges since first appearing,” explained first author Adriana Alzate, a scientist at Naturalis.



“Over evolutionary timescales, these species have had more opportunities to reproduce, disperse, colonize, and adapt to diverse environments, allowing them to occupy broader geographical areas.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dispersal-power-changes-the-pace"><a></a>Dispersal power changes the pace</h2>



Time alone doesn’t tell the whole story. How easily a species moves through landscapes - its dispersal ability - can speed or slow the march outward.



Strong fliers such as birds with long, pointed wings, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-reveals-how-plants-use-winged-seeds-to-expand-their-habitats/">plants</a> whose seeds travel with large, wide-ranging animals, often achieve broad ranges quickly. Poor dispersers, including many amphibians, expand more slowly; for them, age exerts a stronger influence because overcoming barriers takes generations.



The study’s cross-taxa lens makes those contrasts visible. Two species of similar age can differ dramatically in range simply because one can vault barriers while the other cannot. That natural experiment plays out worldwide, from continental interiors to archipelagos.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-islands-rewrite-the-rules"><a></a>Islands rewrite the rules</h2>



Geography sets hard limits, and nowhere is that clearer than on islands. Native species confined to islands necessarily have smaller maximum ranges than their mainland relatives.



The team confirmed that basic constraint, but they also uncovered an unexpected nuance: the gap between young and old species’ ranges is even larger on islands than on continents.



“Island dynamics and ontogeny modulate the relationship between age and range size. Release from predators and competitors may have enabled early island colonizers, typically ecological generalists, to achieve broader ranges than expected based on age only,” said co-author Roberto Rozzi, a scientist at iDIV.



In other words, the first arrivals - often flexible in diet and habitat - can spread widely within the island system, cementing a strong age–range link even under geographic caps.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-range-size-matters-for-survival"><a></a>Why range size matters for survival</h2>



Range size isn’t just a biogeographic curiosity; it’s one of the strongest predictors of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-extinction-risk-is-heavily-influenced-by-climate-change/">extinction risk</a>. Species with narrow distributions usually have smaller total populations and fewer local strongholds. 



They are more vulnerable to droughts, storms, disease outbreaks, invasive species, and human disturbance. With more than 40,000 species currently facing extinction, understanding what governs range size can sharpen conservation priorities.



That’s especially important as climate change scrambles habitats. If older species generally occupy larger, more environmentally diverse ranges, they may carry genetic variation that helps them cope with shifting conditions.



“This is even more important in the context of changing environmental conditions, because not all species may be able to keep up with these changes,” said senior author Renske Onstein, a biologist at iDIV. 



“Possibly, older species have the genetic makeup to more readily adapt and therefore persist in their relatively large ranges. This needs further testing with genetic data, for example, providing exciting possibilities for future research."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-takeaways-for-conservation-strategies">Takeaways for conservation strategies </h2>



The study highlights three practical lessons for managers. First, evolutionary age can be a useful flag when assessing exposure to risk: younger, poor-dispersing species with small ranges may need faster, more targeted intervention.



Second, island biotas demand tailored strategies that account for their tight geographic limits and unique dynamics. 



Third, bolstering connectivity - through corridors and habitat restoration - can partially compensate for weak dispersal, giving species the chance to expand or shift ranges as climates warm.



Crucially, the work also warns against one-size-fits-all assumptions. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/these-marine-mammals-killer-whales-dolphins-permanently-lost-ability-to-ever-walk-again/">Marine mammals</a>, for instance, didn’t follow the main pattern, likely reflecting the fluidity of ocean habitats and the long-distance movements of many whale and dolphin species. The lesson is to treat age as a powerful factor, not a universal rule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-clock-a-map-and-a-moving-target">A clock, a map, and a moving target</h2>



Range size emerges from the interplay of time, traits, and terrain. Evolutionary “clock time” creates opportunities; dispersal traits determine how readily species seize them; geography dictates what’s possible. 



By stitching those pieces together across tens of thousands of species, the researchers show that age leaves a durable imprint on where life lives today.



For conservation in a rapidly changing world, that imprint is more than academic. It helps explain why some species are widespread while their close relatives cling to a single valley or reef. 



And it offers a clearer map of where limited resources can do the most good - before small ranges become no ranges at all.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-62124-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Why older species may be better survivors

Species don’t all carve out territory the same way. A...

Lemurs didn’t spring from a single explosive radiation after reaching Madagascar. Instead, their extraordinary variety arose through multiple waves of speciation, some as recent as the middle to late Pleistocene about 500,000 years ago.&nbsp;



Interbreeding between species also played a creative role, feeding genetic novelty into lineages that later split again.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lemur-evolution-in-madagascar">Lemur evolution in Madagascar</h2>



An international team led by the German Primate Center – Leibniz Institute for Primate Research (<a href="https://www.dpz.eu/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">DPZ</a>) reports these findings in new research on Madagascar’s primates. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/endangered-lemurs-millions-of-years-of-diversity-at-risk/">Lemurs</a> comprise more than 15 percent of today’s living primate species even though their island home covers less than one percent of Earth’s land. The study challenges a popular island narrative: that a single early radiation explains most living diversity.



Lemurs are strepsirrhines, an ancient primate branch that diverged from the haplorrhines - monkeys, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/early-apes-lived-in-a-constantly-changing-world-of-fire-and-ash/">apes</a>, and humans - over 70 million years ago.&nbsp;



Their ancestors likely rafted to Madagascar roughly 53 million years ago and then adapted to a striking range of habitats, from humid rainforests to dry spiny thickets, coastal scrub, and mountains.&nbsp;



Today, scientists recognize more than 100 species, with at least 16 more lost in just the past two millennia of human presence.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-multiple-bursts-not-one">Multiple bursts, not one</h2>



The team analyzed genomic data from 79 lemur species spanning the island’s main genera. Their phylogenetic reconstructions revealed a major uptick in speciation about five to six million years ago, long after the earliest lemur radiations.&nbsp;



The surge centered on three genera that dominate modern diversity: mouse lemurs (Microcebus), true lemurs (Eulemur), and sportive lemurs (Lepilemur). Rather than evidence of a single ancient “big bang,” the pattern points to repeated pulses of diversification layered across deep time.



The late burst surprised the researchers. In many groups, speciation rates peak early and then slow as ecological space fills. 



Mouse lemurs, true lemurs, and sportive lemurs bucked that expectation. They kept minting new species into the late Neogene and Pleistocene while also swapping genes across species boundaries within their genera.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-hybridization-as-an-engine-of-novelty">Hybridization as an engine of novelty</h2>



The genomic signal of gene flow was clear. Species in the same genus sometimes interbred and produced hybrids, and those hybrids were not evolutionary dead ends. 



In several clades, hybrid-origin species were even more common than “classic” species formed solely by lineage splitting.



“Our analyses show that lemurs split into new species much more frequently than their closest relatives, the lorises in Africa and Asia," explained Dietmar Zinner, a primate researcher in the Cognitive Ethology Laboratory at DPZ.&nbsp;



"We were also able to show that genetic exchange, i.e. hybridization between species, was an important driver of this diversity."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-complex-conditions-of-madagascar">Complex conditions of Madagascar</h2>



Zinner conducted the work with colleagues Peter Kappeler from the Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology Unit and Christian Roos from the <a href="https://www.dpz.eu/en/primate-genetics" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Primate Genetics Laboratory</a>.



On average, lemurs produced about 0.44 new species per million years across the tree, compared with only 0.15 per million years in lorises. In some groups, hybrid species outnumbered divergence-only species by a factor of four.&nbsp;



That contrast demonstrates how Madagascar’s complex landscapes and shifting <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-plants-actively-shaped-earths-climate-cycle-throughout-history/">climates</a> likely promoted both isolation and secondary contact, fueling cycles of split, mix, and split again.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-lemurs-outpaced-lorises">Why lemurs outpaced lorises</h2>



Lorises, spread across Africa and Asia, share ancient ancestry with lemurs yet evolved under different ecological rules.&nbsp;



Madagascar’s isolation, its mosaic of microclimates, and repeated environmental swings may have carved and rejoined populations in ways that favored diversification.&nbsp;



Small-bodied lineages such as mouse lemurs, with short generation times, could respond rapidly to new ecological opportunities or barriers. When range edges met again, occasional interbreeding would have injected novel combinations of genes that selection could act upon, speeding the emergence of distinct forms.



The study’s timeline reaches into the middle and late Pleistocene. That means the island’s living diversity is not just a relic of distant Eocene events but a product of more recent evolutionary churn.&nbsp;



Even relatively young climatic oscillations could have opened and closed corridors, fostering the repeated radiations now written into lemur genomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-conservation-message-written-in-genes">Conservation message written in genes</h2>



The results carry immediate implications for conservation. Roughly 95 percent of lemur species are threatened as forests shrink and climate extremes intensify.&nbsp;



Hybridization can be a source of diversity, but it can also erode distinctive lineages if human-driven <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-species-are-shifting-their-habitats-due-to-climate-change/">habitat</a> change forces species into unnaturally high contact.



“In the future, conservation concepts must also take genetic diversity and the role of hybridization into account,” Zinner said.



That means protecting not just species names but the evolutionary processes that generated them. Safeguarding intact, connected habitats across environmental gradients will help maintain opportunities for natural diversification while limiting risky, human-triggered genetic swamping.&nbsp;



Moreover, genetic monitoring is also needed alongside field surveys to understand where boundaries are stable, porous, or shifting under pressure.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-lemur-evolution">The future of lemur evolution </h2>



“Nevertheless, this is not a license to neglect species conservation,” Roos said. “Without protective measures, many of the lemur species will go extinct before they can make use of this potential.”



For researchers, the next steps are clear. More high-resolution genomic work is needed to pinpoint when and where hybridization shaped lineages, which environmental factors promoted it, and how often it produced adaptive breakthroughs. 



That knowledge can guide strategies that respect natural evolutionary dynamics while preventing unintended outcomes.



“The more we know about their evolutionary history and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-do-asexual-ants-maintain-genetic-diversity/">genetic diversity</a>, the better we can secure their future,” Roos concluded.



Madagascar’s lemurs are a testament to what isolated landscapes and restless climates can sculpt. Their genomes show that evolution doesn’t always proceed in a single burst; sometimes it occurs in waves.&nbsp;



Protecting those waves - and the forests that make them possible - will determine whether this extraordinary experiment continues.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-62310-y">Nature Communications</a>.&nbsp;



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Lemur evolution happened in waves, not a single burst

Lemurs didn’t spring from a single explosive radiation after reaching...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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