Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy.



This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-yellowstone-aspens-and-elk">Yellowstone, aspens, and elk</h2>



In the 1920s, people <a href="https://www.yellowstone.org/wolf-project/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eliminated wolves in Yellowstone</a>. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right thing to do.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/from-wolves-to-dogs-did-domestication-begin-without-human-help/">Without wolves</a>, elk herds grew very large. Elk love to eat aspen shoots - the tender young growth is highly palatable to them.



For roughly 70 years, elk browsed aspen sprouts down to stub height, and the trees couldn't grow. 



If you had walked through Yellowstone in the 1980s, you would have seen many tiny aspen shoots covering the ground, but almost no young trees gaining height. 



The forest's regeneration was stalled. Old trees died, and no new ones replaced them.



In 1995 and 1996, park managers reintroduced wolves into the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstone-supervolcano-eruption-study-sparks-new-debate-on-where-and-when-it-will-erupt/">Yellowstone Park ecosystem</a>. Scientists hoped and wondered whether this would change anything for the trees.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-aspen-matter-to-yellowstone">Why aspen matter to Yellowstone</h2>



Aspen groves provide habitat for many species. Birds nest in them. Beavers eat the bark and use the wood for dams. Butterflies and moths lay eggs on the leaves. 



Their canopy admits enough light for wildflowers and shrubs to grow beneath. When it rains, aspen groves hold water in the soil better than some other forest types.



In short, when aspen return, dozens of other species benefit. More trees support more insects, which in turn support more birds, enriching the ecosystem.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-checking-the-trees-three-decades-later">Checking the trees three decades later</h2>



<a href="https://fwcs.oregonstate.edu/users/luke-painter" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Luke Painter</a>, an ecologist at <a href="https://oregonstate.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oregon State University</a>, sought clear answers. His team returned to 87 aspen stands across Yellowstone that scientists had previously surveyed. 



They measured thousands of young trees, looked for bite marks, and counted how many stems were tall enough that elk could no longer reach the tips.



About a third of these stands now have many tall young aspens pushing toward the canopy. 



"About 26 of the 87 aspen stands we examined had large numbers of tall saplings throughout, a remarkable change from the 1990s when surveys found none at all," Painter said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-wolves-matter-to-yellowstone-aspens">Why wolves matter to Yellowstone aspens</h2>



Breaking it all down, the conclusions of this study are pretty simple. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wolves-move-pups-across-mountains-to-adapt-to-climate-pressure/">Wolves hunt elk</a>. When wolves came back, two things happened. First, elk numbers declined from unusually high levels. Second, elk changed their behavior. They spent less time in the same areas feeding.



With fewer elk and shorter feeding bouts, more aspen shoots survived long enough to exceed the browsing zone - about six to seven feet high. 



Once a sapling reaches that height, elk cannot easily reach the growing tip. The tree continues to grow.



"The reintroduction of large carnivores has initiated a recovery process that had been shut down for decades," Painter explained.



Scientists call this a <a href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/trophic-cascades-across-diverse-plant-ecosystems-80060347/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">trophic cascade</a> - when adding or removing one species causes changes that ripple through the whole system.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-some-places-recover-others-don-t">Some places recover, others don't</h2>



Unfortunately, not every aspen stand has recovered yet. Some valleys still have many short, heavily browsed shoots, because it's not only elk eating them anymore. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/yellowstones-iconic-bison-have-merged-into-a-single-herd/">Bison herds have grown</a>, and bison browse on aspen as well. They are strong enough to break young trees. 



"Increasing numbers of bison may be emerging as a new constraint to aspen in some areas," Painter confirmed.



Additionally, winter snow depth varies; droughts stress trees; bears and mountain lions also hunt elk; and hunting outside the park influences elk distribution. 



All of these factors interact, which is why some sites show strong recovery, others show moderate recovery, and a few have changed very little.



The key pattern is that places with many tall saplings experience little browsing, and aspen groves that remain popular eating grounds today stay short. 



This fact is the strongest indication that tree recovery is linked directly to wolf presence, not solely to weather or soil conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proof-in-the-measurements">Proof in the measurements</h2>



Painter's team did not rely on casual observation. They used the same methods as earlier researchers, measuring the same plots. 



They counted recruitment - when young trees surpass browsing height and begin progressing toward maturity. This measure is crucial. Sprouts are insufficient if they never grow; without recruitment, the forest cannot replace itself.



The results are robust. After being stalled for most of a century, Yellowstone's aspens are increasing in height. In recovering stands today, you will see saplings - six, eight, or ten feet tall - that were not present in the 1990s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-future-of-yellowstone-s-aspens">The future of Yellowstone's aspens</h2>



"This is a remarkable case of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-viruses-found-in-yellowstones-hot-springs-may-be-near-the-root-of-all-life-on-earth/">ecological restoration</a>," Painter concluded. "Wolf reintroduction is yielding long-term ecological changes contributing to increased biodiversity and habitat diversity."



Trees grow slowly, so even with wolves restored, it will take decades for these young aspens to form a full-grown forest. 



Some areas might never fully recover if bison numbers continue to rise or if the climate becomes too hot and dry.



Thanks to the work of Painter and his team, scientists are now certain that restoring the Yellowstone predator has restarted aspen forest regeneration. Not everywhere and not perfectly, but enough to be measured, creating hope for the future.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112725004499?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Forest Ecology and Management</a>.



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Yellowstone's aspen trees are growing again thanks to the reintroduction of wolves

Young aspen trees in Yellowstone are doing something they have not done in almost 100 years. Rather than sprouting and being eaten back to nubs by elk and bison, they're actually growing into tall, adult forest trees rising up towards the canopy. This matters more than it might seem, because it shows what happens when a missing piece of an ecosystem returns. Yellowstone, aspens, and elk In the 1920s, people eliminated wolves in Yellowstone. At the time, with limited scientific knowledge, managers believed it was the right...

Technician,Placing,Blood,Tubes,In,The,Laboratory,Centrifuge

Memory problems are scary, and getting clear answers often takes a long time. For years, the dependable ways to check patients for Alzheimer’s disease have been PET scans or spinal taps, no blood tests involved.



Both can be effective. Both can also be expensive, invasive, or hard to get. That leaves many people waiting, worrying, and bouncing between appointments.



A new blood test aims to change that first step in care. It looks for the same biological signals that define Alzheimer’s disease and turns them into a single score - how likely it is that Alzheimer’s biology is present. 



This breakthrough gives doctors a faster, simpler way to decide what should happen next.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-alzheimer-s-blood-test-is-huge">Alzheimer's blood test is huge</h2>



Most people with early memory concerns start in primary care. Those clinics are busy and don’t have advanced imaging on hand. 



A reliable blood test would help sort patients sooner. Some could be <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/targeting-the-gut-might-be-key-in-preventing-alzheimers-disease/">referred to a specialist</a> right away.



Others could be monitored while doctors check for sleep issues, depression, thyroid problems, medication effects, or other <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/traffic-related-air-pollution-might-increase-alzheimers-risk/">common causes</a> of cognitive symptoms.



That kind of triage saves time, cuts costs, and reduces unnecessary procedures. It also helps families move from uncertainty to a plan. Not months from now, but much sooner.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-it-works">How it works</h2>



Alzheimer’s has two key features in the brain: abnormal amyloid and tau proteins. The new blood test examines a form of tau called p-tau217 and the ratio of two amyloid fragments: <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC3716832/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aβ42 to Aβ40</a>. 



Together, these numbers capture the core biology doctors care about. The result is a probability score that indicates how closely a person’s blood pattern matches Alzheimer’s changes.



Using both markers strengthens the signal. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41398-024-03084-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">P-tau217</a> tracks Alzheimer’s-type changes, and the amyloid ratio helps keep false positives in check. 



When combined, the result becomes clearer - either likely Alzheimer’s biology or not.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-blood-for-alzheimer-s-anywhere">Testing blood for Alzheimer's anywhere</h2>



To see how the test would perform in everyday practice - not just in labs - researchers enrolled more than a thousand people in Sweden who came in with memory or thinking concerns. 



Some were evaluated in primary care. Others were seen in specialty memory clinics. Everyone received the usual clinical evaluations provided in those settings.



Blood samples were handled the way a hospital lab would: in batches, on a set schedule. That detail matters because it tests reliability under normal conditions, not just under perfect, hands-on supervision.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-test-methods">Comparing test methods</h2>



In straightforward terms, the blood test matched more definitive <a href="https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/alzheimers-causes-and-risk-factors/what-happens-brain-alzheimers-disease" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">measures of Alzheimer’s biology</a> approximately nine times out of ten. Its performance held up in both primary care and specialty clinics, which is exactly where it needs to work.



"Primary care doctors' accuracy in identifying Alzheimer's disease was 61 percent, while specialist physicians were correct 73 percent of the time," explained <a href="https://www.lunduniversity.lu.se/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lund University</a> neurologist Sebastian Palmqvist. 



"This underscores the lack of good, cost-effective diagnostic tools, particularly in primary care, and indicates the potential improvement in diagnosis with the adoption of this blood test in healthcare settings."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fixed-thresholds-were-used">Fixed thresholds were used</h2>



The team set the Alzheimer's blood test thresholds ahead of time and kept them fixed. That’s how a real diagnostic would be used in practice. 



No tuning after reviewing the results. No custom cutoffs for each clinic. A fixed cutoff increases the chance that the same test will work the same way in other places.



That approach adds confidence for doctors who <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/alzheimers-may-not-be-brain-disorder-important-data-was-fabricated/">need predictable tools</a>. Consistency across settings is the difference between a research project and something a health system can actually roll out.



When standard evaluations were used alone, clinicians did well. With blood test information added, decisions became more precise. 



A negative result in someone with mild, vague memory complaints gives doctors support to forgo invasive tests and monitor for changes over time.



As <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sleep-disruptions-could-signal-the-onset-of-alzheimers/">symptoms progress</a> to mild cognitive impairment or dementia, a positive result supports referrals for confirmatory testing and, when appropriate, treatments that target Alzheimer’s biology. 



The blood test does not replace PET scans or spinal fluid analysis. It helps focus those tools where they are most useful.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-the-public-should-know">What the public should know</h2>



This isn’t a casual screening for people without symptoms. It’s a first-line tool when memory concerns are real and doctors need to decide what to do next. 



Used appropriately, it can shorten the path to answers for those who need a deeper look and spare others from procedures they don’t need.



It also fits into normal workflows. A routine draw, a lab run on schedule, and a clear, interpretable score. That kind of practicality is what busy clinics need to act quickly and confidently.



"The test is already available in the USA and is likely to become available in many other countries soon," says senior researcher <a href="https://portal.research.lu.se/en/persons/oskar-hansson" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Oskar Hansson</a>, a neurologist at Lund University. 



"Initially, it will mainly be used in specialist memory clinics, and it may take approximately one to two years to implement guidelines and training in primary care."



As availability grows, expect specialist clinics to lead the way. Primary care will follow as training, protocols, and reimbursement catch up. That staged rollout is typical when new diagnostics enter real-world care.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-s-next-for-alzheimer-s-blood-tests">What's next for Alzheimer's blood tests</h2>



To sum it all up, this new blood test that reads the biology of Alzheimer’s gives primary care doctors something they’ve never really had: a quick, evidence-based signal that is correct 90 percent of the time to <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stopping-alzheimers-before-it-starts-early-treatment-shows-potential/">guide next steps</a>. 



It won’t cure the disease. It will bring clearer direction, earlier in the process, for the people who need it most.



For families, that means fewer dead ends and faster referrals when appropriate. For clinicians, it means a practical tool that strengthens decisions. 



For health systems, it means aiming advanced testing where it can make the biggest difference. That’s progress measured not just in lab values, but in how care actually feels - faster, calmer, and more to the point.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/2821669?resultclick=1" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal of the American Medical Association</a>.



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New blood test identifies early-stage Alzheimer's with 90% accuracy

Memory problems are scary, and getting clear answers often takes...

Ask yourself this: when was the last time you felt truly at peace, not just amused or entertained, but deeply rooted in who you are? A new study suggests that spending more time in nature may play a bigger role in that feeling than we assume.



That deeper layer has a name in psychology - <a href="https://link.springer.com/rwe/10.1007/978-94-007-0753-5_929" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eudaimonic well-being</a>. It is about purpose, self-acceptance, growth, and relationships. It sticks.



Does nature help with that? The short answer is a resounding "yes." Not only can nature boost your mood for an hour; it can also give you a clearer sense of self that lasts. 



This study examined that question and returned with an answer that feels both refreshing and practical.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-time-and-eudaimonic-well-being">Nature time and eudaimonic well-being</h2>



Researchers invited people in Turku, Finland, to share how the outdoors shows up in their real lives. 



First, 158 residents answered questions about time in nature and how their lives felt in terms of purpose, self-acceptance, growth, relationships, autonomy, and life management. 



Then, 20 people joined creative writing workshops to describe, in their own words, how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-forest-bathing-fresh-breath-for-teen-mental-health/">natural world shapes them</a>. The team paired numbers with stories to capture both patterns and personal depth.



“We wanted to explore how nature supports people's self-acceptance, purpose of life, positive relationships, autonomy, personal growth and agency, as well as life management," explains Joha Järekari, Doctoral Researcher at the <a href="https://www.utu.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Turku</a>.



"This is called eudaimonic well-being and it can be considered in contrast to <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hedonism/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hedonism</a>: whereas hedonism focuses on short-term pleasures, eudaimonia delves into longer and deeper well-being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-time-evokes-deep-feelings">Nature time evokes deep feelings</h2>



The study focused on two groups: ages 15 to 24 and adults over 60. Different life stages bring different needs. 



Yet a clear theme showed up in both: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/virtual-forest-bathing-can-reduce-stress-and-improve-mood/">nature felt nonjudgmental</a>. Trees do not judge. Water does not grade them. That sense of relief made room for honesty.



“Although there were some differences between the different age groups in how they spent time in nature and in what kinds of places, they also had many shared experiences," Järekari noted.



"What both age groups had in common was, among other things, a feeling that nature does not judge or criticize, which had a positive effect on the participants' self-acceptance."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-choices-and-belonging">Choices and belonging</h2>



Participants described two kinds of connection. One was inward. Time outside - on a trail, beside water, in a garden - made it easier to hear their own values and act on them. 



The other was outward. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-scents-linked-to-improved-health-and-well-being/">Being outdoors</a> helped people feel closer to friends and family, and also widened their sense of community to include birds, trees, and other living things. 



That broader bond pointed toward meaning, not just good moods.



“Spending time and being active in nature brought to the surface what was really important to the participants in their lives," Järekari describes.



"This increased people's agency and autonomy and had a positive impact on personal growth. The participants reported that it was easier to get in touch with oneself, with other people, and with other species."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-factoring-in-age-and-experience">Factoring in age and experience</h2>



Older adults often talked about shared moments with grandchildren and unhurried walks, the kind that leave room for quiet. 



Some mentioned <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/religious-leaders-tried-psilocybin-and-it-changed-their-lives/">moments of spirituality</a>, a quiet awareness of being part of something larger than themselves. 



Younger people leaned on the outdoors for healthy solitude. They could be alone without feeling lonely, or with friends without filling every second with conversation. Different routes, same endpoint: a more authentic self.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-worry-creeps-in">When worry creeps in</h2>



The picture was not perfect. Many participants, especially younger ones, felt the weight of environmental damage. 



Worry about climate change often chipped away at that comfort. Shame showed up too, a feeling of being part of the problem just by being human.



“However, this feeling grew stronger when participants noticed the visible effects of the ecological crisis on their surroundings," Järekari continued.



"Many young people also described a sense of shame about being part of the problem, so to speak, by being part of humanity, which challenged their self-acceptance."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-time-goes-deep">Nature time goes deep</h2>



Plenty of research shows that green space can lower stress and help attention bounce back. This work points to something deeper: <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0329411" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">identity-level effects</a> that unfold over time. 



It suggests that nature is not just a reset button. It is a steady setting where people practice being who they want to be.



“Our research unlocks the impact of nature on people's well-being on a deeper level than stress relief or positive emotions," Järekari emphasizes.



"Connection to nature is important to us on an identity level and often shapes our lives in ways that aren’t immediately obvious, but become clearer over time."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eudaimonic-well-being-in-society">Eudaimonic well-being in society</h2>



Design choices of public spaces matter. If we judge parks only by how many joggers they attract, we miss a big part of their value. 



People need quiet corners, meandering paths, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-environment-day-the-critical-role-of-nature-in-human-well-being/">benches under trees</a>. Those places support reflection, relationships, and responsibility - features, not extras.



“It is important to encourage a deeper public discussion about the meaning of nature in people’s lives," adds Salla Eilola, Postdoctoral Researcher at the University of Turku. 



"Consequently, these issues could also be taken into account in decision-making and, for example, in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adn3028" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban planning</a>, where nature still often unfortunately has to give way to built environment," 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-steps-lasting-benefits">Small steps, lasting benefits</h2>



You do not need a dramatic plan to make this real. Pick a nearby spot and go there on a regular day, not just on the best day. Let your mind settle and see what values bubble up. 



If you spend time with kids or elders, choose slow routes that welcome pauses. Put phones aside. Short, steady moments count.



None of this turns a park into a productivity tool. It simply gives you space to notice what matters and act on it. 



That's the heart of eudaimonic well-being, and nature offers a simple doorway - whether it is a patch of grass, a line of trees, or a stretch of water.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pan3.70104" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">People and Nature</a>.



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Walking through a forest can reshape who you are and bring inner peace, according to science

Ask yourself this: when was the last time you felt...

The sight of a whale shark, the largest fish alive today, leaves most people humbled. Its slow, graceful movements and gentle nature often make them symbols of the ocean’s mystery. Yet behind this serene image lies a struggle for survival.



Populations have fallen sharply, and their biology makes recovery slow. The findings of a new study from Indonesian waters not only reveal the scale of human impacts but also highlight why protecting whale sharks is vital for ocean health.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-whale-shark-decline-accelerates">Whale shark decline accelerates</h2>



Over the last 75 years, global whale shark numbers have dropped by more than half. In the Indo-Pacific, declines are even steeper. 



Hunting, habitat disruption, and entanglements push whale sharks closer to extinction. Because they take up to 30 years to mature, populations rebound very slowly. 



Large-bodied species like whale sharks face unique risks in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/silent-invasion-how-microplastics-are-disrupting-land-ecosystems/">ecosystems</a> since they grow slowly, reproduce late, and invest heavily in fewer offspring. 



The researchers noted that the disappearance of such giants can ripple through marine systems.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-injuries-trace-back-to-people">Injuries trace back to people</h2>



In the Bird’s Head Seascape of West Papua, the research team found 62 percent of whale sharks bore scars or wounds, mostly from human actions.



“We found that scars and injuries were mainly from anthropogenic causes, such as collisions with ‘bagans’ - traditional fishing platforms with lift nets - and whale shark-watching tour boats,” said Dr. Edy Setyawan of the <a href="https://www.elasmobranchinstitute.id" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Elasmobranch Institute Indonesia</a>.



“Relatively harmless minor abrasions were the most common. Serious injuries from natural causes such as predator attacks, or from boat propellers were much less common."



Patterns in ecology show that when human activities concentrate near feeding or breeding grounds, injury rates increase significantly. 



According to the study, direct human pressures such as vessel strikes and fishing gear interactions remain among the greatest global threats to megafauna. Whale sharks are no exception.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-following-the-gentle-giants">Following the gentle giants</h2>



Between 2010 and 2023, the scientists tracked whale sharks across Cenderawasih Bay, Kaimana, Raja Ampat, and Fakfak. This biodiversity hotspot hosts 26 marine protected areas. Using the distinctive spot patterns of each shark, the researchers identified 268 individuals.



Nearly all sightings occurred near bagans, where whale sharks fed on <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ocean-warming-threatens-the-global-fish-supply/">baitfish</a> like anchovies and sprats. Most were juvenile males, four to five meters long. More than half were resighted, including one young male recorded 34 times over three years.



From an ecological lens, these observations support a classic theory: young individuals often use coastal waters rich in food, while adults migrate offshore into deeper, less accessible habitats.



Such ontogenetic shifts are common across marine megafauna and are essential for population survival.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-injuries-reshape-populations">Injuries reshape populations</h2>



Of 206 sharks with scars, over 80 percent carried human-caused injuries. Serious wounds, including lacerations and blunt trauma, were rare but concerning. More often, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/whale-sharks-move-into-dangerous-territory-as-the-climate-warms/">sharks</a> bore superficial abrasions from rubbing against fishing gear and boats.



Studies across marine ecology emphasize that while minor wounds may not kill, cumulative injuries reduce overall fitness.



Injured animals often change behavior, avoid key feeding zones, or expend more energy healing. Over time, this shapes population dynamics.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-female-whale-sharks-live-in-deep-seas">Female whale sharks live in deep seas</h2>



A lingering question is the absence of females and older individuals, since previous studies show that adult whale sharks - especially females - prefer the deep ocean where they feed on prey like krill and schooling fish.



By contrast, younger males remain near shore in shallow, plankton-rich waters that help them grow quickly.



“Our own satellite tracking data also show that females and adults frequently use deep sea features such as canyons and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seamounts-are-gathering-hubs-for-ocean-predators/">seamounts</a>,” said study co-author Mochamad Iqbal Herwata Putra.



Ecological theory explains this pattern: sexual segregation often arises in large marine vertebrates, with males and females exploiting different ecological niches to reduce competition and improve survival chances. This strategy is a driver of population resilience across species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tourism-brings-dangers-to-whale-sharks">Tourism brings dangers to whale sharks</h2>



Staying near coasts, whale sharks offer strong potential for ecotourism. 



“Whale sharks in Cenderawasih Bay and Triton Bay (Kaimana) had high rates of residency and resighting, indicating that they should be viewed as valuable tourism assets for local communities and governments,” said Dr. Mark Erdmann of Rewild.



However, unmanaged <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animals-change-their-daily-schedules-when-tourists-are-watching/">wildlife tourism</a> can create a risky cycle: attraction leads to proximity, which heightens disturbance and injury risk.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-changes-big-impact">Small changes, big impact</h2>



The researchers recommend small but effective changes, such as modifying fishing platforms to remove sharp edges.



“We aim to work with the management authorities of the marine protected areas to develop regulations to require slight modifications to the bagans, including the removal of any sharp edges from boat outriggers and net frames," said Erdmann. "We believe those changes will greatly reduce scarring of whale sharks in the region."



Ecological models highlight that even minor adjustments in human practices can dramatically reduce stress on threatened populations. 



Protecting whale sharks is more than conserving one species. It safeguards a keystone component of marine food webs, maintains ecosystem balance, and secures benefits for communities who depend on healthy seas.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2025.1607027/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.



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Whale sharks are literally scarred by human activity

The sight of a whale shark, the largest fish alive...

When you think about Earth’s building blocks, your mind probably doesn’t jump to a giant space butterfly 3,400 light-years away. But scientists studying one of the galaxy’s most dramatic nebulae - the Butterfly Nebula - say it might offer real answers about how rocky planets like ours came to be.



Thanks to the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), researchers got the clearest look yet inside this strange, fiery structure. What they found were signs of dust - the kind that helped form Earth itself.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-webb-spots-building-blocks-of-planets">Webb spots building blocks of planets</h2>



Cosmic dust consists of minute mineral and organic debris suspended in space. It contains ingredients that probably took part in the beginning of life. Scientists weren’t entirely certain how it develops until now.



The Webb Telescope directed its keen eyes toward the dense center of the Butterfly Nebula, an incredible wing-like cloud of gas and dust in the constellation <a href="https://www.earth.com/image/dark-wolf-nebula-in-the-constellation-scorpius/">Scorpius</a>, far beyond Earth. Instead of seeing just one type of dust, scientists found two. 



“We were able to see both cool gemstones formed in calm, long-lasting zones and fiery grime created in violent, fast-moving parts of space, all within a single object,” said lead researcher Dr. Mikako Matsuura of <a href="https://www.cardiff.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cardiff University</a>.



Most dust in space is messy and disorganized, like soot. But some forms perfect crystals - much more structured, like tiny gems. The nebula contains both, all in one place. This suggests that different kinds of cosmic environments can create very different types of dust, even right next to each other.



“This discovery is a big step forward in understanding how the basic materials of planets, come together," said Dr. Matsuura.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-star-hiding-in-plain-sight">A star hiding in plain sight</h2>



The Butterfly Nebula’s bright, complex glow comes from a white-hot central star - one of the hottest of its kind, blazing at around 220,000 Kelvin (over 395,000°F). 



But the star itself has been hard to spot. It’s buried inside a thick, dusty ring of gas shaped like a doughnut, called a torus. That doughnut blocks visible light, making it impossible to see with regular telescopes.



Webb’s Mid-Infrared Instrument (MIRI) employs a camera and a spectrograph that are capable of seeing through the dust. Using this technology, the researchers discovered the obscured star by identifying a glowing cloud of dust surrounding it, radiating in infrared wavelengths.



This dusty torus is made of crystalline silicates like quartz, plus irregular grains about a millionth of a meter across - surprisingly large for cosmic dust. Their size and shape suggest they’ve been growing steadily for a long time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fiery-jets-carve-a-cosmic-butterfly">Fiery jets carve a cosmic butterfly</h2>



Past the torus, things get more chaotic. The nebula’s shape is bipolar, meaning it has two giant lobes stretching in opposite directions like wings. A pair of high-speed jets shoot out from the center, traced by elements like iron and nickel.



The new observations also uncovered layered shells of different atoms. Elements that need more energy to form cluster closer to the hot star, while others settle farther out. This paints a picture of a very organized - yet wild - environment.



Another surprise came in the form of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/building-blocks-of-life-found-in-asteroids-were-formed-in-cold-regions-of-space/">polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons</a> (PAHs). These carbon-based molecules are built like tiny rings and are found on Earth in things like car exhaust, smoke from campfires, and even burnt toast.



The PAHs showed up in a place no one expected - inside an oxygen-rich planetary nebula. Usually, these kinds of molecules form in carbon-rich environments. Their presence here hints at a unique type of chemical reaction happening as fast winds from the central star slam into surrounding gas.



The team suspects this may be the first evidence of PAHs forming under these conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nebula-chemistry-reshapes-rocky-worlds">Nebula chemistry reshapes rocky worlds</h2>



Planetary nebulae - despite the name - are the final stages of medium-sized stars like our Sun. They form when those stars puff off their outer layers before cooling down into <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/white-dwarf-stars-may-be-billions-of-years-older-than-estimated/">white dwarfs</a>.



That’s where many of the raw materials for future stars and planets are made. These nebulae might last only around 20,000 years - a blink in cosmic time - but during that period, they shape the chemistry of the galaxy.



The Butterfly Nebula is one of the best-studied examples, previously imaged by the Hubble Space Telescope. But the James Webb Space Telescope goes deeper, letting scientists explore not just the shape of the nebula, but its internal chemistry.



Using Webb’s detailed imaging along with radio data from the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array, researchers found nearly 200 spectral lines - signals from different atoms and molecules. These signals showed how different chemicals are arranged in layers - revealing complex, nested structures.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-butterfly-nebula-reveals-planet-recipes">Butterfly Nebula reveals planet recipes</h2>



The Butterfly Nebula’s beauty is just the surface. Underneath its glow lies a complicated process that turns dying stars into factories for dust and molecules - the very kind that can help form planets.



"For years, scientists have debated how cosmic dust forms in space. But now, with the help of the powerful <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/webb-telescope-reveals-climate-never-before-seen-in-our-solar-system-pluto-haze/">James Webb Space Telescope</a>, we may finally have a clearer picture," said Dr. Matsuura.



With each new discovery, the question of how rocky worlds like Earth form becomes a little less mysterious - and a lot more exciting.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mnras/article/542/2/1287/8241385" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society</a>.



Image Credit: ESA/Webb, NASA &amp; CSA, M. Matsuura, ALMA (ESO/NAOJ/NRAO), N. Hirano, M. Zamani (ESA/Webb)



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Butterfly Nebula may hold new clues to Earth’s origins

When you think about Earth’s building blocks, your mind probably...

Seventy million years ago, Patagonia was a land of rivers and floodplains. Dinosaurs wandered among turtles, frogs, and early mammals. 



In these wetlands lurked a powerful predator with crushing jaws. Its remains stayed buried until scientists uncovered them in Argentina’s Chorrillo Formation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-kostensuchus-atrox-in-stone">Kostensuchus atrox in stone</h2>



The skeleton came from a large concretion and was perfectly preserved. The find includes a skull, jaws, ribs, and parts of the body. 



Measuring 3.5 meters (11.5 feet) in length and weighing around 250 kilograms (551 pounds), the animal stood as <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/Kostensuchus-atrox_crocodile-relative_Gabriel-Diaz-Yanten_1m.jpg">one of the largest hunters of its time</a>.



The massive animal had wide jaws and sharp, serrated teeth. Few <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dinosaur-extinction-theories-are-challenged-by-new-research/">creatures</a> could escape its grasp.



Scientists named it Kostensuchus atrox. Kosten is the fierce Patagonian wind, Souchos is the Egyptian crocodile god, and atrox means harsh. The name captures both place and power.



“Kostensuchus atrox gives us an incredible window into a vanished ecosystem,” said Fernando Novas of the Bernardino Rivadavia Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-crocodile-relative-not-a-dinosaur">Crocodile relative, not a dinosaur</h2>



Despite its size, K. atrox was not a dinosaur. It belonged to the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/joa.14182" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">peirosaurids</a>, close <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/life-on-earth-before-during-and-after-the-dinosaur-killing-asteroid-strike-mosasaurs/">relatives</a> of modern crocodiles.



This is the first crocodyliform from the <a href="https://dinodata.de/bibliothek/pdf_p/2019/002_655-2958-1-PB_dd.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Chorrillo Formation</a> and one of the best preserved ever found. Its short, broad snout and strong jaw muscles reveal how it hunted. It was not a scavenger. It was a killer.



The teeth tell the story. Large, blade-like, and edged with fine serrations, they could slice flesh clean. Its jaws and muscles gave it a crushing bite. 



Earlier peirosaurids were smaller, many weighing only tens of kilograms. Kostensuchus was different. Evolution pushed it toward hypercarnivory, specializing in large prey.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sharing-the-top">Sharing the top</h2>



In its world, only the massive megaraptorid Maip was larger. Together, they ruled the Chorrillo ecosystem. Farther north, predator groups looked different.



Abelisaurid dinosaurs dominated there, but southern Patagonia had a split rule: theropods and crocodile relatives side by side. This mix highlights how predator guilds varied even within the same continent.



The study compares Kostensuchus with baurusuchids, another predator <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/giant-dinosaur-skulls-reveal-unique-hunting-strategies/">lineage</a>. Both groups evolved slicing teeth and powerful skulls. But they didn’t look the same.



Baurusuchids had long, narrow heads. Kostensuchus had a wide, short snout. Its forelimbs were also stronger, with signs of flexibility in the humerus. That difference may point to different ways of bringing prey down.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-anatomy-of-kostensuchus-atrox">Anatomy of Kostensuchus atrox</h2>



Other bones offer more clues. Its shoulder girdle and pelvis suggest a posture not fully upright. It may have walked with limbs spread slightly wider, hinting at a lifestyle both on land and in water. Unlike modern crocodiles, it wasn’t limited to ambush in rivers. 



It may have chased prey across floodplains too. Strong forelimbs support this idea. They could have pinned prey while the jaws delivered fatal bites.



The skull shows clear adaptations for muscle attachment. Deep pits and ridges allowed large muscles to anchor, boosting bite force. 



The lower jaw bones were robust, and resisted stress from struggling prey and powerful thrashing movements.



Serrated teeth reveal repeated replacement, showing that it stayed well-armed throughout its life. These constant replacements meant damaged teeth never left the predator defenseless. 



Together, these features confirm a predator that was suited for active hunting, not passive feeding, and was fully adapted to dominate its environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dinosaurs-and-kostensuchus-atrox">Dinosaurs and Kostensuchus atrox</h2>



Kostensuchus lived at the edge of extinction. It thrived in southern Patagonia’s warm, humid landscapes before the great asteroid ended the Cretaceous.



Its discovery proves that crocodile relatives were not background hunters. They were apex predators that, alongside dinosaurs, shaped ecosystems.



The find expands our view of crocodyliform evolution. It shows how these reptiles adapted to fill predator roles that were often thought exclusive to dinosaurs. 



It also reveals differences between ecosystems in South America, where predator communities could change drastically over distance.



Without fossils like this, we might still think crocodile relatives were secondary players. Instead, Kostensuchus atrox reminds us that they were central to the story of life at the end of the age of dinosaurs.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0328561" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PLOS One</a>.



Image credit: Gabriel Diaz Yanten, CC-BY 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)



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Ancient crocodile relative was fierce predator alongside dinosaurs

Seventy million years ago, Patagonia was a land of rivers...

Asteroids have been drifting through our solar system since long before the Earth had continents, oceans, or even life itself. The ancient space rocks contain clues about the origins of our solar system, and now scientists have finally acquired some of these space treasures.



NASA’s <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/osiris-rex/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">OSIRIS-REx</a> mission has delivered samples from the asteroid Bennu, and their analysis is reshaping our understanding of ancient space rocks. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-color-changing-mystery-of-asteroids">Color-changing mystery of asteroids</h2>



When viewed through telescopes, some gray asteroids appear red while others look blue - despite being made of the same material. Astronomers have been puzzled by why these space rocks scatter light so differently.



It's not just about the colors. Knowing how asteroids diffuse light enables scientists to determine what they're composed of without having to travel to each one and take samples.



The answer lies in a process called <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-ryugu-holds-clues-about-bombardment-in-the-early-solar-system/">space weathering</a>. Just as a penny turns green over time or paint fades in the sun, asteroid surfaces change when bombarded by radiation, micrometeorites, and the solar wind. 



But the surprising part is this: it’s not different kinds of weathering that make the difference - it’s timing.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-space-objects-change-over-time">How space objects change over time</h2>



Michelle Thompson, an associate professor of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences in <a href="https://www.purdue.edu/science/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Purdue's College of Science</a>, has been studying these space rocks and their interactions with the harsh environment of space. 



Her work focuses on understanding how the surfaces of rocky bodies, from our moon to distant asteroids, change over time.



"Sample return missions are a cornerstone of planetary science," Thompson said. "They give us snapshots of the chemistry and the composition of the very <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-meteorites-provide-a-window-into-the-early-solar-system/">early solar system</a>. They let us look at the building blocks of the planets and inventory what was there."



"We can also compare Bennu's samples to samples from Japan's <a href="https://science.nasa.gov/mission/hayabusa/">Hayabusa</a> missions and get a better understanding of how these asteroids change and evolve, and what we can tell about asteroids from the surface of the Earth compared to when we look at the samples themselves."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-asteroids-one-story">Two asteroids, one story</h2>



The breakthrough came when scientists compared <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-bennu-holds-secrets-of-the-solar-systems-past/">Bennu</a> to another asteroid called <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/asteroid-ryugu-may-be-a-leftover-from-the-suns-formation/">Ryugu</a>, which was visited by Japanese spacecraft. 



Both are what scientists call "rubble pile" asteroids - basically cosmic junk piles held together by weak gravity. They're both made of dark, carbon-rich materials and formed around the same time, roughly 4.6 billion years ago, when our solar system was just getting started.



Logic would suggest they should look identical through telescopes. But Ryugu appears slightly red while Bennu looks blue. 



Scientists thought this meant the asteroids were weathering differently in space. The samples revealed something much more interesting.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-cosmic-clock-of-color-changes">A cosmic clock of color changes</h2>



The real story is about time. These rubble pile asteroids are constantly shifting and tumbling, which brings fresh material from their interiors to the surface. It's like having a rock tumbler in space that occasionally spills out new pebbles.



Surface grains from Ryugu have been exposed to space for only a few thousand years - practically brand new in cosmic terms. Meanwhile, Bennu's surface particles have been getting blasted by <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/3d-printed-hydrogels-developed-to-protect-astronauts-from-space-radiation/">space radiation</a> for tens of thousands of years. They're at different points in the same aging process.



"And so instead of looking at two different trajectories for how this process is operating on these bodies, we're seeing two different points in one cycle," Thompson said. "Their 'colors' are changing, meaning their spectral properties are changing relative to their surface exposure age."



This discovery is huge for future <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/civilian-spacewalk-is-a-giant-leap-in-space-exploration/">space exploration</a>. With 1.45 million known asteroids in our solar system, we can't visit them all. But now scientists can look at an asteroid's color through a telescope and get a much better idea of what they'll find on its surface.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-bennu-carries-ancient-recipes-for-life">Bennu carries ancient recipes for life</h2>



The Bennu samples revealed something else exciting. Hidden within the space rock were salts, including phosphates that are essential for life on Earth. These compounds help power our metabolism and make up the backbone of DNA.



Scientists found evidence of ancient brine - basically salty water that would have created perfect conditions for the chemical reactions that might lead to life. The asteroid essentially carried a recipe card for life's basic ingredients.



"Looking at the organic molecules from Bennu, we are getting an understanding of what kinds of molecules could have seeded life on early Earth," Thompson said. 



"Information about what compounds, what elements are there and in what proportions. We won't find life itself, but we're looking at the building blocks that could have eventually evolved into life."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-time-capsules-from-the-dawn-of-everything">Time capsules from the dawn of everything</h2>



What makes these asteroid samples so special is their age and pristine condition. Earth has been recycling its materials for billions of years through plate tectonics, erosion, and biological processes. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earth-may-have-always-held-the-key-ingredients-for-life/">ingredients for life</a> are still here, but they've been mixed and remixed countless times.



Bennu's samples, on the other hand, have been sitting in the cosmic freezer for 4.6 billion years. They're like finding a perfectly preserved meal from the very first restaurant in the Universe.



"Asteroids are relics of the early solar system," Thompson said. "They're like time capsules. We can use them to examine the origin of our solar system and to open a window to the origin of life on Earth."



The research shows that Bennu contains materials from across our solar system and possibly beyond, all mixed together and transformed by water and space weathering over billions of years. It's a cosmic mixtape of the early solar system's greatest hits.



This research opens doors for future asteroid missions, whether for science or resource extraction. By understanding how asteroid colors relate to their surface exposure and composition, future explorers will have a much better roadmap for choosing which space rocks to visit. 



The gray asteroids that shine red and blue aren't just pretty to look at - they're guidebooks to our solar system's past and potential keys to its future exploration.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-61201-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Asteroid colors: Clues from the dawn of the solar system

Asteroids have been drifting through our solar system since long...

A child’s skeleton, found nearly a century ago in Skhul Cave on Mount Carmel in Israel, has taken on new meaning after a modern re-analysis. 



A fresh look at the skull and jaw, dated to roughly 140,000 years ago, suggests that the remains show a blend of Homo sapiens and Neanderthal traits.



The authors say this specimen is the earliest anatomically modern <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/denisova-cave-concealed-the-history-of-a-forgotten-human-lineage-denisovans/">human</a> fossil to show this mix of features, and they propose the child may reflect early population contact in the Levant. 



Other researchers welcome the data but note that proof of a hybrid requires more than bones alone.



This work comes from Professor Israel Hershkovitz of Tel Aviv University (<a href="http://tau.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">TAU</a>) and Anne Dambricourt-Malassé of the French National Centre for Scientific Research (<a href="https://www.cnrs.fr/en/the-cnrs" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">CNRS</a>). 



Their international team revisited the specimen known as Skhul I with state-of-the-art imaging.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-fossil-features-of-the-skhul-child">Fossil features of the Skhul child </h2>



The braincase has the overall curved vault seen in modern humans, while the lower jaw lacks a chin and shows dental patterns more typical of Neanderthals, according to the study. 



In paleoanthropology, the bony chin, or mentum osseum, is usually considered a hallmark of our species, so its absence matters to the anatomical argument.



“Genetic studies over the past decade have shown that these two groups exchanged genes,” said Professor Hershkovitz. 



Genetic <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature12961" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a> over the last decade shows that many people living outside Africa carry a small share of Neanderthal DNA, and the primary wave of gene flow likely occurred around 50,000 to 60,000 years ago.&nbsp;



The team also noted inner ear anatomy that is consistent with Neanderthal-like <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/neanderthals-vanished-from-uv-rays-no-clothes-homo-sapiens-adapted/">traits</a> in parts of the skull. 



That line of evidence has weight because the bony <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12662940/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">labyrinth</a> of the inner ear preserves well and is useful for sorting ancient populations, even if there is some overlap between groups.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/Skhul-I-child-skull_neanderthal-human-interbreeding_Tel-Aviv-University_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/Skhul-I-child-skull_neanderthal-human-interbreeding_Tel-Aviv-University_1s.webp" alt="The skull of Skhul I child showing cranial curvature typical of Homo sapiens. Credit: Tel Aviv University" class="wp-image-1983561"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The skull of Skhul I child showing cranial curvature typical of Homo sapiens. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Tel Aviv University</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-the-skhul-child-matters">Why the Skhul child matters</h2>



Skhul and nearby Qafzeh have long been <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4920294/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">known</a> for early intentional burials, a sign that complex social behavior was in play among Pleistocene people in the Levant. 



If the Skhul I child is not purely Homo sapiens, then the earliest formal burials may not belong to a single lineage.



The Levant already looks like a long-term meeting zone. A 2021 <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abh3169" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">report</a> from Israel’s Nesher Ramla site described a Middle Pleistocene group with a patchwork of features, consistent with repeated contact among regional populations. 



That context makes a mixed-feature child from Skhul easier to imagine in population terms.



A later and famous case often raised in comparisons is the <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.96.13.7604" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Lagar Velho</a> child from Portugal. 



This evidence, dated to about 24,500 years ago, showed a mosaic of features and sparked debate about mixing late in Europe’s prehistory. Skhul I predates that Iberian burial by well over 100,000 years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-testing-an-old-fossil">Testing an old fossil</h2>



The researchers scanned the skull and jaw using <a href="https://www.microphotonics.com/what-is-micro-ct-an-introduction/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">micro-CT</a>, built detailed 3D models, and virtually “removed” historic plaster from the jaw to avoid biasing measurements. 



The team corrected the position of a frontal bone piece and compared the inner ear and dental structures with known Neanderthal and modern human samples.



Inner ear form is not a casual choice here. Because this structure develops early and sits in dense bone, it tends to resist environmental noise and often tracks population history in comparative datasets. 



That makes the labyrinth a useful, though not perfect, marker alongside cranial and mandibular <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tinshemet-cave-discovery-neanderthals-early-humans-sharing-and-complex-interactions/">traits</a>.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/Skhul-I-child-lower-jaw_neanderthal-human-interbreeding_Tel-Aviv-University_1.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/Skhul-I-child-lower-jaw_neanderthal-human-interbreeding_Tel-Aviv-University_1s.webp" alt="The lower jaw of Skhul I child showing features characteristics of Neanderthals. Credit: Tel Aviv University" class="wp-image-1983558"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">The lower jaw of Skhul I child showing features characteristics of Neanderthals. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Tel Aviv University</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-controversy-surround-the-hybrid-claim">Controversy surround the hybrid claim</h2>



Skepticism centers on whether bones alone can prove hybrid ancestry. Paleoanthropologist Chris Stringer noted that, in his view, the material still primarily aligns with Homo sapiens while allowing that some gene flow could be reflected at Skhul.&nbsp;



Other specialists point out that the main wave of Neanderthal ancestry in living people traces to encounters tens of thousands of years later than the Skhul burial. 



Studies mapping archaic segments across modern genomes consistently place the largest signal of Neanderthal ancestry in a window around 50,000 years ago.



The cleanest way to settle this for Skhul I would be ancient DNA. That may be difficult in warm environments. 



However, the petrous portion of the <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0129102" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">temporal bone</a> often yields far more endogenous DNA than other skeletal elements and has transformed work on ancient genomes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions </h2>



Two things can change the conversation fast: new genome data from Skhul remains and broader comparative frameworks for Levantine <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-link-autism-to-neanderthal-dna-genetic-variants-found-in-modern-humans/">fossils</a> of this age. 



The inner ear and mandible findings invite a re-check of other Mount Carmel material with the same toolkit the team used here.



Separately, the Levant’s cultural record matters for how we read identity in these bones. 



Mousterian stone tools made with the <a href="https://stonetoolsmuseum.com/story/levallois-method/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Levallois method</a> appear with both Neanderthals and early modern humans in this region, so toolkits alone do not sort populations cleanly&nbsp;



A final note on expectations helps keep things grounded. Anatomy can document a mosaic of traits, but deciding whether that mosaic means a first-generation hybrid or long-term gene flow across neighboring groups is a question that only genetics can pin down with confidence.



Click here to watch a <a href="https://youtu.be/t0TktMFPDPM" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">video explanation of the Skhul child...</a>



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0003552125000366?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">L’Anthropologie</a>.



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Skeleton is determined to be a 'hybrid child' of a human and Neanderthal interbreeding

A child’s skeleton, found nearly a century ago in Skhul...

A new study traces how our hips changed so our ancestors could walk on two legs. It identifies two precise changes during early development that reshaped the pelvis and set the stage for stable, efficient bipedal movement.



The work follows what happens inside a forming hip, from early cartilage to bone. It clarifies when a key growth zone turns and when bone hardening is delayed, producing a short, wide, bowl-like pelvis suited for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/upright-walking-may-have-sparked-human-creativity-and-music/">upright walking</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rotation-of-hip-growth-plate">Rotation of hip growth plate</h2>



The research was led by Professor Terence D. Capellini, Chair of Human Evolutionary Biology at Harvard University.



The first discovery centers on the growth plate, a thin zone where cartilage cells multiply and stack as a bone lengthens. In humans, the iliac growth plate starts out like other primates, then by day 53 of development it swings 90 degrees, so growth runs across the pelvis instead of head to tail.



That single rotation turns the ilium from tall and narrow into short and wide. “What we’ve done here is demonstrate that in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/earliest-known-evidence-of-humans-and-neanderthals-interbreeding-skhul-child/">human</a> evolution there was a complete mechanistic shift,” said Capellini.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-delayed-bone-hardening">Delayed bone hardening</h2>



The second change is all about timing. In a process called ossification, most bones start hardening from a center point in the shaft, then spread inward and outward.



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-early-homo-species-discovered-lived-with-australopithecus-challenges-human-evolution-theory/">Human</a> ilia break that pattern. Bone begins near the back, next to the sacrum, and spreads radially along the outer rim while the inside stays cartilaginous for roughly 16 weeks. This allows the pelvis to keep its shape as it enlarges.



That delay keeps the “basin” geometry intact while muscles and ligaments find their anchors. “But the histology really revealed that it actually flipped 90 degrees,” said Capellini.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pelvis-rotation-and-timing">Pelvis rotation and timing</h2>



Behind those shifts are cells called chondrocytes that build cartilage and a ring of tissue called the perichondrium that helps initiate bone. The team mapped more than 300 active genes and highlighted three with outsized roles in these steps.



Mutations in the SOX9 gene can cause <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK1760/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">campomelic dysplasia</a>, which includes unusually narrow hip bones with reduced lateral flare. That clinical pattern matches what you would expect if iliac growth plate widening fails.



Activating variants in the PTH1R gene cause Jansen metaphyseal chondrodysplasia, a disorder tied to abnormal growth plate signaling. Changes in that same pathway appear to help reorient the human iliac growth plate.



Homozygous PTH1R (a genetic state where an individual inherits two non-functional copies of the PTH1R gene) mutations are linked to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/medgen/325097" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Eiken syndrome</a> with delayed bone ossification. That mirrors the second developmental shift documented in the iliac growth plate’s development.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-hip-changes-began-early">Human hip changes began early</h2>



The research team scanned and sectioned 128 embryonic and fetal samples, covering <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meat-consumption-drove-an-evolutionary-leap-in-early-humans/">humans</a> and nearly two dozen primates. The human pattern was different, and it was different early.



According to the researchers, the growth plate reorientation began after our branch split from African apes. Later, as selection balanced walking efficiency with childbirth, the ossification delay likely emerged to preserve shape while the pelvis grew.



“All fossil hominids from that point on were growing the pelvis differently from any other primate that came before,” said Capellini. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pelvis-shaped-walking-and-birth">Pelvis shaped walking and birth</h2>



A short, wide ilium changes how key muscles work. The flaring blades reposition gluteus medius and gluteus minimus muscles so they stabilize the pelvis when one leg is on the ground during a step.



Comparative work shows that flaring ilia reorient hip muscles and influence birth canal shape, as outlined in a <a href="https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4305164/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">review</a>. That broader context helps explain why the pelvis must serve walking, load transfer, and childbirth together.



The study also notes early attachments for the rectus femoris and the iliofemoral ligament near the front of the <a href="https://radiopaedia.org/articles/ilium" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ilium</a>. Those connections fit the demands of upright gait and help resist pelvic drop during single-leg support.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-changes-in-hips">Tracking changes in hips</h2>



The investigators combined micro CT with histology to see shape changes over time. They then layered single-cell multiomics and spatial transcriptomics to match gene activity with exact locations in the tissue.



That blend linked a rotated growth plate to SOX9, PTH1R, and related signals. It also tied the unusual rim-first, inside-late ossification to the RUNX2 gene and factors that govern when and where bone cells appear.



The combined picture shows a coordinated pathway that first widens the pelvic blades, then slows internal mineralization to hold geometry while size increases. That two-step sequence explains the basin-like hips required for stable <a href="https://www.ashdin.com/articles/bipedalism-the-evolutionary-leap-that-shaped-humanity-110447.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bipedalism</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-many-questions-remain">Many questions remain</h2>



Open questions remain about how mechanical forces from early muscle contractions might reinforce the new growth directions. It is also unclear how much variation these developmental programs show across modern human populations.



Future work can probe how regulatory DNA near these genes changed through time. That could reveal whether selection acted in bursts or nudged many switches at once.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-025-09399-9" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature</a>.



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How human hips evolved for walking on two legs

A new study traces how our hips changed so our...

Sharks are built to catch moving prey with speed and precision. Their teeth do the heavy work, and new lab work suggests those teeth may not hold up as seawater becomes more acidic, according to a recent study.



Researchers tested naturally shed teeth from blacktip reef <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-detailed-map-ever-created-of-white-sharks-covers-6287-sightings/">sharks</a> under present day and projected future acidity. Teeth in more acidic water developed more surface damage after eight weeks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-shark-teeth-are-important">Why shark teeth are important</h2>



The project was led by Maximilian Baum at Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf (<a href="https://www.hhu.de/en/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">HHU</a>). His team worked with discarded shark teeth collected from an aquarium in Germany to test how acidity affects their structure.



Sharks are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology/elasmobranch" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">elasmobranch</a> fishes, a group that includes skates and rays, and they grow new teeth throughout life. Blacktip reef sharks even swim with mouths partially open to breathe, so their teeth are bathed in seawater all the time.



A shark tooth has a tough outer enameloid layer made of biological fluorapatite, with a softer dentin inside. This composition helps the crown stay sharp for cutting, while the root anchors the tooth to jaw tissue, and has porous osteodentin that is more exposed to chemical <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rare-shark-rediscovered-after-50-years/">change</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shark-teeth-in-different-water-acidity">Shark teeth in different water acidity</h2>



The team set up two tanks at pH 8.1 and pH 7.3 and incubated teeth for eight weeks. The lower value mirrors a long-term scenario used by climate assessments for the year 2300, as the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/shark-awareness-day-protecting-the-balance-of-the-ocean/">ocean</a> absorbs more carbon dioxide and pH declines.



Sixteen intact teeth were analyzed for corrosion patterns and surface changes. A larger set was imaged to track changes in measured circumference caused by roughening of serrations, not actual growth.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-impact-of-ocean-acidity">Impact of ocean acidity</h2>



Teeth at pH 7.3 showed more cracks and pits on the crown surface. They also showed more damage at the root where porous tissue is vulnerable.



Root corrosion covered about 8.2 percent of the root surface at pH 7.3, compared with 5.3 percent at pH 8.2, and those differences were statistically significant in the paper’s tests. 



Surface roughening increased the measured circumference more in the low pH group, a sign of irregular edges that could weaken <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-the-sharks-body-grows-with-geometric-precision/">teeth</a> under force.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-comparing-with-earlier-studies">Comparing with earlier studies</h2>



Previous research has found that certain sharks can keep tooth durability steady under moderate acidification. A 2022 study on Port Jackson sharks reported that teeth remained as durable under a pH drop of 0.3 units, linked to more fluoride in the tooth mineral.



The new test used a more extreme acidity and isolated, non living tissue, so it highlights chemistry alone. That design leaves out in body processes like remineralization or faster tooth replacement that living animals might use.



Physiology studies on young blacktip reef sharks show mixed effects when temperature and carbon dioxide rise together. One <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-76966-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">experiment</a> found changes in blood measures and metabolism after short term exposure, with high individual variability that suggests energy costs could add up under stressful conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ocean-acidity-threatens-shark-teeth">Ocean acidity threatens shark teeth</h2>



Ocean acidification is driven by seawater uptake of carbon dioxide that forms carbonic acid and lowers pH. Foundational <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/425365a" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research</a> shows that continued emissions can push pH declines over the next centuries, far beyond the small changes since preindustrial times.



The 7.3 scenario used in the tooth test is a worst case end member, but it helps reveal sensitivity in highly mineralized tissues. 



If future acidity trends toward lower pH in coastal nurseries where young sharks live, cumulative exposure could matter over many tooth replacement cycles.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-weaker-teeth-and-shark-hunting">Weaker teeth and shark hunting</h2>



Sharper serrations can increase cutting efficiency in the short term. Roughened edges, however, can also create stress points where cracks start and spread, making a tooth more likely to chip during prey handling.



More frequent tooth replacement is a possible buffer, but that costs energy that sharks also need for growth, swimming, and reproduction. If tooth integrity drops while energy demands rise, hunting success could slip in ways that are hard to see at first.



“I think there will be effects on the teeth of ocean predators in general when they are highly mineralized structures like we have in sharks,” said Baum.



That view lines up with the lab images of cracks and holes across the transition from root to crown. Even small flaws in that zone can weaken the whole tooth under bite forces.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-future-research-directions">Future research directions</h2>



Live animal work can test whether sharks speed up tooth replacement or boost fluoride transport to harden new crowns under stress. 



Those tests should measure mechanics directly, including toughness and fracture resistance, not just surface texture.



Field studies in reefs with natural carbon dioxide seeps could reveal whether wild teeth show similar microscale wear patterns. Coupling chemistry, mechanics, and behavior would show if damaged teeth actually reduce capture rates on real prey.



"Investigating adaptation mechanisms such as enhanced fluoride transport or ion regulation may reveal whether species like&nbsp;C. melanopterus&nbsp;can compensate for acidification effects, as suggested for other elasmobranchs," wrote the researchers.



"Understanding these capacities is critical to assess future resilience and potential impacts on predator-prey dynamics and ecosystem stability."



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/marine-science/articles/10.3389/fmars.2025.1597592/full" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Frontiers in Marine Science</a>.



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Shark teeth may weaken as oceans become more acidic

Sharks are built to catch moving prey with speed and...

Orangutans don’t count calories or track macros, yet they still maintain their fitness naturally. These great apes, who swing through the peat swamps of Borneo, have figured out how to stay healthy in a world that constantly changes what’s available to eat.



Orangutans don’t get fat, develop diabetes, or suffer from the kinds of metabolic diseases that now affect millions of people around the world.



And no, it’s not magic. It’s biology - mixed with smart behavior and a deep connection to the natural rhythms of their environment.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orangutans-strike-a-healthy-balance">Orangutans strike a healthy balance</h2>



For 15 years, researchers followed wild orangutans through the humid forests of Central Kalimantan in Indonesia, keeping track of their diets, movements, and how their bodies reacted when fruit was scarce.



Turns out, orangutans have a built-in system for balance. When food is plentiful, they eat more. When it’s not, they adjust - both what they eat and how they use energy.



Unlike most <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-link-autism-to-neanderthal-dna-genetic-variants-found-in-modern-humans/">modern humans</a>, orangutans remain metabolically flexible. That is, their bodies shift between using carbs, fats, and proteins depending on what’s available. 



They also understand when to conserve energy. When fruit is hard to find, orangutans reduce activity to conserve energy. They rest more, sleep earlier, travel less, and spend less time socializing.



Compare that to modern human habits: easy access to high-calorie, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/breaking-free-from-ultra-processed-foods-the-surprising-health-benefits/">processed foods</a> and little <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/small-bursts-of-intense-exercise-can-slow-brain-aging/">movement</a>. We don’t adjust our activity to match what we eat. Orangutans do. That’s a big reason why they avoid the health problems humans often face.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-orangutans-keep-protein-on-the-menu">Orangutans keep protein on the menu</h2>



Fruit is a favorite for orangutans. It’s rich in carbs and energy. But when the forest stops producing enough fruit - which happens often - orangutans shift gears. They eat more leaves, bark, and seeds. These foods are lower in sugar but higher in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/meat-protein-boosts-survival-but-plants-boost-longevity/">protein</a>.



Even in times of plenty, orangutans don’t overdo it. They still get protein in, no matter what. This consistent protein intake keeps them lean and with muscle mass: something that many <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/western-diet-identified-as-major-cause-of-colon-cancer/">Western diets</a> lack, particularly when meals are high in sugar and fat but low on nutrients.



The orangutans' capacity for switching fuel sources also maintains their health. During times of low-fruit availability, they burn stored body fat and muscle protein as a fuel source.



The strategy is akin to when humans fast intermittently. These periods of rest from perpetual eating might actually lower oxidative stress - a process associated with aging and illness.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-understanding-natural-dietary-patterns">Understanding natural dietary patterns </h2>



The lead scientist on this research is Erin Vogel, who collaborated with an international team through <a href="https://www.rutgers.edu/">Rutgers University</a>. Fieldwork took place at the Tuanan Orangutan Research Station in a conservation area of about the same size as Rhode Island.



“These findings show how wild Bornean orangutans adapt to changes in their environment by adjusting their nutrient intake, behavior and energy use,” said Vogel. “The work highlights the importance of understanding natural dietary patterns and their impact on health, both for orangutans and humans.”



Vogel added that human beings and orangutans share a common <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/pierolapithecus-catalaunicus-recreating-face-of-an-ancient-human-ancestor/">ancestor</a>, and therefore we share very fundamental biological systems. 



Both share the capability of adapting metabolism based on what is consumned. But human diets high levels of ultra-processed foods can interfere with this adaptability, which results in metabolic conditions such as diabetes.



“Understanding these adaptations can help us learn more about how humans can manage their diets and health,” Vogel said. “It also highlights the importance of conserving orangutan habitats to ensure their survival.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-power-of-plants">The power of plants</h2>



Earlier this year, another study led by doctoral student Will Aguado found that orangutans at the Tuanan site get most of their protein from just one plant — Bowringia callicarpa, a vine among nearly 200 species in their diet. 



Its leaves and seeds help fuel them through fruit shortages and may be one reason the population at Tuanan is thriving.



That’s a sharp contrast to the protein options humans usually rely on. Many diets today lean heavily on animal products or processed supplements. Orangutans, on the other hand, pull what they need straight from the forest.



“In essence, the research on orangutans underscores the importance of dietary balance and metabolic flexibility, which are crucial for maintaining health in both orangutans and humans,” said Vogel. 



“It suggests that modern dietary habits, characterized by high consumption of processed foods rich in sugars and fats, can lead to metabolic imbalances and health issues.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-from-orangutan-fitness">Lessons from orangutan fitness</h2>



The big takeaway? Balance and flexibility matter. Orangutans don’t eat the same thing every day. They don’t force their bodies to process more energy than they need. 



They eat what the environment provides, adjust their activity levels, and stay metabolically adaptable.



Paying attention to quality of food, staying active, and recognizing when to rest - those are lessons worth learning.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adv7613">Science Advances</a>.



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What orangutans can teach humans about food and fitness

Orangutans don’t count calories or track macros, yet they still...

Water is on the move every day in the global food trade, as massive shipments cross international borders. Wheat from Kansas ends up in Cairo. Rice from Vietnam fills supermarket shelves in London. Most people only see the final product.



Behind every ton of traded grain is something invisible and critical - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/what-is-the-water-impact-of-the-u-s-beef-industry/">water</a>. Where that water goes, or doesn’t go, is changing who has enough and who’s left behind.



There’s a name for this invisible movement: the virtual water trade. It refers to the water used to grow crops that are then shipped elsewhere. It may not be in a bottle, but that water is as real as any lake or reservoir - and its journey has serious consequences.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-virtual-water-trade-works">How the virtual water trade works</h2>



Let’s break this down. When a country imports <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-food-systems-are-gaining-momentum/">food</a>, it’s saving water. That’s because the crops were grown somewhere else using someone else’s water. Wealthier countries can afford to do this a lot. By buying food, they ease pressure on their own <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/snow-droughts-could-quadruple-by-2100-harming-water-supplies/">water supplies</a>.



On the flip side, countries that export food lose water. It’s baked into every ton of corn, soy, or sugar they send abroad. For many of these countries, water is already scarce. And when it’s gone, it’s not coming back.



It’s easy to think this system is win-win, but it’s not that simple. A new report from the UN Institute for Water, Environment and Health shows that while food trade can reduce water stress in many places, it can also make things worse for others - especially people living in poorer areas.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-inequalities-in-the-virtual-water-trade">Inequalities in the virtual water trade</h2>



According to the report, virtual water transfers through food trades generally reduce water <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/global-drought-has-caused-crisis-levels-of-food-and-water-scarcity/">scarcity</a> for much of the global population, while at the same time deepening shortages for millions of others, particularly those in low-income communities.



That’s a sharp contrast. On one hand, 75% of people in high-income countries and 62% in low-income countries benefit from lower water scarcity due to food imports. But the same system increases water stress for 22% of the population in wealthy countries and a much larger 37% in poorer nations.



The biggest concern? Those who lose out often have the fewest resources to deal with it. Even within rich countries, low-income groups feel the pressure the most.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-who-s-gaining-who-s-losing">Who’s gaining, who’s losing</h2>



Some regions come out ahead. Northern China, parts of Europe, and Northern Africa see real gains in savings thanks to global trade. But places like India, Pakistan, eastern Australia, and the central U.S. aren’t so lucky. They’re either treading water or sinking deeper into scarcity.



“This form of 'virtual water trade' reflects a broader pattern of environmental injustice around the world, where the environmental costs and risks are increasingly shifted from those who can afford to absorb them to those who cannot,” said Professor Kaveh Madani, Director of <a href="https://unu.edu/inweh">UNU-INWEH</a> and co-author of the report.



The problem isn’t just about geography. It’s also about income. Wealthier countries can adjust, adapt, or buy their way out of trouble. Poorer ones often can’t.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-no-clear-winners-in-a-complex-system">No clear winners in a complex system</h2>



International food trade doesn’t create clear good or bad outcomes. Instead, it creates trade-offs. Some countries benefit, others suffer. Even within a single country, some communities get help while others face harm.



“International agricultural trade almost never produces outcomes that are purely positive or negative,” said Dr. Yue Qin, lead author of the report. 



“This reality calls for more targeted and equity-oriented water and trade policies that support vulnerable populations with limited adaptive capacity and promote fair and sustainable global water governance.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-shaping-fairer-water-policies">Shaping fairer water policies</h2>



The report pushes for smarter, fairer policies. It urges countries to stop focusing only on national water totals and start looking at how different groups within those countries are affected.



National governments can step up by helping lower-income communities directly. That could mean subsidies, price caps, or better infrastructure for things like wells, pumps, and pipes. On farms, switching to drip <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sustainable-irrigation-could-feed-feed-1-4-billion-more-people/">irrigation</a> or growing less water-hungry crops can go a long way.



Trade policy matters too. Instead of relying on a few big export partners or crop types, countries can mix it up. China, for example, has shifted how it imports rice and wheat to balance demand better.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unequal-burdens-of-trade">Unequal burdens of trade</h2>



Agricultural trade has made the world more connected than ever, but that interdependence comes with responsibility.



“The existing global food trade system continues to make the world’s most vulnerable people and nations more vulnerable,” said Professor Madani.



It’s a tough reality. But ignoring it won’t make it go away. Only by facing the facts - and rethinking how we move both food and water - can we start to create a system that works for everyone.



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How the global food trade drains water from poor communities

Water is on the move every day in the global...

We throw the word “cool” around every day when describing people, places and things - but what are we really pointing to? Not fashion trends. Not a perfect playlist. The idea is bigger than that. 



The word "cool" is a label people use when someone stands out in a way that feels confident, lively, and a little daring.



A new set of studies tackled that slippery word head-on. Instead of asking for definitions, participants around the world rated people whom they knew. That choice matters because when you think of a real person, your answers become clearer. 



The big takeaway: “cool” <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/most-people-believe-they-deserve-good-karma-more-than-others/">overlaps with “good,”</a> but they’re not twins.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-what-makes-some-people-cool">What makes some people cool?</h2>



"Everyone wants to be cool, or at least avoid the stigma of being uncool, and society needs cool people because they challenge norms, inspire change, and advance culture," said co-lead researcher Todd Pezzuti, Ph.D., an associate professor of marketing at the <a href="https://www.uai.cl/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Universidad Adolfo Ibáñez</a> in Chile.



Researchers ran multiple experiments across countries and languages. 



In each one, people named someone they considered cool or uncool - or good or not good - and then rated that person on many traits and values. 



Comparing those patterns across places helped separate universal cues from local quirks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-the-study-was-done">How the study was done</h2>



Participants didn’t define cool in the abstract. They rated acquaintances on specific traits. That approach reduces confusion and produces results that hold up better outside the lab. 



Because the work spanned different languages and cultural settings, the team could check whether the same signals appeared consistently.



If you’ve studied personality before, you’ll recognize some of the traits on those lists. 



Think of common frameworks like the Big Five (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, emotional stability) and widely used value maps that include self-direction, security, tradition, hedonism, and power. 



The research relied on this kind of vocabulary so responses could be compared cleanly.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-traits-shared-by-cool-people">Traits shared by "cool" people</h2>



When people tag someone as cool, they’re not just saying that person is nice. Ratings show a cluster tied to boldness and self-direction. 



Cool people seem energized by others, open to new experiences, willing to take risks, and motivated by enjoyment. They also look more autonomous - like they’re steering their own ship.



"To be seen as cool, someone usually needs to be somewhat likable or admirable, which makes them similar to good people," Warren said. 



"However, cool people often have other traits that aren't necessarily considered 'good' in a moral sense, like being hedonistic and powerful."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-being-good-differs">How being "good" differs</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/people-who-are-good-with-words-have-better-health-and-live-longer/">Good people</a>, on the other hand, score higher on warmth and agreeableness. They come off as calm, conscientious, steady, and more traditional. They care about security and fitting in. 



You can picture the difference right away. A trusted neighbor who always shows up might be “good” in every sense of the word, while the trendsetting club owner or startup leader might read as “cool.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-cross-cultural-patterns-emerge">Cross-cultural patterns emerge</h2>



Here’s the twist: the pattern barely budged across the map. You might expect cool in the United States to look different from cool in South Korea or Nigeria. 



Yet the same adventurous, open, self-directed, socially energetic profile kept showing up. Slang changes. The core idea travels well.



Why would that be? Some signals are simply easy to read in any language. Openness to experience looks like trying new things. 



Autonomy looks like making your own choices. Social energy looks like bringing life to a room. People track those cues quickly, and they matter in group life everywhere.



One trait did not distinguish cool from good: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/good-listening-is-not-persuasive-in-arguments-does-not-change-minds/">basic capability</a>. Across the board, competence mattered. If someone seems ineffective, admiration is hard to earn, no matter the lane. 



Beyond that shared base, the paths split - stability and care for “good,” novelty and autonomy for “cool.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limitations-of-this-study">Limitations of this study</h2>



No study is perfect. The surveys kept the English word “cool” even when the rest of the materials were in other languages. English slang spreads widely, but that choice brings a bit of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/attractive-people-have-more-career-opportunities-and-success/">cultural flavor</a>. 



Many participants came from online panels or university pools, which are great for comparisons but don’t capture every voice.



Finally, the work looks at perceptions, not a moral scorecard. It maps how people use the label “cool,” not who deserves praise in some objective sense.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-to-be-cool-in-real-life">How to be cool in real life</h2>



Want to project cool in a healthy way? 



Skip the stone-faced act - curiosity works better. Try something people haven’t seen yet, then share the energy from that accomplishment.



Own your choices, even small ones, and show you’re comfortable steering your day. People notice autonomy and enthusiasm.



Want to project goodness? Lean into reliability and warmth. Keep your word. Offer calm help. Focus on care and steadiness. Both roles matter in a community. They just carry different cues.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-roots-and-relevance-of-cool-people">Roots and relevance of cool people</h2>



"Coolness has definitely evolved over time, but I don't think it has lost its edge. It's just become more functional," Pezzuti said. 



"The concept of coolness started in small, rebellious subcultures, including Black jazz musicians in the 1940s and the beatniks in the 1950s. As society moves faster and puts more value on creativity and change, cool people are more essential than ever."



Those roots explain why cool is tied to early movers. People who tinker, mix influences, and put ideas into action often set the pace. They may not be the most obedient in the room. They make new things feel possible.



We admire both cool people and good people, but for different reasons. If the “cool kid” and the “good kid” seem to orbit different planets, you’re not imagining it. Each plays a role in how groups change and how cultures move forward.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/xge-xge0001799.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">American Psychological Association</a>.



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People who are considered 'cool' have these six things in common across all cultures

We throw the word “cool” around every day when describing...

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</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



-----



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



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Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

[sendtonews key="G9bUoxcjr4-2511624-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

[sendtonews key="LvS8v8bp9z-2564889-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

[sendtonews key="X0f6OHYoI4-2310561-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

[sendtonews key="JRaP49ISmm-2357509-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

[sendtonews key="e4ZG0Jawp3-2374785-12187" type="single"] Astronomers at Johns Hopkins University have created...

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

[sendtonews key="oL4FnPTGCV-2384527-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from the...

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

[sendtonews key="6HyfrAJTBI-1831843-12187" type="single"] Today’s Video of the Day from the...

Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

[sendtonews key="QIoVYJqRBi-2434608-12187" type="single"] Today's Video of the Day from NASA...

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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