Scientists have engineered wheat to nudge soil bacteria into producing plant-ready nitrogen, a shift that could cut fertilizer use, curb pollution, and lower farm costs without sacrificing yields. 



The plants overproduce a natural compound, leak the excess into the soil, and in doing so jumpstart nearby microbes that “fix” nitrogen from the air into forms crops can use.



In this work, a team at the <a href="https://www.ucdavis.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of California, Davis</a>, led by Eduardo Blumwald, used <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/crispr-used-to-remove-extra-chromosomes-in-down-syndrome-and-restore-cell-function/">CRISPR</a> to dial up a wheat metabolite and tested the effect under low-nitrogen conditions.



The study extends earlier proof-of-concept in rice, with efforts underway to translate the approach to other staple cereals.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-synthetic-nitrogen-fuels-global-harvests">Synthetic nitrogen fuels global harvests</h2>



Worldwide, synthetic nitrogen fuels modern harvests but at a steep environmental and economic price. Wheat alone accounts for about 18 percent of global nitrogen fertilizer use. Of the hundreds of millions of tons produced each year, plants capture only 30 to 50 percent.



The remainder washes into rivers and coasts, feeding oxygen-starved <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/excess-nutrients-are-creating-ocean-dead-zones/">dead zones</a>, or escapes as nitrous oxide, a potent greenhouse gas. For smallholder farmers, especially in low-income regions, cost and access make fertilizer a gamble.



“In Africa, people don't use fertilizers because they don’t have money, and farms are small, not larger than six to eight acres,” Blumwald said. “Imagine, you are planting crops that stimulate bacteria in the soil to create the fertilizer that the crops need, naturally. Wow! That’s a big difference!”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wheat-learns-microbes-nitrogen-trick">Wheat learns microbes’ nitrogen trick</h2>



Nitrogen fixation is carried out by specialized bacteria using an enzyme called nitrogenase, which only functions in low-oxygen conditions. Legumes such as beans and peas solve this by hosting the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-have-root-microbiomes-like-humans-do-vital-for-survival-defense/">microbes</a> in root nodules, which are tiny oxygen-poor chambers. 



Cereals like wheat lack nodules, which is why they rely on bagged nitrogen. Rather than trying to give cereals nodules or force microbes to colonize roots - a strategy that has long struggled to stick - the team flipped the problem.



The researchers screened roughly 2,800 plant-made chemicals and found a small set, including flavones, that prompt soil <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/when-bacteria-get-hungry-they-turn-on-each-other/">bacteria</a> to form protective biofilms. Those sticky microbial coats reduce oxygen exposure enough for nitrogenase to work.



“For decades, scientists have been trying to develop cereal crops that produce active root nodules, or trying to colonize cereals with nitrogen-fixing bacteria, without much success. We used a different approach,” Blumwald said.



“We said the location of the nitrogen-fixing bacteria is not important, so long as the fixed nitrogen can reach the plant, and the plant can use it.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-gene-edit-flips-fertilizer-switch">Gene edit flips fertilizer switch</h2>



Using CRISPR, the researchers boosted wheat’s production of apigenin, a common flavone. Plants kept what they needed and exuded the surplus through their roots.



In soil tests, the extra apigenin encouraged local bacteria to spin up biofilms, protecting nitrogenase, fixing nitrogen, and making ammonium available for the crop. In low-fertility conditions, edited wheat assimilated the microbially supplied nitrogen and outyielded control plants.



The amazing thing lies in what the plant does automatically. It manufactures the signal, leaks it when nitrogen is scarce, and benefits from the neighborhood effect. No external inoculants are required, and the microbes remain free-living in the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/new-type-of-microbes-found-earths-deep-soil-critical-zone/">soil</a> rather than locked inside a root.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-pollution-down-resilience-up"><a></a>Pollution down, resilience up</h2>



If scaled, the approach could trim the fertilizer footprint that drives water pollution and climate forcing in wheat and other crops. Less soluble nitrogen applied to fields means less runoff during storms, smaller algal blooms, and fewer oxygen crashes in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-shock-lakes-are-losing-oxygen-faster-than-expected/">lakes</a> and coastal zones. 



Cutting back on industrial nitrogen also reduces upstream emissions from natural-gas-intensive fertilizer production.



Because the mechanism amplifies microbial activity already present in many soils, it may also help stabilize yields under input constraints. In places where fertilizer is scarce or prohibitively expensive, the crop’s own chemistry becomes a lever to unlock atmospheric nitrogen.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-billions-saved-with-less-fertilizer">Billions saved with less fertilizer</h2>



The United States alone saw nearly $36 billion in fertilizer spending in 2023. Cereals cover close to 500 million acres nationally. Even modest reductions in inputs translate into real money while lowering risk in volatile markets.



“Imagine, if you could save 10 percent of the amount of fertilizer being used on that land,” Blumwald said. “I’m calculating conservatively: That should be a savings of more than a billion dollars every year.”



Those savings would not come solely from buying less nitrogen. Fewer passes to apply fertilizer mean lower fuel use and less soil compaction. Reduced losses to waterways could also ease regulatory pressure and improve community relations in vulnerable watersheds.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-proving-stability-across-soil-types">Proving stability across soil types</h2>



The road from greenhouse pots to farm fields is long, but the milestones are clear. Researchers will need to confirm that the nitrogen boost holds under diverse soils, climates, and microbiomes, and that it plays nicely with existing rotations and management. 



They will need to show stable performance across seasons and varieties, measure effects on soil ecology, and ensure that yields and grain quality are maintained.



Because the edit increases a native metabolite rather than introducing a foreign gene, regulatory pathways may be more straightforward in some jurisdictions. Still, farmers and policymakers will want transparent data on environmental outcomes, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-solar-power-can-transform-urine-into-fertilizer/">fertilizer</a> savings, and return on investment.



If the results scale, gene-edited cereals like wheat that recruit their own microbial fertilizer factories could become a practical tool in the nitrogen toolbox - cutting costs where budgets are tight, trimming pollution where waters run foul, and building resilience in the breadbaskets of a warming world.



The study is published in the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/pbi.70289" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Plant Biotechnology Journal</a>.



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Gene-edited wheat turns soil microbes into fertilizer

Scientists have engineered wheat to nudge soil bacteria into producing plant-ready nitrogen, a shift that could cut fertilizer use, curb pollution, and lower farm costs without sacrificing yields. The plants overproduce a natural compound, leak the excess into the soil, and in doing so jumpstart nearby microbes that “fix” nitrogen from the air into forms crops can use. In this work, a team at the University of California, Davis, led by Eduardo Blumwald, used CRISPR to dial up a wheat metabolite and tested the effect under low-nitrogen...

Ask yourself this: when was the last time you felt truly at peace, not just amused or entertained, but deeply rooted in who you are? A new study suggests that spending more time in nature may play a bigger role in that feeling than we assume.



That deeper layer has a name in psychology - <a href="https://link.springer.com/rwe/10.1007/978-94-007-0753-5_929" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">eudaimonic well-being</a>. It is about purpose, self-acceptance, growth, and relationships. It sticks.



Does nature help with that? The short answer is a resounding "yes." Not only can nature boost your mood for an hour; it can also give you a clearer sense of self that lasts. 



This study examined that question and returned with an answer that feels both refreshing and practical.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-time-and-eudaimonic-well-being">Nature time and eudaimonic well-being</h2>



Researchers invited people in Turku, Finland, to share how the outdoors shows up in their real lives. 



First, 158 residents answered questions about time in nature and how their lives felt in terms of purpose, self-acceptance, growth, relationships, autonomy, and life management. 



Then, 20 people joined creative writing workshops to describe, in their own words, how the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/urban-forest-bathing-fresh-breath-for-teen-mental-health/">natural world shapes them</a>. The team paired numbers with stories to capture both patterns and personal depth.



“We wanted to explore how nature supports people's self-acceptance, purpose of life, positive relationships, autonomy, personal growth and agency, as well as life management," explains Joha Järekari, Doctoral Researcher at the <a href="https://www.utu.fi/en" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Turku</a>.



"This is called eudaimonic well-being and it can be considered in contrast to <a href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hedonism/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hedonism</a>: whereas hedonism focuses on short-term pleasures, eudaimonia delves into longer and deeper well-being.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-time-evokes-deep-feelings">Nature time evokes deep feelings</h2>



The study focused on two groups: ages 15 to 24 and adults over 60. Different life stages bring different needs. 



Yet a clear theme showed up in both: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/virtual-forest-bathing-can-reduce-stress-and-improve-mood/">nature felt nonjudgmental</a>. Trees do not judge. Water does not grade them. That sense of relief made room for honesty.



“Although there were some differences between the different age groups in how they spent time in nature and in what kinds of places, they also had many shared experiences," Järekari noted.



"What both age groups had in common was, among other things, a feeling that nature does not judge or criticize, which had a positive effect on the participants' self-acceptance."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-choices-and-belonging">Choices and belonging</h2>



Participants described two kinds of connection. One was inward. Time outside - on a trail, beside water, in a garden - made it easier to hear their own values and act on them. 



The other was outward. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/natures-scents-linked-to-improved-health-and-well-being/">Being outdoors</a> helped people feel closer to friends and family, and also widened their sense of community to include birds, trees, and other living things. 



That broader bond pointed toward meaning, not just good moods.



“Spending time and being active in nature brought to the surface what was really important to the participants in their lives," Järekari describes.



"This increased people's agency and autonomy and had a positive impact on personal growth. The participants reported that it was easier to get in touch with oneself, with other people, and with other species."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-factoring-in-age-and-experience">Factoring in age and experience</h2>



Older adults often talked about shared moments with grandchildren and unhurried walks, the kind that leave room for quiet. 



Some mentioned <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/religious-leaders-tried-psilocybin-and-it-changed-their-lives/">moments of spirituality</a>, a quiet awareness of being part of something larger than themselves. 



Younger people leaned on the outdoors for healthy solitude. They could be alone without feeling lonely, or with friends without filling every second with conversation. Different routes, same endpoint: a more authentic self.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-when-worry-creeps-in">When worry creeps in</h2>



The picture was not perfect. Many participants, especially younger ones, felt the weight of environmental damage. 



Worry about climate change often chipped away at that comfort. Shame showed up too, a feeling of being part of the problem just by being human.



“However, this feeling grew stronger when participants noticed the visible effects of the ecological crisis on their surroundings," Järekari continued.



"Many young people also described a sense of shame about being part of the problem, so to speak, by being part of humanity, which challenged their self-acceptance."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-nature-time-goes-deep">Nature time goes deep</h2>



Plenty of research shows that green space can lower stress and help attention bounce back. This work points to something deeper: <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0329411" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">identity-level effects</a> that unfold over time. 



It suggests that nature is not just a reset button. It is a steady setting where people practice being who they want to be.



“Our research unlocks the impact of nature on people's well-being on a deeper level than stress relief or positive emotions," Järekari emphasizes.



"Connection to nature is important to us on an identity level and often shapes our lives in ways that aren’t immediately obvious, but become clearer over time."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eudaimonic-well-being-in-society">Eudaimonic well-being in society</h2>



Design choices of public spaces matter. If we judge parks only by how many joggers they attract, we miss a big part of their value. 



People need quiet corners, meandering paths, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-environment-day-the-critical-role-of-nature-in-human-well-being/">benches under trees</a>. Those places support reflection, relationships, and responsibility - features, not extras.



“It is important to encourage a deeper public discussion about the meaning of nature in people’s lives," adds Salla Eilola, Postdoctoral Researcher at the University of Turku. 



"Consequently, these issues could also be taken into account in decision-making and, for example, in <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.adn3028" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">urban planning</a>, where nature still often unfortunately has to give way to built environment," 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-small-steps-lasting-benefits">Small steps, lasting benefits</h2>



You do not need a dramatic plan to make this real. Pick a nearby spot and go there on a regular day, not just on the best day. Let your mind settle and see what values bubble up. 



If you spend time with kids or elders, choose slow routes that welcome pauses. Put phones aside. Short, steady moments count.



None of this turns a park into a productivity tool. It simply gives you space to notice what matters and act on it. 



That's the heart of eudaimonic well-being, and nature offers a simple doorway - whether it is a patch of grass, a line of trees, or a stretch of water.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pan3.70104" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">People and Nature</a>.



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Walking through a forest can reshape who you are and bring inner peace, according to science

Ask yourself this: when was the last time you felt...

Species don’t all carve out territory the same way. A sweeping analysis across the tree of life shows that, on average, older lineages occupy larger geographical ranges than younger ones.



The relationship isn’t uniform - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/marine-mammals-in-the-us-are-highly-vulnerable-to-climate-change/">marine mammals</a> buck the trend, and islands add their own twists - but evolutionary time consistently emerges as a powerful predictor of how far a species spreads.



An international team led by scientists at the German Center for Integrative Biodiversity Research (<a href="https://www.idiv.de/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">iDiv</a>), Leipzig University, and the Naturalis Biodiversity Center compared evolutionary age and present-day range size for more than 26,000 species.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-panoramic-look-across-26-000-species"><a></a>A panoramic look across 26,000 species</h2>



The dataset spanned seven major groups - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birds-are-struggling-to-keep-pace-with-a-warming-climate/">birds</a>, reptiles, amphibians, reef fishes, palms, and both terrestrial and marine mammals - providing one of the broadest tests yet of how age shapes distribution.



The headline result is straightforward: older species tend to have larger ranges. That pattern appeared across every group except marine mammals. The logic is intuitive but has not been demonstrated at this scale.



“Older species are expected to have larger distributions because they have had more time, sometimes several millions of years, to expand their ranges since first appearing,” explained first author Adriana Alzate, a scientist at Naturalis.



“Over evolutionary timescales, these species have had more opportunities to reproduce, disperse, colonize, and adapt to diverse environments, allowing them to occupy broader geographical areas.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dispersal-power-changes-the-pace"><a></a>Dispersal power changes the pace</h2>



Time alone doesn’t tell the whole story. How easily a species moves through landscapes - its dispersal ability - can speed or slow the march outward.



Strong fliers such as birds with long, pointed wings, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fossil-reveals-how-plants-use-winged-seeds-to-expand-their-habitats/">plants</a> whose seeds travel with large, wide-ranging animals, often achieve broad ranges quickly. Poor dispersers, including many amphibians, expand more slowly; for them, age exerts a stronger influence because overcoming barriers takes generations.



The study’s cross-taxa lens makes those contrasts visible. Two species of similar age can differ dramatically in range simply because one can vault barriers while the other cannot. That natural experiment plays out worldwide, from continental interiors to archipelagos.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-islands-rewrite-the-rules"><a></a>Islands rewrite the rules</h2>



Geography sets hard limits, and nowhere is that clearer than on islands. Native species confined to islands necessarily have smaller maximum ranges than their mainland relatives.



The team confirmed that basic constraint, but they also uncovered an unexpected nuance: the gap between young and old species’ ranges is even larger on islands than on continents.



“Island dynamics and ontogeny modulate the relationship between age and range size. Release from predators and competitors may have enabled early island colonizers, typically ecological generalists, to achieve broader ranges than expected based on age only,” said co-author Roberto Rozzi, a scientist at iDIV.



In other words, the first arrivals - often flexible in diet and habitat - can spread widely within the island system, cementing a strong age–range link even under geographic caps.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-range-size-matters-for-survival"><a></a>Why range size matters for survival</h2>



Range size isn’t just a biogeographic curiosity; it’s one of the strongest predictors of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/animal-extinction-risk-is-heavily-influenced-by-climate-change/">extinction risk</a>. Species with narrow distributions usually have smaller total populations and fewer local strongholds. 



They are more vulnerable to droughts, storms, disease outbreaks, invasive species, and human disturbance. With more than 40,000 species currently facing extinction, understanding what governs range size can sharpen conservation priorities.



That’s especially important as climate change scrambles habitats. If older species generally occupy larger, more environmentally diverse ranges, they may carry genetic variation that helps them cope with shifting conditions.



“This is even more important in the context of changing environmental conditions, because not all species may be able to keep up with these changes,” said senior author Renske Onstein, a biologist at iDIV. 



“Possibly, older species have the genetic makeup to more readily adapt and therefore persist in their relatively large ranges. This needs further testing with genetic data, for example, providing exciting possibilities for future research."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-takeaways-for-conservation-strategies">Takeaways for conservation strategies </h2>



The study highlights three practical lessons for managers. First, evolutionary age can be a useful flag when assessing exposure to risk: younger, poor-dispersing species with small ranges may need faster, more targeted intervention.



Second, island biotas demand tailored strategies that account for their tight geographic limits and unique dynamics. 



Third, bolstering connectivity - through corridors and habitat restoration - can partially compensate for weak dispersal, giving species the chance to expand or shift ranges as climates warm.



Crucially, the work also warns against one-size-fits-all assumptions. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/these-marine-mammals-killer-whales-dolphins-permanently-lost-ability-to-ever-walk-again/">Marine mammals</a>, for instance, didn’t follow the main pattern, likely reflecting the fluidity of ocean habitats and the long-distance movements of many whale and dolphin species. The lesson is to treat age as a powerful factor, not a universal rule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-clock-a-map-and-a-moving-target">A clock, a map, and a moving target</h2>



Range size emerges from the interplay of time, traits, and terrain. Evolutionary “clock time” creates opportunities; dispersal traits determine how readily species seize them; geography dictates what’s possible. 



By stitching those pieces together across tens of thousands of species, the researchers show that age leaves a durable imprint on where life lives today.



For conservation in a rapidly changing world, that imprint is more than academic. It helps explain why some species are widespread while their close relatives cling to a single valley or reef. 



And it offers a clearer map of where limited resources can do the most good - before small ranges become no ranges at all.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-62124-y" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Why older species may be better survivors

Species don’t all carve out territory the same way. A...

Farming spread across prehistoric Europe mostly because farming communities moved, not because local hunter-gatherers copied their ways. Cultural adoption played only a minimal role in the Neolithic transition, the period when agriculture took hold. 



A team of researchers at <a href="https://www.psu.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a> combined ancient DNA, archaeology, and computer simulations to separate the effects of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-dna-reveals-human-migration-patterns-in-first-millennium-ad/">migration</a> from the uptake of new practices. 



The team modeled population movements, growth, and learning, then tested those models against genetic ancestry from hundreds of Neolithic individuals and against the known pace of farming’s advance from the Middle East into Europe.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-sciences-unlock-farming-s-spread">Two sciences unlock farming’s spread</h2>



Christian Huber, an assistant professor of biology at Penn State and senior author on the paper, noted that archaeology and genetics offer complementary windows into this transition.



“Artifacts and isotopes in ancient bones can reveal whether a person relied on domesticated plants or animals, reflecting the adoption of new farming practices," said Huber. 



“At the same time, DNA preserved in those bones can show where people’s ancestors came from, providing evidence of migration, or the movement of farming populations into new regions.”



Archaeological traces show when <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/domesticating-wild-plants-may-result-in-more-resilient-crops/">domesticated crops</a> and animals appeared. Genomes preserve who arrived with them. 



By fusing those records within a single statistical framework, the team could estimate how much of farming’s spread came from people on the move and how much from ideas crossing cultural lines.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-migration-versus-culture-finally-measured">Migration versus culture finally measured</h2>



“This has been a long-standing question - and disentangling the roles of migration and cultural adoption has been a goal of archaeologists and anthropologists for decades,” said study lead author Troy LaPolice, a doctoral student at Penn State.



“What we found was surprising: when cultures spread through migration, it is not guaranteed local ancestry patterns will change, but the spread of farming managed to leave a strong and lasting impact on European ancestry.”



The researchers simulated the front of farming as it rolled out from the Fertile Crescent roughly 10,000 years ago, reaching into the Balkans, then north and west across the continent. They fit those simulations to radiocarbon timelines and to ancestry profiles from 618 ancient individuals.



The results allowed them to assign weight to two forces - movement of farming groups and adoption by foragers - and to test which combination best reproduced the record.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farmers-moved-ideas-spread-slowly">Farmers moved, ideas spread slowly</h2>



The answer was clear. Migration dominated. Cultural transmission, the flow of practices without the movement of people, barely nudged the pace. 



The team’s estimates put the “cultural effect” at about half a percent. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/stone-age-hunter-gatherers-had-a-very-organized-domestic-life/">Hunter-gatherers</a> in most places continued to forage even as farmsteads appeared nearby and, over generations, replaced their way of life.



“The assimilation rate, the rate at which hunter-gatherers were grafted into farming communities, was actually very low&nbsp; -&nbsp; only about one in 1,000 farmers converted a hunter-gatherer to farming each year,” Huber said.



“As a result, cultural transmission had almost no effect on how quickly farming spread. Still, even at this low rate, it left a lasting mark on the DNA of Europeans today and introduced useful genetic traits into the growing farming communities.”



That small but steady flow mattered biologically, even if it mattered little to the speed of the transition. 



Genes from local foragers entered the expanding farming populations. Some of those variants likely helped the newcomers adapt to new environments as they moved north into different climates and daylight regimes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-farming-and-foragers-rarely-mixed">Farming and foragers rarely mixed</h2>



The models also point to strong social boundaries. According to the team’s analysis, farmers overwhelmingly mated with farmers, and foragers with foragers. “Between-group” pairings were rare, on the order of less than three percent.



That pattern aligns with other ancient DNA studies showing persistent genetic differences between neighboring groups that shared landscapes for centuries.



Those findings help explain why the genetic imprint of the first farmers is so pervasive in Europe today. Once agricultural communities established themselves, their numbers grew more quickly than those of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/birth-of-farming-driven-by-humans/">foragers</a>. 



Even with little intermarriage or conversion, demographic momentum carried their ancestry far.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-dna-helps-rewrite-early-history">DNA helps rewrite early history</h2>



“It's really interesting to be able to understand a time period before any written or oral history,” LaPolice said. “This intense interdisciplinary project allowed us to undertake a new kind of historical reconstruction.”



The approach tested not just a story but a set of mechanisms. It allowed the team to ask what combinations of movement, growth, and learning could produce the archaeological and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-dna-reveals-human-migration-patterns-in-first-millennium-ad/">genetic patterns</a> we see. 



It also let them probe how sensitive their conclusions were to assumptions about mating, mobility, and population size.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-method-offers-tools-for-archaeology">Method offers tools for archaeology</h2>



The study adds to a growing body of work showing how ancient genomes can clarify human prehistory when paired with robust models.



It also echoes the team’s recent methodological papers assessing common ancestry tools - useful when applied carefully, but misleading when pushed beyond their limits.



“This research highlights the power of combining genetic data with archaeological models to uncover the complex behavioral mechanisms of our past,” Williams said. “Looking forward, I see this paving the way for a reevaluation of other major prehistoric cultural shifts.”



From metalworking to herding, from language dispersals to the rise of cities, many transformations reshaped ancient lives. The Penn State team’s framework offers a way to test whether those farming changes spread through people, ideas, or - most often - some blend of both.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-63172-0" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Communications</a>.



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Ancient DNA shows what really spread the farming revolution

Farming spread across prehistoric Europe mostly because farming communities moved,...

From glowing mushrooms on forest floors to plankton that light up the sea, nature has long revealed beauty through bioluminescence. These natural spectacles capture human imagination, inspiring ideas of glowing gardens and self-lit cities. 



Scientists are now moving closer to that vision, crafting houseplants that radiate their own soft <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/amazon-trees-glow-more-under-stress-but-photosynthesize-less/">light</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientists-create-glowing-plants">Scientists create glowing plants</h2>



In a recent study published in the journal Matter, researchers described glowing succulents that recharge in sunlight and emit colorful afterglows. 



By injecting the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/all-living-things-emit-a-subtle-glow-that-ceases-at-death/">leaves</a> with special light-storing particles, the plants become capable of radiating light bright enough to rival small night lamps.



“Picture the world of Avatar, where glowing plants light up an entire ecosystem,” said first author Shuting Liu of <a href="https://www.scau.edu.cn" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">South China Agricultural University</a>. “We wanted to make that vision possible using materials we already work with in the lab. Imagine glowing trees replacing streetlights.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-moving-past-genetic-engineering">Moving past genetic engineering</h2>



Earlier attempts at creating luminescent plants relied on genetic engineering. These methods typically produced faint green light and came with challenges: high costs, complex techniques, and risks such as gene drift. 



The new approach sidesteps these issues by using inorganic afterglow particles, materials already known for their roles in glowing toys and safety signs. These particles are inexpensive, widely available, and capable of storing light energy efficiently, making them an ideal choice for transforming <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-future-climate-conditions-will-transform-plant-growth/">plants</a> into living light sources. 



Unlike genetic methods, which require lengthy cultivation and complex engineering, this strategy allows for quick preparation, reproducibility, and scalability. It opens the door to practical applications in sustainable lighting and everyday decorative uses.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-micron-particles-work">Why micron particles work</h2>



The team worked with micron-sized afterglow phosphors. While nanoparticles move more easily through leaves, the larger particles shine with greater brightness.



Traditionally, their size limited plant absorption, but the succulent Echeveria "Mebina" provided the right internal structure to carry them. Its dense but evenly spaced tissue channels enabled rapid diffusion, producing uniform and strong luminescence.



“Smaller, nano-sized particles move easily within the plant but are dimmer,” said Liu. “Larger particles glowed brighter but couldn’t travel far inside the plant.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-succulents-glow-better-than-leafy-plants">Succulents glow better than leafy plants</h2>



Unexpectedly, succulents outperformed non-succulents like golden pothos and bok choy. Despite having fewer air pockets than leafy plants, their compact, uniform tissue allowed particles to spread smoothly without clumping. 



This created evenly glowing leaves after just minutes of exposure to sunlight or LED light, with brightness lasting for nearly two hours.



“It was really unexpected,” said Liu. “The particles diffused in just seconds, and the entire succulent leaf glowed.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stable-and-safe-glow">Stable and safe glow</h2>



The particles used were specially coated with phosphate to improve water resistance and ensure biocompatibility inside plant tissues. 



Tests showed that plants maintained normal chlorophyll, sugar, and protein levels even after several days, suggesting they can handle the modification without losing vitality.



This stability highlights the protective role of the phosphate layer, ensuring that luminescence persists without harmful side effects. 



The results also show that material-engineered plants can retain their natural functions and growth patterns under experimental conditions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-plants-glow-in-many-colors">Plants glow in many colors</h2>



By mixing different phosphors, researchers created plants that glowed not just green, but also red, blue, and even warm white. The team demonstrated a wall of 56 succulents glowing brightly enough to illuminate books and nearby objects. 



Patterns, such as letters or images, could be temporarily written on plant leaves with UV light, hinting at potential uses in decoration and information storage.



“Each plant takes about 10 minutes to prepare and costs a little over 10 yuan (about $1.4), not including labor,” said Liu.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-eco-friendly-lighting-and-architecture">Eco-friendly lighting and architecture </h2>



The glow fades over time, but repeated exposure to light recharges it. This low-cost, reproducible method could pave the way for eco-friendly lighting in gardens, pathways, or interior design. 



Expanding beyond succulents remains a challenge, but the study shows a path forward. The research offers possibilities for future urban planning, sustainable architecture, and even artistic applications where living plants provide both decoration and functional <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/bioluminescent-plants-gene-discovery-now-available-for-any-home/">illumination</a>.



“I just find it incredible that an entirely human-made, micro-scale material can come together so seamlessly with the natural structure of a plant,” said Liu. “The way they integrate is almost magical. It creates a special kind of functionality.”



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.cell.com/matter/fulltext/S2590-2385(25)00413-8" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Matter</a>.



Image Credit: Liu et al., Matter



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Glowing plants could replace street lamps in future cities

From glowing mushrooms on forest floors to plankton that light...

Roughly 390 million years ago, the ancient seas witnessed a dramatic change. Marine animals began moving into deeper waters that had long been uninhabitable. New research suggests this expansion was fueled by a lasting rise in deep-ocean oxygen. 



The source of that oxygen traces back to the spread of woody plants on land, the earliest forests on Earth. This environmental shift coincided with an explosion of new species, especially jawed fish. 



These fish became the ancestors of nearly all <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/greenland-sharks-survive-for-centuries-in-icy-waters/">vertebrates</a> alive today. The link between oxygen levels and evolutionary diversification offers fresh insight into how life reshaped the oceans.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxygen-rise-shaped-evolution">Oxygen rise shaped evolution</h2>



“It’s known that oxygen is a necessary condition for animal evolution, but the extent to which it is the sufficient condition that can explain trends in animal diversification has been difficult to pin down,” said co-lead author Michael Kipp, assistant professor at <a href="https://duke.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Duke University</a>.



“This study gives a strong vote that oxygen dictated the timing of early animal evolution, at least for the appearance of jawed vertebrates in deep-ocean habitats.”



For decades, scientists believed deep-ocean oxygenation occurred only once, at the start of the Paleozoic Era about 540 million years ago. 



Later evidence pointed instead to multiple phases. First, shallower waters became livable for breathing organisms, and only later did oxygen reach deeper environments.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rocks-reveal-ocean-oxygen-history">Rocks reveal ocean oxygen history</h2>



Kipp and his colleagues focused on timing by studying sedimentary rocks once buried beneath ancient oceans. 



They measured levels of selenium, an element that records traces of oxygen in the environment. Selenium occurs in different isotopes, and their ratios reveal whether <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/sea-levels-are-rising-as-predicted-with-bigger-risks-ahead/">oxygen</a> levels were high enough to support animal life.



The team collected 97 rock samples dating from 252 to 541 million years ago, gathered from five continents. 



At the time, these sites lay along outer continental shelves, the zones where land tapered into the ocean before plunging steeply downward. By analyzing isotope ratios in the samples, the researchers tracked oxygen’s reach through time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-two-deep-sea-oxygen-waves">Two deep-sea oxygen waves</h2>



Results showed two distinct deep-ocean oxygenation events. One brief episode occurred during the Cambrian period, about 540 million years ago. 



The second began during the Middle Devonian, around 393 to 382 million years ago, and continues today. Between these events, oxygen dropped to inhospitable levels for most animals.



“The selenium data tell us that the second oxygenation event was permanent. It began in the Middle Devonian and persisted in our younger rock samples,” said co-lead author Kunmanee “Mac” Bubphamanee, a Ph.D. candidate at the <a href="https://www.washington.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Washington</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-vertebrates-thrived-with-more-oxygen">Vertebrates thrived with more oxygen</h2>



The Middle Devonian oxygen rise triggered what scientists call the “mid-Paleozoic marine revolution.” With oxygen now plentiful, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ancient-fish-had-flexible-joints-like-humans/">jawed fish</a> and other animals expanded into deeper waters and diversified. 



Fossil evidence also shows that many species grew larger, likely supported by the richer oxygen supply. One example is shown in the featured image of this article - a prehistoric jawed fish from the Late Devonian called <a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/Dunkleosteus_prehistoric-fish_deep-ocean-oxygen_N-Tamura_1m.jpg">Dunkleosteus</a>.



This geological shift aligned with another event on land: the spread of woody plants. 



“Our thinking is that, as these woody plants increased in number, they released more oxygen into the air, which led to more oxygen in deeper ocean environments,” Kipp said.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-first-oxygen-wave-faded-fast">First oxygen wave faded fast</h2>



The earlier <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/cambrian-explosion-fossils-push-back-the-rise-of-complex-life/">Cambrian</a> oxygen surge remains puzzling. Its decline likely prevented animals from permanently establishing themselves in deeper waters at that time.



“What seems clear is that the drop in oxygen after that initial pulse hindered the spread and diversification of marine animals into those deeper environments of the outer continental shelves,” Kipp noted.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-oxygen-history-warns-about-today-s-oceans">Oxygen history warns about today’s oceans</h2>



Although the study looks far into the past, its message carries urgency now. 



“Today, there’s abundant ocean oxygen in equilibrium with the atmosphere," said Kipp. "But in some locations, ocean oxygen can drop to undetectable levels."



"Some of these zones occur through natural processes. But in many cases, they’re driven by nutrients draining off continents from <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/wildlife-may-be-the-answer-to-dwindling-fertilizer-ingredient/">fertilizers</a> and industrial activity that fuel plankton blooms that suck up oxygen when they decay.”



“This work shows very clearly the link between oxygen and animal life in the ocean. This was a balance struck about 400 million years ago, and it would be a shame to disrupt it today in a matter of decades.”



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Featured image: An artist’s rendering of a prehistoric jawed fish from the Late Devonian called Dunkleosteus. These sorts of large, active vertebrates evolved shortly after the deep ocean became well-oxygenated. Credit: 2008 N. Tamura/CC-BY-SA



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2501342122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Ancient forests pumped oxygen into the ocean and helped deep-sea fish thrive

Roughly 390 million years ago, the ancient seas witnessed a...

Wildfire headlines can feel all over the place. One summer brings walls of flames putting millions of people in danger. The next brings lots of fires, but very few near humans. This is called the "wildfire paradox." 



Here’s the twist: the planet has actually seen less land burned in recent years, yet more people are ending up in the path of flames.



From 2002 to 2021, the total area that burned worldwide went down by about a quarter. 



Over the same years, the number of people directly exposed to wildfires - meaning flames reached the places where they live - went up by roughly 40%. Those two facts sit side by side. They also change how we think about risk.



The "wildfire paradox" term fits. The land is burning less, but exposure is rising because more homes and towns now sit where fires naturally occur. That shift is not random. It grows out of how and where people build.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-africa-carries-the-weight">Africa carries the weight</h2>



Across that same period from 2002 to 2021, the authors estimate that about 440 million people experienced a wildfire reaching their community. 



Year to year, exposure climbed by several hundred thousand people annually on average, even as total burned acreage fell. Fewer acres does not automatically mean fewer people in danger.



Most news stories highlight wildfires in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/dry-lightning-sparks-the-most-destructive-california-wildfires/">California</a>, Greece, or Australia. Yet wildfires in these places account for less than 2.5 percent of all exposures. Africa, often missing from headlines, saw 85 percent of them.



Just five countries - Congo, South Sudan, Mozambique, Zambia, and Angola - accounted for about half of the global total. 



The United States, Europe, and Australia combined made up less than 2.5%. That contrast says more about population patterns and fire frequency than media attention.



“We are surprised by the disproportionate impacts of wildfires on humans in Africa," said Dr. Mojtaba Sadegh, Climate and Wildfire Analytics Lead at <a href="https://unu.edu/inweh" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNU-INWEH</a>.



"We knew that around 65 percent of global burned area occurs there, but their 85 percent share of human exposure shows a pronounced impact that deserves more attention.”



Farming plays a big role. Fields break up grasslands and stop large fires from spreading. But they also bring villages and farms closer to the flames.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-wildfire-paradox-and-climate-change">Wildfire paradox and climate change</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-is-making-wildfire-smoke-more-deadly/">Climate change</a> is amplifying fire danger. Since 1979, extreme fire weather jumped by more than 54 percent. Fire seasons now stretch longer. Nights, once safer, often stay hot and dry enough for fires to keep burning.



Still, the story changes depending on where you look. Africa shows smaller fires but far more people exposed. 



In North and South America, invasive plants help fires grow larger. Europe tries to suppress fires, yet expanding settlements keep raising the risks.



<figure class="wp-block-image aligncenter size-full"><a href="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/human-wildlife-exposure_growing-globally_map_ScienceJ_1m.jpg"><img src="https://www.earth.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/human-wildlife-exposure_growing-globally_map_ScienceJ_1s.webp" alt="Human exposure to wildland fires from 2002 to 2021. (A and C) Cumulative human exposure to wildland fires (A) and cumulative burned area (C) from 2002 to 2021 at the country level. (B and D) Share of continents in wildland fire exposure (B) and burned areas (D). (E and F) Percentage of population exposed to wildland fire from 2002 to 2021 in each country (E) and continent (F). K, one thousand; M, one million. Credit: Science Advisor" class="wp-image-1983464"/></a><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Human exposure to wildland fires from 2002 to 2021. (A and C) Cumulative human exposure to wildland fires (A) and cumulative burned area (C) from 2002 to 2021 at the country level. (B and D) Share of continents in wildland fire exposure (B) and burned areas (D). (E and F) Percentage of population exposed to wildland fire from 2002 to 2021 in each country (E) and continent (F). K, one thousand; M, one million. Click image to enlarge. Credit: Science Advisor</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-human-actions-reshape-fire-risks">Human actions reshape fire risks</h2>



Study co-author Professor Amir AghaKouchak noted that while the human exposure to fires is rising, the team saw that burned land is shrinking by 26 percent.



“In Africa, farming has broken up large <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/grasslands-are-racing-to-adapt-to-climate-shifts/">grasslands</a> into smaller fields, which stops fires from spreading as widely but also puts more villages and farms closer to fire-prone land."



"In the Americas, invasive plants have fueled bigger and more frequent wildfires, showing how human actions can change fire risks in very different ways.”



The numbers back this up. Nearly half of the world’s people now live in the wildland–urban interface, an area covering less than 5 percent of Earth’s surface.



The study shows that population growth and migration explain about a quarter of all exposures. Without these changes, exposure levels would have fallen alongside shrinking burned area.



Instead, exposure density nearly doubled. In plain terms, more people are living inside or right next to land that burns.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-beyond-burned-land">Beyond burned land</h2>



Focusing only on how much land burns hides the real danger. Intense fires make up just 0.01 percent of all events, but they exposed 2.7 million people and burned 5 percent of the total land in the study. 



Regions like Western North America, Southern Europe, and Southern Australia faced far more human loss than their share of exposures suggested.



“Wildfires are no longer seasonal or regional anomalies; they have become a global crisis, intensified by rising <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-made-heatwaves-more-deadly/">heatwaves</a>, worsening droughts, and drastic land use changes,” said Professor Kaveh Madani, Director of UNU-INWEH.



“But instead of stepping up to confront this threat, some of the world’s biggest economies are rolling back protections, leaving vulnerable regions and communities to shoulder the heaviest burden."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-wildfire-paradox-needs-solutions">The wildfire paradox needs solutions</h2>



The study warns that measuring only burned land misses the true danger of wildfires. What matters most is how close people live to fire-prone areas. As populations expand into these zones, exposure to wildfires rises even if less land burns.



The authors stress the need for stronger<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/fire-suppression-methods-increase-the-severity-of-wildfires/"> fire management</a> and strategies tailored to local conditions. Communities require infrastructure designed to withstand fire, along with better preparedness. 



At the same time, global climate action is essential to slow the worsening of extreme fire weather. Without these combined efforts, more lives will remain directly in the path of devastating wildfires.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adu6408" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Science</a>.



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"Wildfire paradox" tries to explain why fires are raging across the entire planet

Wildfire headlines can feel all over the place. One summer...

In crowded cities, leafy streets can lift a neighborhood’s appeal - and its home values. But a new analysis finds the boost depends on where those trees are. Nearby canopy that cools sidewalks and frames streetscapes tends to raise prices. 



Trees planted on the lot itself can sometimes do the opposite once maintenance, root damage, and storm risks are factored in.



The study was led by researchers from the <a href="https://pamplin.vt.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Pamplin College of Business</a>, working with the <a href="https://www.fs.usda.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">U.S. Forest Service</a>.



The team stitched together multiple data sets - including Environmental Protection Agency records - across nine U.S. metropolitan areas to map how tree cover at different distances relates to sale prices.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-trees-grow-values-follow">Where trees grow, values follow</h2>



The team broke urban greenery into rings around each property: within 330 feet (about a city block), from 330 feet to one-third of a mile, and from one-third to two-thirds of a mile. 



The researchers then estimated how much added canopy in each ring correlated with a change in value, controlling for local market conditions.



“While tree cover supports owners' property values, their tree cover benefits the greater community property values,” said co-author Kevin Boyle, a professor in the <a href="https://realestate.vt.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Blackwood Department of Real Estate</a>.



That distinction - private trees versus neighborhood trees - runs through the results. Shade you can walk under and scenery you drive past appear to deliver broad benefits that the market recognizes. 



On-site trees, by contrast, carry highly localized costs and risks that can dampen the net effect for the individual owner.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-a-tale-of-two-cities"><a></a>A tale of two cities</h2>



The effect differs widely by location, with Fresno, California, at the lowest end and Milwaukee, Wisconsin, at the highest.



In Fresno, tree cover adds about $9 to a home’s value - essentially a rounding error. Adding 10 percent more <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/laser-technology-measures-forest-canopy-height-from-space/">canopy</a> on or near the lot, and Fresno values dip by roughly $114 (around 0.1%). This reflects perceived costs such as upkeep, insurance, or interference with structures and utilities.



Shift that same extra canopy outward - between one-third and two-thirds of a mile - and the home’s value rises by about $6,751 (roughly 3.2%).



Milwaukee tells the opposite story. There, the same baseline tree cover near a property adds roughly $3,500. A 10 percent increase in canopy within 330 feet is associated with a jump of about $39,701 (around 24 percent).



Even at a distance - one-third to two-thirds of a mile - extra canopy correlates with another $27,194 (about 16 percent) in value. The Milwaukee case underscores how neighborhood-level trees can powerfully shape perceived livability in some markets.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-neighborhood-trees-pay-off">Neighborhood trees pay off</h2>



The researchers argue the market is pricing two different bundles of attributes. Neighborhood canopy offers shared goods: cooler microclimates during <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-has-made-heatwaves-more-deadly/">heat waves</a> and calmer streetscapes. It also provides a cohesive look that signals care and stability.



Homebuyers will pay for those amenities even if they’re not responsible for pruning the branches that provide them. 



On-lot trees can still be assets, especially when well sited and maintained. But buyers often discount for future costs - leaf litter, gutter clogs, sidewalk heaves, power-line conflicts, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-soil-moisture-can-predict-severe-storms/">storm</a> damage, or insurance implications.



The analysis also acknowledges weather realities. Trees can fall in severe winds or ice storms and increase damage risk. They also cut urban heat, manage stormwater, and improve air quality at block and district scales.



The net economic signal depends on which set of experiences dominates in a given city and how residents value shared versus private benefits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-private-yards-public-benefits">Private yards, public benefits</h2>



Most urban land is privately owned, which complicates efforts to grow and maintain the “green infrastructure” that benefits entire neighborhoods. 



The authors suggest local leaders consider incentives - <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/planting-trees-is-important-but-reforestation-can-help-too/">planting programs</a>, maintenance support, or right-of-way investments - that nudge canopy growth into the rings where it delivers the biggest bang for the buck.



“Our analysis can be used by community leaders to understand the benefits of tree coverage,” Boyle said. “It can also educate community members that their actions in support of tree coverage can help not only the greater community, but themselves through enhanced property values.”



That strategy could include prioritizing street trees and park expansions within walking distance of homes, where the study finds the strongest and most consistent price effects.



It could also mean offering technical help to homeowners for site-appropriate species selection and root-friendly planting plans that minimize future conflicts with foundations, sidewalks, and utilities.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-action-steps-for-greener-cities">Action steps for greener cities</h2>



For owners, the takeaway is practical: trees can add value, but placement, species, and care matter. A well-chosen street-facing canopy that shades façades and sidewalks can enhance curb appeal and comfort. 



In backyards, opt for species with less <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/diverse-forests-can-shut-down-non-native-tree-invasions/">invasive</a> roots and maintain clearances around roofs and lines.



For cities, the findings argue for shifting some canopy growth off private lots and into shared corridors - streets, medians, easements, and pocket parks. They also highlight the need for maintenance budgets that keep those trees healthy and safe.



Doing so aligns who pays with who benefits, reducing the friction that can arise when the public asks private owners to shoulder the costs of a public good.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-greener-neighborhoods-higher-values">Greener neighborhoods, higher values</h2>



The headline is simple: trees can lift home values in cities. The fine print is where the policy levers lie. Market signals in Fresno differ from Milwaukee, and the effects of canopy on the lot differ from canopy down the block.



By parsing those patterns across thousands of blocks in nine metropolitan areas, the study gives planners, assessors, and residents a clearer map. 



Plant where the benefits compound, support owners where responsibilities fall, and grow the shared canopy that keeps neighborhoods cooler, calmer, and more valuable.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0921800925001922?via%3Dihub">Ecological Economics</a>.



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How neighborhood trees can raise - or sink - your property value

In crowded cities, leafy streets can lift a neighborhood’s appeal...

When you toss food waste into the trash, it might seem like no big deal. After all, it’s organic - it’ll break down eventually, right? 



But what actually happens to that waste after it’s hauled away is a much bigger issue than most people realize. And it’s not just about overcrowded landfills - it’s about methane.



Food waste buried in a landfill doesn’t simply rot and disappear. It releases <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/top-10-global-methane-emissions-hotspots-spotted-by-satellites/">methane</a>, a greenhouse gas that’s 80 to 85 times more powerful than <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-carbon-dioxide-travels-in-the-atmosphere/">carbon dioxide</a> over a 20-year period. 



This makes food waste a serious player in climate change - not because of how much we toss, but because of where it ends up and how it breaks down.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-landfills-turn-food-waste-into-methane">Landfills turn food waste into methane</h2>



Here’s the issue: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/landfills-emit-exorbitant-amount-methane-into-atmosphere/">landfills</a> aren't built to help food break down cleanly. When food waste ends up buried under other trash, it quickly uses up the oxygen in its immediate surroundings. 



At first, some decomposition happens with oxygen, which releases carbon dioxide - still a greenhouse gas, but not nearly as potent.



But once the oxygen's gone, the process switches. Now you’ve got anaerobic decomposition, which happens without oxygen. This is where methane starts building up. 



And unlike compost piles, which stay exposed to air and rely on oxygen, landfills are packed tight. That makes them perfect methane factories.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-composting-transforms-food-waste">Composting transforms food waste</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/food-waste-crisis-why-u-s-goals-remain-out-of-reach/">Composting</a> does the exact opposite. It keeps oxygen in the mix throughout the process. That means no methane. Plus, it turns food scraps into something useful: a natural fertilizer that can go back into farms and gardens.



Some cities, especially in recent years, have started composting programs to cut down on landfill methane. But how effective are these programs? Do they really work?



One recent study examined how composting plays out in real life, based on actual data. The study concentrated on places such as Austin, Texas, where there are programs set up to allow people to compost at home. 



On average, the program reduced organic waste output by roughly 2.3 pounds per household per week. That’s a good start, but it’s only about 30% of what a typical American household discards a week.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-composting-requires-individual-effort">Composting requires individual effort</h2>



There’s also the question of participation. Unlike cities such as San Francisco, many places don’t enforce composting. That means it’s optional - and a lot of people skip it.



Jackson Somers is an assistant professor of&nbsp;agricultural and resource economics&nbsp;in the College of Agriculture, Health and Natural Resources (<a href="https://cahnr.uconn.edu/">CAHNR</a>).



“As individuals, we produce a lot of food waste, and it’s something we should be cognizant of. From there, you should compost if you want to compost,” said Somers. 



"I think, inherently, we don’t want to be wasteful. But for some people it’s just a high burden of effort.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-composting-isn-t-cheap-yet">Composting isn’t cheap - yet</h2>



Even with some success, the economics are tricky. According to Somers’ analysis, it currently costs about $478 to avoid emitting one ton of CO2 through composting programs. 



By comparison, the “social cost of carbon” - a number economists use to estimate the damage caused by each ton of <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/circular-economy-needed-to-reduce-americas-carbon-emissions/">carbon emissions</a> - is set at $51.



That means composting, at least in small-scale residential programs with low participation, isn’t cheap when measured in dollars.



“With current programs, given the infrastructure we have - these programs are really expensive for the savings we see,” Somers said. But that doesn’t make composting a lost cause.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-short-term-cost-long-term-gain">Short-term cost, long-term gain</h2>



The cost of building new landfills is rising fast. Once current landfills are full, finding and building new ones will be a big financial burden for many cities. So building composting infrastructure now might save money down the road.



Also, the social cost of carbon isn’t fixed. As scientists understand more about climate change, the estimated damage from each ton of carbon goes up. That means composting could become more cost-effective over time - even if the upfront price is high.



“As we learn more about our impact, composting programs may become cheaper from an environmental sense,” Somers said.



The study focused on households, but Somers pointed out that restaurants, grocery stores, and other businesses throw away massive amounts of organic waste. That’s where composting could really move the needle.



“That’s where I think you can see real savings. I think that’s something we should consider more than we do," said Somers. 



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-unexpected-benefits-of-composting">Unexpected benefits of composting </h2>



Composting might also bring unexpected benefits. Large cities with lots of exposed food waste deal with more mess and public health concerns. Composting can help reduce that and keep neighborhoods cleaner.



“Keeping <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/rats-are-spreading-a-deadly-disease-across-cities/">rats</a> and other pests out of neighborhoods certainly goes into the calculus too,” Somers said. 



“How many people get sick from rats? How much do we dislike seeing rats running around on the streets? It’s important to factor in other impacts, not just environmental.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-no-universal-fix-for-food-waste">No universal fix for food waste</h2>



Different communities need different solutions. Demographics, geography, and even local habits all shape what works best.



In some Connecticut cities, compost bins are picked up curbside. In others, residents drop off food scraps at centralized locations. 



“A one-size-fits-all solution is not the answer,” Somers said. “The solution in northwestern Connecticut is very different from the solution in Stamford or Hartford - and the solutions for Stamford and Hartford are also going to be different because demographically they’re quite different.”



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0095069625000580?via%3Dihub">Journal of Environmental Economics and Management</a>.



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Food waste is a growing climate threat - can composting help?

When you toss food waste into the trash, it might...

Plants appear still, yet inside they are alive with communication. They must continuously balance how to capture energy without losing too much water. For decades, scientists suspected there were internal messengers guiding this process, but the exact molecules remained unidentified.



A new study led by <a href="https://www.psu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Penn State</a> researchers finally reveals the nature of these signals. This work not only solves a long-standing mystery but also suggests new directions for <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-finally-learn-what-makes-plants-roots-grow-faster-and-stronger-autophagy/">agriculture</a> and plant resilience research.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-how-plants-balance-food-and-water">How plants balance food and water</h2>



“This discovery significantly advances our understanding of how plants coordinate their internal metabolism - the chemical reactions they use to make energy - with their external environment, a fundamental process for plant growth and survival,” said Professor Sarah Assmann. 



“Our findings open doors for future research into improving <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/how-future-climate-conditions-will-transform-plant-growth/">plant</a> resilience and crop yields.”



Guard cells, located on the leaf surface, control stomata, the tiny pores that regulate the intake of carbon dioxide and the release of water vapor. 



These pores act like microscopic mouths. When they open, plants can “eat” by absorbing CO2, but they risk losing vital water at the same time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-mysterious-plant-messengers">Mysterious plant messengers</h2>



“There is always a tradeoff for terrestrial plants between maximizing CO2 intake, which is needed for photosynthesis, and letting out water vapor, which can dry out the plant and ultimately kill it if it loses too much water,” explained Professor Assmann.



“The stomata are the pores where that tradeoff takes place. When they open, they let in CO2 that allows the plant to feed, but they also let out water vapor, which dehydrates the plant. We knew there had to be some kind of messenger telling the guard cells how to regulate that life-or-death decision.”



The new findings show that sugars, including sucrose, glucose, and fructose, as well as maleic acid, act as these critical messengers. These metabolites form a feedback loop, linking the <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plants-grow-longer-in-cities-due-to-artificial-light/">plant</a>’s energy production to its stomatal control.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tracking-signals-in-plant-leaves">Tracking signals in plant leaves</h2>



The researchers worked with the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana, or thale cress, and fava beans to uncover the energy production system in plants. 



By extracting apoplastic fluid from leaves exposed to either red light or darkness, they were able to isolate chemical compounds. Red light stimulates photosynthesis, making it easier to detect active signals.



Through this process, the team identified 448 chemical compounds in the fluid. “We identified hundreds of metabolites in apoplastic fluid, which no one had analyzed to this extent before,” noted Professor Assmann.



“That, on its own, is an important contribution to the field, independent of the research question that we specifically were addressing, because it gives a lot of leads on other potential signaling molecules for processes throughout the plant.”



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-sugars-control-plants-water-use">Sugars control plants water use</h2>



Further experiments revealed sugars directly promoted stomatal opening under red light. When tested in intact leaves, these compounds increased carbon dioxide uptake and also altered water release, confirming their messenger role.



Cell-level experiments explained the mechanism: sugars stimulate molecular machinery inside guard cells, activating them to open the stomata. 



This research provides the first full picture of the internal dialogue between photosynthesis and water regulation.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-what-makes-plants-resilient">Studying what makes plants resilient</h2>



The Nature Plants study also emphasizes that stomatal control does not rely solely on hormones, as once thought. Instead, metabolic products themselves can serve as powerful signaling agents. 



This finding adds a new dimension to how scientists view plant-environment interactions. According to Professor Assmann, the team is focused on understanding how plants sense and respond to environmental <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/plant-roots-could-be-key-to-fighting-climate-change/">conditions</a>. 



“Plants can’t uproot themselves and find somewhere else to live; they have to deal with whatever the environment throws at them - increasingly drought and heat stress," she noted. 



"So we study what makes plants resilient, from the very specific molecular level all the way up to whole plant physiology and field experiments, with the goal of improving crop productivity.”



The project brought together researchers from Penn State, <a href="https://en.huji.ac.il/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Hebrew University of Jerusalem</a>, Nagoya University, RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science, and the University of Mississippi. 



The research was funded, in part, by the <a href="https://www.nsf.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">National Science Foundation</a>.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41477-025-02078-7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Nature Plants</a>.



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Hidden messengers tell plants when to eat and breathe

Plants appear still, yet inside they are alive with communication....

Rice feeds billions. It thrives in warm, wet fields and stores energy in a way that fits busy lives and tight budgets. Those same flooded fields can also make arsenic more available to rice plants, and some of that arsenic can end up in the grain.



A growing body of field evidence points to a new twist: <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/astonishing-global-heat-in-january-2025-defied-climate-expectations/">as the planet warms</a> and CO₂ rises, flooded soils lose oxygen more often and for longer stretches. That chemical shift frees arsenic from soil particles, and rice roots take up more of it.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-rice-and-arsenic">Climate, rice, and arsenic</h2>



After years of outdoor trials, researchers report that <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/world-water-day-2025-preserving-glaciers-protecting-our-future/">climate conditions</a> expected by mid-century would increase the flow of inorganic arsenic - the harmful form - from soil to plant to grain.



The work appears in a leading medical journal and was conducted by teams at Columbia University’s <a href="https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Mailman School of Public Health</a>, with collaborators in China and the United States. 



“Our results suggest that this increase in arsenic levels could significantly elevate the incidence of heart disease, diabetes, and other non-cancer health effects,” explained <a href="https://www.publichealth.columbia.edu/profile/lewis-ziska" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Dr. Lewis Ziska</a>, associate professor of Environmental Health Sciences at the Columbia Mailman School.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-arsenic-is-in-rice">Why arsenic is in rice</h2>



Arsenic occurs naturally in many soils and waters. In paddies that stay flooded, oxygen dwindles. Iron minerals that normally bind arsenic dissolve, and arsenic becomes more mobile. 



Warmer conditions paired with higher CO₂ push that chemistry along, especially in fields that remain waterlogged. 



Under future settings - temperatures <a href="https://climate.mit.edu/ask-mit/why-did-ipcc-choose-2deg-c-goal-limiting-global-warming" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">more than 2°C</a> (about 3.6°F) above pre-industrial levels plus elevated CO₂ - the balance tilts toward more inorganic arsenic entering the plant.



That does not make every bowl risky. Local geology, irrigation sources, soil type, and farming practices all shape grain levels. It does mean that the odds can shift in places where paddies stay saturated for long periods.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-rice-and-arsenic">Studying rice and arsenic</h2>



The scientists did not rely on short greenhouse trials. They grew 28 rice varieties outdoors for roughly a decade using a Free-Air CO₂ Enrichment (<a href="https://ess.science.energy.gov/face/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FACE</a>) system.



This process releases extra CO₂ around crops in the open air so that sunlight, wind, microbes, and soil behave as they do in real life.



Those long-running field data then fed into models linking plant arsenic levels to typical rice intake and body size across major <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/feeding-the-world-without-harming-nature-the-complex-balance-of-farming/">rice-eating countries</a> in Asia.



The projections indicate a sizable shift in risk. Lifetime cancer risks, particularly for lung and bladder cancer, increased by 44% relative to ambient conditions. China alone may face 19.3 million excess cancer cases related to arsenic exposure through rice. 



“From a health perspective, the toxicological effects of chronic iAs exposure are well established; and include cancers of the lung, bladder, and skin, as well as ischemic <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/heart-disease-kills-differently-now-than-five-decades-ago/">heart disease</a>,” said Dr. Ziska.



Non-cancer outcomes also matter. The modeling points to increased risks for cardiovascular and metabolic diseases tied to long-term inorganic arsenic exposure in populations with high rice intake.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-where-risks-are-the-highest">Where risks are the highest</h2>



Diet and water sources shape exposure. Regions where rice is a daily staple and paddies are often kept flooded will see the largest impacts under warmer, CO₂-richer conditions. 



“Ingesting rice in regions like southern China and Southeast and South Asia is already a significant source of dietary arsenic and cancer risk,” said Dr. Ziska.



Within countries, irrigation that draws from arsenic-rich groundwater can raise grain levels. Varieties also differ in how strongly they transport arsenic from roots to grain, which creates room for practical solutions.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-this-is-bad-what-can-be-done">This is bad, what can be done?</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/genetic-fixes-may-save-crops-from-climate-stress/">Plant breeding</a> can help: select and develop varieties that limit arsenic uptake even when soils push it toward the roots. Breeders already see large differences among rice lines in how much arsenic reaches the grain. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/trillions-of-cubic-meters-of-water-is-used-to-grow-crops-each-year/">Water management</a> is another lever. Continuous flooding increases arsenic mobility, while giving soils time to drain lets oxygen return, which can hold arsenic in less available forms.



Post-harvest steps matter too. Milling and cooking methods can reduce how much arsenic ends up on the plate. 



No single fix works everywhere. Shifting water regimes, for example, can raise cadmium in some settings, so local testing and tailored management are essential to avoid trading one problem for another.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limits-and-moving-parts">Limits and moving parts</h2>



Any mid-century projection carries uncertainty. Policies can bend emissions paths, and farmers adapt as technology and economics shift. 



Diets change with income, urbanization, and migration. The underlying processes are well established. The decade of fieldwork done for this study adds weight because it includes real weather, pests, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/engineered-plant-microbiomes-the-future-of-crop-protection/">microbial communities</a>.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-rice-arsenic-and-human-health">Rice, arsenic, and human health</h2>



Rice remains a staple food, and the findings from this research don't claim that every bowl on every table becomes unsafe. Instead, the scientists point to smarter ways of managing risk and a need to act upstream.



Farmers can adjust irrigation where feasible. Breeders can favor varieties that move less arsenic to the grain. Public health agencies can track arsenic in grains and irrigation sources to guide choices in hotspots. 



“Our study underscores the urgent need for action to reduce arsenic exposure in rice, especially as climate change continues to affect <a href="https://www.nifa.usda.gov/topics/global-food-security" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">global food security</a>,” said Dr. Ziska.



Keeping rice safe in a warming world is within reach: breed smarter, water smarter, process smarter—and cut emissions, because the air over our fields follows us to the table.



The full study was published in the journal <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanplh/article/PIIS2542-5196(25)00055-5/fulltext" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">The Lancet Planetary Health</a>.



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Scientists warn a very deadly poison is accumulating in global rice fields

Rice feeds billions. It thrives in warm, wet fields and...

Industrial tomato plants, grown for their juicy fruits used in sauce and paste, face a hard new normal in northern Italy. <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/deadly-heat-waves-in-europe-can-be-predicted-by-melting-sea-ice/">Summers run hotter</a>, rain arrives at the wrong time, and water is under pressure almost everywhere.



“Currently, agriculture accounts for 70 percent of global freshwater withdrawals, and more than 90 percent of its consumptive use,” stated the Food and Agriculture Organization (<a href="https://www.fao.org/4/i3015e/i3015e.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">FAO</a>) of the United Nations.



A new field study from the Po Valley tested a simple irrigation tweak that saved water while keeping yields steady and improving fruit quality. 



The work compared full-season irrigation with regulated deficit irrigation in 2019 near Parma and in 2022 near Piacenza, and the authors reported less water use, stable tonnage, and better processing traits.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-regulated-deficit-irrigation">Regulated deficit irrigation</h2>



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/thirstwaves-the-hidden-climate-threat-drying-out-american-farms/">Evapotranspiration</a> is the combined water loss from plant <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tomato-plants-talk-to-one-another-to-signal-danger/">leaves and soil</a>, and conventional irrigation tries to replace it exactly through the season. 



Regulated deficit irrigation intentionally withholds part of that water during growth stages known to be less sensitive, which can rein in usage without hurting yield. 



According to a recent <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jxb/article/58/2/147/534071" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">study</a>, deficit irrigation, defined as the application of water below full crop-water requirements, is an important tool to achieve the goal of reducing irrigation water use.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tomato-plant-growth-traits">Tomato plant growth traits</h2>



The Italian trials gave plants normal water until the tomatoes hit the color break stage, then cut irrigation to 50 percent. 



That single turn of the dial reduced seasonal irrigation volume by about one quarter while holding total and marketable yield steady, and it increased water productivity on a per gallon basis.



The same schedule also lifted two traits that matter to processors, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/brix" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Brix</a> and dry matter, which both rise when fruit concentrates sugars and solids as <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/ripening-tomatoes-may-hold-clues-to-delay-human-aging/">ripening advances</a>. 



The method, while modest, lines up with a practical aim: produce the same crop with less water and send a denser load to the factory.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-sweetness-and-solids-improved">Why sweetness and solids improved</h2>



Processors care about soluble solids because more solids mean more paste per truck. 



Extension <a href="https://ucanr.edu/sites/default/files/2016-03/236983.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">researchers</a> note that soluble solids, measured as degrees Brix, are directly tied to paste and sauce yield, and inspection stations grade loads on Brix alongside pH and color.



A mild late season water pullback often shifts plant metabolism toward fruit, which can nudge Brix upward and lower pH a touch, both friendly to canning. 



The study’s quality index that blends price with solids rose accordingly, signaling a cleaner economic payoff at delivery.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-studying-tomato-plant-health">Studying tomato plant health</h2>



The team did not guess about stress, they watched it from above. <a href="https://earth.esa.int/eogateway/missions/planetscope" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">PlanetScope satellites</a>, upgraded to eight spectral bands and near daily coverage by 2021, offer 3 meter imagery that can track crop vigor through the season.



They calculated several vegetation indices and looked two weeks before and after the irrigation cut. 



<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/living-green-spaces-boosts-bone-density-reduces-osteoporosis/">NDVI</a>, a common index that flags water stress in tomatoes across soil types, did not show a divergence between treatments, a sign that the reduced watering did not push plants into visible distress.



The takeaway is straightforward. Irrigate normally through fruit set and early sizing, then, at color break, shift to half of the usual replacement and keep that level through harvest.



That timing matters because early water stress can abort flowers or stunt small fruit, while late, controlled stress can concentrate solids without undercutting total tonnage. The Italian data back that timing choice across two soils and two contrasting seasons.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-economic-and-environmental-angles">Economic and environmental angles</h2>



On the environmental side, using roughly one quarter less irrigation water immediately eases demand on canals and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/40-percent-of-earths-land-has-became-permanently-drier/">aquifers</a> in dry months. 



On the farm side, higher solids per load mean fewer gallons boiled off and more paste per hour through the evaporators.



Those gains show up twice, in the water ledger and the balance sheet, without extra equipment or software. 



The approach fits <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/californias-farms-have-a-good-chance-of-navigating-the-water-crisis/">drip systems</a> already in place across processing tomato acres and asks only for a date on the calendar and a new setpoint on the controller.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-caveats-worth-noting">Caveats worth noting</h2>



The trials did report a small uptick in certain defects, including more overripe and some blossom end rot, even though sunscald did not rise. 



That pattern suggests managers should watch ripeness closely and plan harvest windows to match the faster finish.



Local soils, seasonal rain timing, and <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/tomatoes-have-a-molecular-trick-to-survive-in-extreme-heat/">heat will shape responses</a>, so the color break trigger is the anchor, not a rigid date. 



Fields with lighter textures or hotter pockets might hit the threshold earlier, and blocks with heavier soils may stretch it a few days.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-tomato-plants-matter-worldwide">Tomato plants matter worldwide</h2>



Processing <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/scientists-find-a-surprising-case-of-reverse-evolution-in-wild-tomatoes/">tomatoes</a> are a pillar of food supply chains, from ketchup to pizza sauce, and the Po Valley ranks with California among the world’s top producing regions. 



A method that saves water, keeps yields steady, and delivers denser fruit can help processors and growers share gains along the chain.



Add the larger water picture and the case strengthens. Every gallon not pumped leaves a little more slack for rivers, neighbors, and dry years ahead.



-----



The research team included Andrea Burato, Pasquale Campi, Alfonso Pentangelo, and Mario Parisi of the CREA Research Centre for <a href="https://www.crea.gov.it/en/web/orticoltura-e-florovivaismo" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Vegetable and Ornamental Crops</a> and the CREA Research Centre for <a href="https://www.crea.gov.it/en/web/agricoltura-e-ambiente/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Agriculture and Environment</a>, with collaboration from the <a href="https://portale.unibas.it/site/en/home.html" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Basilicata</a>.



The study is published in <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4395/15/8/1805" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Agronomy</a>.



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The Italian secret to sweeter tomatoes and higher-yield plants that produce more fruits

Industrial tomato plants, grown for their juicy fruits used in...

Forests hold our climate together. They store carbon, balance rainfall, and shelter more life than we can count. Among them, the Amazon and Andes stand out. These vast forests feed rivers, shape weather, and anchor communities of plants, animals, and people.



But they are now falling behind. A new study by <a href="https://www.wfu.edu" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Wake Forest University</a> and international partners shows that tree communities in the region are not adjusting fast enough to rising temperatures. 



Decades of monitoring reveal that while some forests near the cloud base shift slightly, most remain stuck. That slow pace threatens not just biodiversity, but also the services humans rely on every day.



"These <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/forests-are-lagging-centuries-behind-in-climate-adaptation/">forests</a> are simply not keeping up with climate change," said lead author William Farfan-Rios of Wake Forest University. "The result is a growing climatic debt that threatens the integrity and functioning of the most diverse forests on Earth."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-lag-behind-climate-change">Forests lag behind climate change</h2>



The team followed 66,000 trees across 2,500 species for more than 40 years. They expected to see warm-adapted species slowly replacing those suited to cooler conditions - a process known as thermophilization. But the forests told a different story.



From the low Amazon basin to the high Andes, tree communities showed almost no sign of this shift. Trees grew, died, and recruited, yet the overall balance barely moved. 



Scientists call this gap between climate warming and ecological response a climatic debt. If that debt builds, <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/old-growth-forests-remain-earths-strongest-carbon-vaults/">forests</a> risk crossing thresholds that they cannot recover from.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-stress-at-the-cloud-base">Stress at the cloud base</h2>



The clearest signs of strain appeared in mid-elevation <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-most-diverse-forests-are-failing-to-adapt-to-climate-change/">forests</a> between 1,200 and 2,000 meters. Here, mortality of cool-adapted trees rose sharply. These cloud-base forests seem to carry the heaviest burden of warming.



The Amazon lowlands, by contrast, showed little consistent movement at all. On the surface, that looks stable. In reality, it signals trouble ahead. 



Heat stress and drought will hit harder in the coming decades, and these forests have no hotter-adapted species waiting to take over.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-forests-must-change-with-climate">Forests must change with climate</h2>



The Amazon and Andes together hold the greatest variety of life on Earth. They also act as giant carbon sponges, slowing the buildup of greenhouse gases. 



If their tree communities fail to adapt, the consequences will spread far beyond South America. Carbon storage will shrink, species will vanish, and ecosystems could unravel.



"You have to be there for long periods of time to understand how these <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/protecting-forests-helps-birds-and-humans-in-many-ways/">forests</a> change," said co-author Miles Silman of Wake Forest University. 



"If we lose these climate observatories, these natural labs, we blind ourselves to our future. What we found is that forests are changing, but they're not changing in the ways that make them resilient to climate change."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-limits-of-forest-adaptation">Limits of forest adaptation</h2>



Tree communities simply cannot keep pace with today’s speed of warming. Individual trees die within decades, but species turnover takes centuries. 



On top of that, forests need dispersers and pollinators to expand into new ranges. Yet many of these animals are disappearing as habitats shrink.



"They also need the full complement of animal dispersers and pollinators to help expand their range - and loss of habitat is shrinking their ranks," noted Silman. 



"If you look at the magnitude of changes happening in the Andes-Amazon, the forest communities likely are not going to keep up. That's why research like this is important."



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-decades-of-data-serve-as-a-warning">Decades of data serve as a warning</h2>



Tropical species face sharper limits than temperate ones. They tolerate only narrow temperature ranges, and they often have nowhere warmer to move. In the lowlands, for example, no hotter-adapted species exist to take over. That leaves communities locked in place.



This study, authored by more than 20 scientists across the Americas and Europe, draws on decades of collaboration. 



Networks like ABERG, RAINFOR, and <a href="https://www.forestplots.net/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ForestPlots.net</a> made it possible to track forests over long stretches of time. The collective data show that the tropics, once thought resilient, may be less able to adjust than forests in temperate zones.



The message is stark. The world’s most diverse forests are changing, but too slowly to match the heat. If this pattern continues, the Andes and Amazon could face tipping points that threaten both ecosystems and people.



For now, continued monitoring remains vital. These forests act as early warning systems, showing us how nature responds to climate stress. Without them, we lose both knowledge and time.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2425619122" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>.



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Forests are not adapting fast enough to climate change

Forests hold our climate together. They store carbon, balance rainfall,...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE
</div></figure>



On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop and sunlight barely penetrates through the polar winter. It was here, however, that an international team of scientists found <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/predatory-worms-were-terror-beasts-half-a-billion-years-ago/#google_vignette" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">evidence of sea monsters</a> that would change our understanding of ocean life in the past.



This video captures the discovery of Timorebestia fossils that had been hidden for more than 500 million years in the Sirius Passet formation. The "terror beasts," as they are called, are a hidden chapter in the evolutionary history of <a href="https://www.earth.com" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Earth</a>, showing that sophisticated predator-prey interactions occurred much earlier than previously envisioned.



Dr. Jakob Vinther and his research team at the <a href="https://www.bristol.ac.uk/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Bristol</a>, in collaboration with researchers at the <a href="https://eng.kopri.re.kr/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Korean Polar Research Institute</a>, braved extreme weather conditions at 82.5 north latitude to locate these giant creatures. Using sophisticated electron microprobe analysis, they revealed the detailed anatomy of the animals, including their muscle and nerve tissues.



The find upsets the traditional timeline of sea predators. Although we've long appreciated that Cambrian oceans were at one time ruled by <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jWI3-UgA3_o&amp;list=PL1QLQMW9MWDwpkFOnvgAmu7wT6rZmYqdJ&amp;index=19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">arthropods</a>, these discoveries indicate that relatives of arrow worms were first to dominate the seas. These worms were building sophisticated food webs several million years before other predator groups arose.



Each fossil is a story of ancient hunger, with fossil stomach contents revealing these meter-long beasts dined on heavily armored arthropods regularly, cementing their place as the ocean's first apex predators.



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Worms dominated seas before dinosaurs

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Y4eLFNYrKE On the unforgiving landscape of North Greenland, temperatures drop...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">New York is the site of the world's oldest forest.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-385-million-year-old-trees-discovered">385-million-year-old trees discovered</h2>



Scientists have uncovered something extraordinary just two hours north of New York City. The <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/worlds-oldest-forest-discovered-close-to-new-york-city/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">world's oldest forest</a>, dating back 385 million years, offers a window into how Earth's first complex forests shaped our planet's atmosphere.



Located near <a href="https://townofcairo.com/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cairo, New York</a>, in Greene County, these weren't merely primitive plants struggling to survive. These were sophisticated trees with root systems remarkably similar to modern forests. This ancient woodland predates dinosaurs by 140 million years.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-the-cairo-forest-discovery">The Cairo forest discovery</h2>



385 million years ago, upstate New York was a tropical paradise near the equator. Thanks to continental drift, this ancient forest has traveled thousands of miles to its current location.



The fossil forest sits in an abandoned quarry, roughly half the size of a football field. This represents just a slice of what was likely a massive forest system stretching from New York into Pennsylvania.



Charles Ver Straeten, curator of sedimentary rocks at the <a href="https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York State Museum</a>, made the discovery in 2009. While scouting the former highway department property, his trained eye spotted wandering patterns in the stone that looked like marine features.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-revolutionary-age-and-preservation">Revolutionary age and preservation</h2>



The site contains 385-million-year-old rocks with fossilized woody roots forming horizontal patterns up to 18 feet (5.5 meters) wide. As Christopher Berry, a paleobotanist at Cardiff University, explains: "You are walking through the roots of ancient trees."



This discovery pushes back advanced tree evolution by millions of years. The research, published in <a href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/home" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Current Biology</a> in December 2019, fundamentally changes our understanding of when complex forests first emerged.



Researchers believe a massive flood buried the forest floor, creating perfect fossilization conditions. Over millions of years, sediment hardened into rock, preserving these root patterns like nature's time capsule.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-meet-archaeopteris-the-first-modern-tree">Meet Archaeopteris: the first modern tree</h2>



The star of this ancient forest is Archaeopteris – not to be confused with the feathered dinosaur Archaeopteryx. This tree was far older and more revolutionary.



William Stein from <a href="https://www.binghamton.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Binghamton University</a> describes the roots as "strikingly modern, essentially what you'd see outside in my yard right now." These weren't simple root systems you'd expect from ancient plants.



Some fossilized roots are six inches (15 centimeters) in diameter, forming 36-foot-wide (11-meter) patterns. These giants grew up to 65 feet (20 meters) tall with five-foot-diameter (1.5-meter) trunks.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-climate-changing-impact">Climate-changing impact</h2>



These trees fundamentally changed Earth's environment. Kevin Boyce, a Stanford University geoscientist, explains how their deep roots triggered "weathering," chemical reactions that pulled carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.



This process dropped atmospheric CO2 levels from 10-15 times higher than today to roughly modern concentrations. These ancient trees helped create atmospheric conditions that made complex life possible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-ancient-forest-ecosystem">Ancient forest ecosystem</h2>



The forest was remarkably diverse. Scientists identified Eospermatopteris, palm tree-like plants with short roots that reached 30 feet (9 meters) tall but lacked woody structure. The forest also housed cladoxylopsids and a mysterious third species still being studied.



All reproduced through spores rather than seeds – millions of years before seeds evolved. This tropical environment had no grass, flowers, or flying insects, just towering trees creating Earth's first complex forest canopy.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-scientific-significance">Scientific significance</h2>



Before this finding, the Gilboa forest, located 25 miles (40 kilometers) away, held the "oldest forest" title. Cairo's trees are 2-3 million years older, showing that complex forest ecosystems developed much faster than scientists believed possible.



Patricia Gensel, a <a href="https://www.unc.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of North Carolina</a> paleobotanist, notes: "The size of those root systems is really changing the picture. Even 20 years ago, researchers assumed trees with such complex root systems didn't evolve so early."



The Cairo site presents three unique root systems, suggesting Devonian period forests were diverse ecosystems with different trees occupying different environmental niches, much like today's forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-modern-preservation-efforts">Modern preservation efforts</h2>



In 2022, New York State Senator Michelle Hinchey secured a $170,000 grant for the town of Cairo to construct specialized fencing around the fossil forest site. The town plans to conduct a feasibility study exploring the possibility of creating an educational center and working lab on-site.



Joe Hasenkopf, chair of the Cairo Planning Board, hopes to partner with educational institutions to create a research facility serving scientists, students, and the public.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-lessons-for-today-s-climate">Lessons for today's climate</h2>



Why does a 385-million-year-old forest matter today? It shows how dramatically forests can change Earth's climate. These ancient woodlands created the atmospheric conditions supporting complex life.



Understanding how prehistoric forests transformed the planet helps us appreciate modern forests' critical role in addressing climate change. Forests remain Earth's most effective carbon capture systems.



These prehistoric trees changed Earth's atmosphere by pulling massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the air. As we face modern climate challenges, this ancient forest reminds us of trees' incredible power to transform our planet's environment.



The next time you walk through a forest, remember you're experiencing an ecosystem whose blueprint was established 385 million years ago in upstate New York. These ancient pioneers didn't just survive – they thrived and changed the world forever.



The full study was published in the journal Current Biology.



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Earth's oldest forest found in the United States

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ow3JH03PqEQ New York is the site of the world's oldest...

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk
</div><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Acid rain and a crisis solved.</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-don-t-we-ever-hear-about-acid-rain-anymore-the-environmental-crisis-that-was-solved">Why don't we ever hear about "acid rain" anymore? The environmental crisis that was solved</h2>



Remember the 1980s when acid rain dominated headlines? Dire warnings about rain eating buildings, killing fish, and destroying forests filled every news cycle. Then, almost like magic, acid rain vanished from public discourse. What happened? Did we actually solve one of the late 20th century's most pressing environmental challenges?



The answer might surprise you. Unlike many environmental issues that drag on indefinitely, acid rain represents one of modern history's most successful ecological recovery stories. It's a tale of science, politics, and technology working together to tackle what seemed impossible.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What was acid rain?</h2>



Acid rain isn't regular rain having a bad day – it's precipitation that became significantly more acidic due to air pollution. When power plants, factories, and vehicles burn fossil fuels, they release sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The science behind it</h2>



Think of acid rain as nature's chemistry experiment gone wrong. These compounds react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. When mixed with water vapor in clouds, they create precipitation with dangerously low pH levels.



While clean rain has a pH of about 5.6, acid rain could drop as low as 4.2 to 4.4 – roughly as acidic as tomato juice or coffee. According to US Geological Survey documentation, Scottish chemist Angus Smith first coined "acid rain" in 1872, but it didn't become a household phrase until the 1960s and 1970s when Swedish scientist Svante Odén documented its devastating effects on Scandinavian lakes and European forests.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The crisis at its peak</h2>



During the height of public concern, environmental damage was both widespread and visible. This wasn't some abstract future threat – people could see destruction happening in real-time.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Environmental devastation</h2>



The most dramatic impacts were impossible to ignore. Research documented by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation shows that in the Adirondack Mountains, more than 200 lakes became so acidic they couldn't support fish life. The Adirondack Council reports that 409 lakes once supported brook trout, but many lost their fish populations due to acid rain.



By 1976, when scientists cataloged all acidified lakes in the Adirondack Park, researchers found that half of the lakes over 2,000 feet above sea level had no fish, according to studies published in environmental journals. The acidification process worked like a slow-motion disaster. As acid rain fell into watersheds, it gradually lowered pH levels. Fish couldn't survive in acidic water, and their food sources died off too.



Trees at high elevations showed stress directly linked to acid rain. It weakened them by leaching nutrients and making them susceptible to disease. Historical records show Germany's Black Forest saw nearly half its trees damaged by the mid-1980s.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Economic impact</h2>



Acid rain wasn't just environmental – it was expensive. Acidic precipitation corroded infrastructure, buildings, and monuments. Historic stone structures deteriorated at accelerated rates. Tourism suffered as lakes became fishless and forests declined. EPA economic analyses from the period documented repair costs mounting into billions annually.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The solution: government action and technology</h2>



Transformation from crisis to success required unprecedented cooperation between governments, industries, and environmental groups.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Clean Air Act of 1990</h2>



The turning point came with the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990, signed by President George H.W. Bush. This represented a fundamentally new approach to environmental regulation, as documented in EPA historical records.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Cap-and-trade success</h2>



Instead of mandating specific technologies, the 1990 amendments introduced something revolutionary: a cap-and-trade system for sulfur dioxide emissions. EPA program documentation shows this market-based approach set overall limits but allowed companies to trade emission allowances.



The genius was harnessing market forces to find cost-effective pollution reduction. Companies reducing emissions cheaply could sell excess allowances to those facing higher costs. Research published in environmental economics journals and EPA progress reports shows this resulted in dramatic SO2 reduction at a fraction of projected costs.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Technology advances</h2>



Policy provided the framework, but technology made reductions possible. Studies in atmospheric science journals document the widespread adoption of flue gas desulfurization systems ("scrubbers") that removed sulfur dioxide before it reached the atmosphere. By the 2000s, new installations could remove over 95% of SO2 emissions, according to EPA technical reports.



The push coincided with cleaner energy development. Natural gas produces fewer sulfur compounds than coal. Wind and solar, emerging in the 1990s, captured growing market share, reducing reliance on high-sulfur coal.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-why-we-don-t-hear-about-it-today">Why we don't hear about it today</h2>



Why did acid rain disappear from headlines? Simple: the problem was largely solved.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Success doesn't make news</h2>



There's an old journalism saying: "If it bleeds, it leads." Environmental success stories don't generate urgency like crisis reporting. Media attention shifted to other challenges: climate change, plastic pollution, and biodiversity loss. There's only so much environmental anxiety the public can absorb, and newer concerns replaced acid rain.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Mission accomplished</h2>



The primary reason is beautifully simple: interventions worked. EPA monitoring data shows sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990. Academic research published in environmental science journals confirms pH levels in formerly affected areas returned closer to normal. This represents one of history's most dramatic environmental recoveries. Studies by the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation show fishless lakes now support healthy populations. Forests recovered, and building damage slowed dramatically.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading" id="h-is-it-really-gone">Is it really gone?</h2>



The crisis is largely resolved, but monitoring data shows the problem isn't completely eliminated – it's managed to acceptable levels. Some areas still experience occasional events during high pollution periods. International environmental research indicates that rapidly industrializing Asian countries face similar problems to what we experienced decades ago, though they're implementing successful strategies.



EPA research shows nitrogen oxide emissions proved more challenging than sulfur dioxide, coming from vehicles and mobile sources. Climate science studies suggest changing weather patterns add complexity to how acid rain forms and falls.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What this teaches us</h2>



The acid rain experience proves that seemingly intractable environmental problems can be solved with scientific understanding, political will, and technological innovation. Environmental monitoring data shows recovery speed was remarkable – within a decade, measurable improvements appeared in air quality and ecosystem health.



Success came from bipartisan support across party lines. Policy analysis studies show the market-based approach appealed to those preferring economic incentives while achieving environmental goals. This support created lasting policy surviving political changes.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Conclusion</h2>



Acid rain's disappearance from public consciousness represents environmental science's greatest success stories. Through effective regulation, technological innovation, and international cooperation, we transformed an overwhelming crisis into a manageable challenge.



Today's silence isn't because we forgot – it's because we solved it. The 1990 Clean Air Act, combined with technology and energy market changes, reduced acid rain emissions over 90%, according to comprehensive EPA data analysis.



This success offers hope for current challenges. It proves complex problems can be solved when science, policy, and technology work together. As we face climate change and plastic pollution, acid rain reminds us that dramatic positive change is possible.



Next time someone asks whether environmental regulations work, remember acid rain. It's proof that sometimes, we get it right.



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity"/>



Sources: This article draws from EPA official documentation and progress reports, peer-reviewed research published in environmental and atmospheric science journals, historical data from the Adirondack Lakes Survey Corporation, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation records, US Geological Survey publications, policy analysis studies, and environmental monitoring data collected over three decades.



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Frequently Asked Questions</h2>



1. Is acid rain completely gone? No, but EPA monitoring shows it's reduced to manageable levels. US sulfur dioxide emissions dropped over 90% since 1990, making acid rain much less severe than the 1980s crisis.



2. How long did solving take? Environmental monitoring data shows significant improvements began within 5-10 years of 1990s emission controls. Full ecosystem recovery took longer – some areas need 20-30 years for complete recovery.



3. What made the solution successful? Clear scientific understanding, visible damage motivating action, bipartisan support, available technology, and innovative market-based policies like cap-and-trade.



4. Do other countries have acid rain problems? Yes, particularly rapidly industrializing Asian countries. However, international environmental research shows many implement similar successful control strategies.



5. Could acid rain return? Potentially, if regulations weaken or we return to high-sulfur coal without controls, though effects would take years to become severe according to environmental projections.



6. Can you recommend any teaching tools on the subject of "acid rain"? The United States Environmental Protection Agency produced a wonderful teacher's guide for ages 14 and under that you can find on the EPA website here: <a href="https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2017-03/documents/teachersguide.pdf</a>



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The environmental problem we actually solved

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=prrq8Ql81zk Acid rain and a crisis solved. Why don't we...

Fresh,Radish,Harvest,On,Soil,In,Garden.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex
</div></figure>







Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving fall garden, and this guide lays out the best vegetables and herbs to plant now for a fruitful autumn harvest. 



Fast-growing leafy greens such as spinach, lettuce, kale, and arugula perform especially well in the waning summer heat, with harvests beginning as soon as 30 days. 



These cool-season crops relish the transition into fall, offering repeated yields with cut-and-come-again methods.



Root vegetables like radishes, carrots, and beets also excel during this period. Radishes deliver satisfaction in under a month, while carrots and beets mature in about two months. Employing succession planting ensures a continuous stream of produce deep into the cooler months. 



For a boost of fresh flavor, herbs like cilantro, basil, dill, and chervil are excellent picks. These heat-loving varieties flourish in July’s warmth and are harvest-ready in about 30 days, especially when sown continuously.



Gardeners in zones 6 through 9 can benefit from planting bush beans and snap peas, which don’t require trellising and are ideal for compact plots. 



Maturing in 50–60 days, they’re a smart choice for quick, protein-rich harvests. For those in hotter regions, heat-tolerant crops such as okra and southern peas provide reliable yields and thrive in scorching conditions.



This guide emphasizes more than crop selection—it highlights the importance of timing, soil preparation, and ongoing sowing techniques. 



With thoughtful planning and attention to regional climate needs, even late-summer gardeners can enjoy fresh salads, hearty stews, and the satisfaction of a robust, homegrown harvest well into fall.



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What to plant in your garden in mid-July

https://youtu.be/Fi2OeEwuzRM?si=vTyd2m9FMmtyWkex Mid-July is an opportune time to kick-start a thriving...

Green,Ecoduct,Over,An,Empty,Highway,During,Sunset.

<figure class="wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU
</div></figure>



A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that wildlife tunnels significantly reduce amphibian road mortality during seasonal migrations. 



Frogs and salamanders often cross roads to reach breeding ponds each spring, but many are killed by vehicles. 



Researchers from the <a href="https://www.uvm.edu/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">University of Vermont</a>, in collaboration with local citizens and the Vermont Agency of Natural Resources, installed two underpass tunnels in 2015. 



Over a 12-year monitoring period, they observed an 80.2% reduction in amphibian deaths, and up to 94% for non-climbing species like salamanders. 



The study used a before-after-control-impact design and documented more than 5,200 amphibians, highlighting the tunnels’ effectiveness even in nearby buffer zones.



Funded at $342,397 - far cheaper than wildlife crossings for large mammals - the project showcased the power of community-led conservation.



Local groups initiated the effort after observing mass amphibian deaths. Wildlife cameras later captured over 2,200 amphibians using a tunnel in just one spring, along with other species like raccoons and bobcats, indicating wider ecosystem benefits.



This marks the first peer-reviewed, long-term data set in the northeastern U.S. confirming amphibian-specific underpasses work. 



The study urges transportation departments to incorporate these designs into road planning and highlights how community action, thoughtful infrastructure, and persistence can make a real difference for biodiversity.



The full study was published in the <a href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1617138125000780" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Journal for Nature Conservation</a>.



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Wildlife tunnels save millions of amphibians

https://youtu.be/XYgiPzmNBTU?si=eFYY7gPHU1JznLvU A new long-term study in Monkton, Vermont, reveals that...

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing it with probiotics and prebiotics, aiming to create a treat that satisfies cravings while supporting gut health. 



The challenge lies in maintaining chocolate's beloved texture and flavor while adding health benefits.



<figure class="wp-block-embed aligncenter is-type-video is-provider-youtube wp-block-embed-youtube wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio"><div class="wp-block-embed__wrapper">
https://youtu.be/Ug657J67iEo?si=w96YjGMsg939LD_3
</div></figure>



Probiotics - beneficial microbes that balance gut bacteria and aid digestion - are typically fragile and can be destroyed by stomach acid or processing. 



Prebiotics act as food for these microbes, helping them thrive. Together, they form "synbiotics," a powerful health combination.



Researchers Smriti Gaur and Shubhi Singh from India's Jaypee Institute of Information Technology took an innovative approach, using natural prebiotics like corn and honey instead of complex processing methods. 



They created five chocolate varieties: a control and four synbiotic versions containing different combinations of prebiotics, probiotics (Lactobacillus strains), and flavor enhancers (cinnamon or orange).



Laboratory simulations of human digestion showed the probiotics remained viable for over five hours, suggesting they could survive long enough to benefit gut health.



Taste tests were positive, with researchers particularly enjoying the orange-flavored variety, describing it as having "vibrant citrus notes" complementing the "rich cocoa" with a "luxurious" texture.



This research represents just the beginning. With further refinement of strains, textures, and flavors, chocolate could evolve beyond mere indulgence to become a functional food that nourishes while it delights.



The study is published in the journal <a href="https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsfoodscitech.4c00741" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">ACS Food Science &amp; Technology</a>.

Is chocolate the next nutritional powerhouse?

Scientists are transforming chocolate into a functional food by infusing...

<div class="wp-block-sendtonews-playerselector">[sendtonews key="0ynNMYkMKa-2340414-12187" type="single"]</div>



Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Nushagak Bay, a large estuary in southwest Alaska. Nushagak runs mainly north to south and exits in Bristol Bay, a large body of water in the Bering Sea.



"The bay is primarily fed by the Nushagak River, which begins in the Alaska Range and flows southwest approximately 450 km. The bay is also fed by several additional rivers including the Wood, Igushik, Snake and Weary rivers," says ESA.



"The dark colors of the Nushagak River are most likely due to tannins or lignins (chemical substances found in plants). Tannins and lignins from roots, leaves, seeds, bark and soil can leach into the water and give it a brown or even black colour. The sediments then flow southwards where it is mixed with the bluer waters of the bay."



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Nushagak Bay in southwest Alaska

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> (ACS) reveals that proteins on flu viruses are actually flexible, tilting and waving in a “breath-like” motion. According to the experts, these proteins could be used to better defend against the flu.



"The main antigenic targets of influenza virus are two surface glycoproteins, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Whereas the structural and dynamical properties of both glycoproteins have been studied previously, the understanding of their plasticity in the whole-virion context is fragmented," wrote the researchers.



To investigate, the team conducted detailed simulations of the influenza A H1N1 virion, or the swine flu. The experts concluded that the visualizations show many new vulnerable states of flu viruses, which could improve future vaccines and antiviral drugs.



Video/ Image Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



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Flu viruses are more flexible than expected

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Lake Trasimeno, which is located west of Perugia in central Italy. It is the fourth largest lake in the country. While Trasimeno’s water level varies, it has a maximum depth of approximately six meters.&nbsp;



"In this Copernicus Sentinel-2 image, captured on 6 August 2022, the lake’s emerald green colour is likely due to the presence of phytoplankton. Streaks in the water, particularly visible in the west, indicate the presence of soil and sediments which have been stirred up by winds. Dark colored waters in the southern part of the lake indicate a presence of submerged and floating macrophytes (aquatic plants) as well as algae," says ESA.



"Surrounded by hills on three sides, Trasimeno is subject to heavy storms created by winds, especially from the north and west. There are three islets in the lake: Maggiore, Minore and Polvese (the largest). The lake’s shores are sparsely inhabited with only two popular villages: Castiglione del Lago and Passignano sul Trasimeno."



"Italy is experiencing its worst drought in 70 years which has affected drinking water supplies, hydroelectric power and agricultural production. High temperatures, hot winds and lack of rainfall are the main causes of drought in the Umbrian region which saw Lake Trasimeno’s drop 1.3 m, reaching the limit of the hydrometric zero in July 2022."



Video/Image Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="http://csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer

Lake Trasimeno in Central Italy

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> describes a new self-powered nanosensor that can instantly detect mercury contamination with the tap of a finger.&nbsp;



The oxidized form of mercury can be harmful when it is ingested through contaminated water or food. This makes it necessary for experts to develop sensors that can quickly and accurately detect the presence of mercury.&nbsp;



Zong-Hong Lin and colleagues have now created a triboelectric nanosensor (TENS) that can detect mercury by simply by touching a sample. According to the researchers, their TENS could serve as the basis for similar devices to safely and remotely monitor other pollutants.



Video Credit: American Chemical Society&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Detecting mercury contamination with the tap of a finger

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.acs.org/">American Chemical Society</a> explores the ability of salt to transform the way that foods and beverages taste. Salt is known to cover up undesirable flavors, such as bitterness in coffee or beer, but how exactly does sodium chloride change the taste of other compounds?



One previous study showed that, not only does salt suppress bitterness, but also enhances sweetness and sourness. Another study revealed that bitterness reduction by salt seems to be happening at the tongue receptor level as well as in the brain.&nbsp;



While it is known that salt taste is mediated by the presence of sodium channels in the form of taste buds, experts believe that there is also an unknown receptor responsible for how we taste salt that has not yet been identified.&nbsp;



Video Credit: ACS Reactions



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

How does salt makes things taste better?

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Santiago, the capital city of Chile. The city is located in the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of about eight million people.&nbsp;



'The weather of Santiago resembles the Mediterranean climate with dry and warm summers with temperatures reaching up to 35°C (from October to March) and cool and humid winters that can drop to 0°C (from April to September)."



"The city lies in the centre of the country’s central valley around 80 km from the Pacific Ocean to the west and borders Argentina to the east. A tiny part of Argentina is visible in the top-right corner of the image where the mountain crest of the Andes Mountains acts as a divider between the two countries," says ESA.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Santiago, Chile in South America

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Spiral,Galaxy,,Illustration,Of,Milky,Way

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Astronomers at <a href="https://www.jhu.edu/">Johns Hopkins University</a> have created an interactive map of the universe, including the actual position and real colors of 200,000 galaxies. The map allows the public to access data that was previously only available to scientists.



The map was developed using data collected by the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. For over two decades, a telescope in New Mexico was aimed at slightly different locations to capture the night sky.&nbsp;



"Growing up I was very inspired by astronomy pictures, stars, nebulae and galaxies, and now it's our time to create a new type of picture to inspire people," said map creator Brice Ménard, a professor at Johns Hopkins. "Astrophysicists around the world have been analyzing this data for years, leading to thousands of scientific papers and discoveries. But nobody took the time to create a map that is beautiful, scientifically accurate, and accessible to people who are not scientists. Our goal here is to show everybody what the universe really looks like."



"In this map, we are just a speck at the very bottom, just one pixel. And when I say we, I mean our galaxy, the Milky Way which has billions of stars and planets. We are used to seeing astronomical pictures showing one galaxy here, one galaxy there or perhaps a group of galaxies. But what this map shows is a very, very different scale."



"From this speck at the bottom, we are able to map out galaxies across the entire universe, and that says something about the power of science."



The <a href="https://mapoftheuniverse.net/">interactive map</a> is available online, where it can be downloaded for free.



Video Credit: Johns Hopkins&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Interactive map of the universe includes 200,000 galaxies

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Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky" Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features northwest Lesotho in South Africa.



According to ESA, Lesotho is the only nation in the world that lies completely above 1,000 m in elevation. The country is famous for its tall mountains and narrow valleys, and is known as Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky."



Out of a population of around two million people, about 80 percent live in rural areas. More than 75 percent of these people are engaged in <a href="https://www.earth.com/news/climate-change-will-have-a-global-impact-on-agriculture/">agriculture</a>, including rainfed cereal production and animal grazing.&nbsp;



ESA reports that the country’s agricultural system faces a growing number of issues, with climate-related vulnerabilities such as drought, floods and extreme temperatures occurring more frequently. 



Diamonds are amongst the minerals found in the mountains. Indeed, Lesotho can truly be called the Kingdom in the Sky. Beautiful, culturally rich, safe, affordable, and easily accessible from Durban and Johannesburg, mountainous Lesotho is a vastly underrated travel destination. the Kingdom of Lesotho (Sotho: 'Muso oa Lesotho) is an enclaved country in southern Africa. It is just over 30,000 km2 (11,583 sq mi) in size and has a population of around 2 million.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Staff Writer 



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Lesotho: Africa's "Kingdom in the Sky"

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features Dublin, the capital and largest city of Ireland. Beyond its pub culture, Dublin is known as a modern culinary destination and a UNESCO City of Literature.



"Dublin is located near the midpoint of Ireland’s east coast in the province of Leinster. The city, which covers an area of around 115 square kilometers, is bordered by the Dublin Mountains, a low mountain range to the south, and is surrounded by flat farmland to the north and west," says ESA.



"The city straddles the River Liffey, which rises in the Wicklow Mountains and flows around 80 kilometers eastwards through the city of Dublin, in which it is canalised and bordered with quays. It then empties into Dublin Bay, an arm of the Irish Sea."



Dublin has an abundance of green spaces, including one of the largest enclosed public parks in any European capital city. Phoenix Park, which was originally formed as a royal hunting park in the 1660s, includes 707 hectares of green space.



Video Credit: ESA&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The city of Dublin on Ireland's east coast

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Today's Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain. The image was captured by the Copernicus Sentinel-2 mission.



"Together with the provinces of Huesca and Teruel, Zaragoza formed the old kingdom of Aragon. Its capital, also called Zaragoza (not visible in this image) is home to around half of Aragon’s population," says ESA.



"The Ebro River can be seen winding its way through the province from west to east in this image. Between its source in the Cantabrian Mountains in the northwest and its delta on the Mediterranean coast, the Ebro River is fed by more than 200 tributaries as it flows 910 km across much of northern Spain."



Since rainfall is very scarce in this region, irrigation in the Ebro basin is critically important. In the valleys surrounding the Ebro River, many fields are used for growing crops such as corn, wheat, and barley.



Video/ Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The province of Zaragoza in northeast Spain

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Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/">NASA Earth Observatory</a> reveals the evolution of the Columbia Glacier in southeastern Alaska. Columbia is among the fastest shrinking glaciers in the world, and the video documents its rapid retreat over the years.&nbsp;



Columbia Glacier is a large, multi-branched calving glacier that flows out of the Chugach Mountains to the Prince William Sound.&nbsp;



According to USGS, Columbia had a long history of stability prior to 1980, with a length 41 miles, and small, short-lived advances or retreats.



In the years since 1980, however, satellite images have captured Columbia’s alarming retreat. By using false-color images, scientists can distinguish between snow and ice, open water, vegetation, and rocky debris on the glacier’s surface.



The series of false-color images featured in today's video were acquired over the span of 35 years. You can see that by 2021, the glacier’s main branch had retreated about 15 miles from its initial position.



The Columbia Glacier has also lost more than 50 percent of its volume, mostly due to calving. <a href="https://www.earth.com/video/nasa-reveals-3d-visual-of-an-atmospheric-river/">NASA</a> reports that while climate change likely started the retreat, mechanical processes kept the disintegration going.



The NASA images are provided by Jesse Allen, Robert Simmon, Joshua Stevens, and Lauren Dauphin using data from Landsat satellites, from the U.S. Geological Survey, and data from MODIS on NASA’s Terra satellite. The structure of Columbia’s moraine played a large role in the stability of the glacier before 1980. 



Like other tidewater glaciers, the Columbia built up a moraine over time, and the mixture of ice and rock functioned like a dam keeping out the sea. It was supported on one end by the shoreline and by the underwater terminal moraine at the other.



Video Credit: NASA Earth Observatory/&nbsp; NASA’s Scientific Visualization Studio



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The rapid retreat of the Columbia Glacier

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Today’s Video of the Day from the <a href="https://www.esa.int/">European Space Agency</a> features the Pyrenees Mountains, which form a natural boundary between France and Spain in southwest Europe.



The mountain range is 430 kilometers in length. It stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the east to the Atlantic Ocean on the west.



At an elevation of 3404 meters, Pico de Aneto is the highest mountain peak in the Pyrenees, and the third-highest peak in Spain. Pico de Aneto is located in the Posets-Maladeta Natural Park, which spans more than 82,000 acres.&nbsp;



"Geological studies have revealed that the Pyrenees Mountains have been around for longer than the Alps, with their sediments first deposited in coastal basins during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras," reports ESA.



"The entire mountain range formed due to the upwelling of large sedimentary rocks by the collision of the Iberian and the Eurasian plate around 100 to 150 million years ago, followed by intense erosion from ice and water."



The western Pyrenees receive more precipitation due to moisture blowing in from the Atlantic Ocean. The mountain range contains many lakes, several small glaciers, and some of the highest waterfalls in Europe.



Video &amp; Image Credit: ESA



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

The Pyrenees Mountains in southwest Europe

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Earth,Like,Exoplanet,3d,Render

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Today's Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes two exoplanets that are orbiting a star 218 light-years away. A team of researchers led by the University of Montreal has found evidence that these planets are "water worlds."



The experts used data from NASA’s Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes. They discovered that exoplanets Kepler-138 c and Kepler-138 could be composed largely of water.



"We previously thought that planets that were a bit larger than Earth were big balls of metal and rock, like scaled-up versions of Earth, and that's why we called them super-Earths," explained study co-author Björn Benneke.&nbsp;



"However, we have now shown that these two planets, Kepler-138 c and d, are quite different in nature and that a big fraction of their entire volume is likely composed of water. It is the best evidence yet for water worlds, a type of planet that was theorized by astronomers to exist for a long time."



Video Credit: NASA Goddard



Image Credit: NASA, ESA, and Leah Hustak (STScI)



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Two distant planets may be "water worlds"

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Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected Today’s Video of the Day from <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/goddard">NASA Goddard</a> describes Earth’s interconnected systems, and how this network is affected by rising temperatures.&nbsp;



During 2020, average global temperatures matched the hottest year on record. The hurricane season was also record-breaking, with many of the storms intensifying at extraordinary speeds. Hot water in the ocean is fuel for hurricanes. The satellite data shows that it's all one interconnected system showing how Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected.



According to NASA, dust swept up from Northern Africa plays a major role in the formation of hurricanes, and is also a key source of fertilization in the Amazon rainforest. As a result of<a href="https://www.earth.com/news/seagrass-wasting-disease-is-fueled-by-climate-change/"> climate</a> change, dust plumes are expected to decline, which will have an effect on vegetation far away.&nbsp;



Images from Earth-observing satellites show how the world’s plant life is affected by natural disasters, fires, and deforestation. Satellites also reveal how widespread changes in vegetation impact waterways,&nbsp; the climate, air quality. Satellites communicate by using radio waves to send signals to the antennas on the Earth. "Earth From Space" is a groundbreaking two-hour special that reveals a spectacular new space-based vision of our planet. 



Video Credit: NASA Goddard&nbsp;



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By <a href="mailto:csexton@earth.com">Chrissy Sexton</a>, <a href="https://www.earth.com/staff/">Earth.com</a> Editor



Check us out on <a href="https://www.earth.com/earthsnap/">EarthSnap</a>, a free app brought to you by Eric Ralls and Earth.com.

Satellites reveal how Earth's systems are interconnected

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